Electro - 2010

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Search This Blog Thursday, January 21, 2010
800m FM Transmitter 9v battery

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Blog's stats This is one of the smallest and neatest FM transmitters to be presented
as a construction project and it has the advantage of being available as
a complete kit of parts. This will save going to a number of suppliers as
1 942 0 no single supplier has all the necessary components.
The circuit has been specially designed to demonstrate the techniques
of FM transmission and to start you in the world of surface-mount
Follow by Email assembly.
FM transmission is the best mode for transmitting a signal as it does
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not suffer from interference such as electrical noise from car engines
or electrical appliances etc. It also achieves the greatest range with the
least power.
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With just a handful of components and a few milliwatts of output
FM Transmitter power you can produce an FM transmitter with a very impressive
with one transistor
This is clearly shown range and perfect clarity.
in the diagram. For
best performance the
circuit should be
built on a PC board with all
components fitted clos...
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Blog Archive
▼ 2010 (43)
▼ January (43)
800m FM SUMMARY OF SPECIFICATIONS
Transmitter 9v Supply: 9 volts
battery
Current consumption: 7mA
FM Transmitter
with double Battery life: 50 hours ZnC 100 hours alkaline
transistor Tuning range: 80 - 110MHz (by stretching or compression the
Fm Transmitter oscillator coil)
PNP Design
Fine tune by adjusting the air trimmer (2MHz adjustment)
FM Transmitter Bad
Layout
http://gusti-elektro.blogspot.com/2010/ 1/39
3/15/2018 GuEsTyE.net Electro: 2010
Simplest FM Stability - Low. Bug to be left in-place and not to be moved or handled.
Transmitter
Antenna length - 175cm (5ft 9in)
FM Transmitter
with one
transistor
Simple FM
transmitter with a
single transistor
Fading Red Eyes
Line Powered
White LEDs
Black Light
AC Line powered
LEDs
120VAC Lamp
Chaser
1.5 Volt LED
Flashers
Two Transistor Led
Flasher
Infra Red Switch
Infra-red Level
Detector
IR Remote Control
Tester
IR Remote Control
Jammer
IR Receiver Toggle
Switch
Light/Dark
Detector
LED Photo Sensor
Photo Electric
Street Light
Dual-rail Variable
DC Power Supply
Discrete Virtual
Ground Circuit
Circuit of PSU With a 175cm (5ft 9in) (half-wave antenna) supplied in the kit, the
Switching Regulator range has been conservatively rated as 800 metres (2400ft) under
with L4972A
normal working conditions. In many countries you must reduce the
Telephone line maximum range to 30ft (10metres) by cutting the antenna to 10
monitor
inches. If this is the case, you must abide by it. Some countries totally
Phone Busy
Indicator ban these brilliant devices. You need to find out the situation in your
Set/Reset Flip Flop own locality.
Digital Step-Km To introduce surface-mount technology to our range of projects, we
Counter have started with resistors. These are the easiest of the surface-mount
LM317 components to identify and fit.
VARIABLE
POWER Some of the other components such as capacitors and transistors are
SUPPLY so small they are almost impossible to solder by hand and surface-
mount capacitors are not marked in any way so they become easily
Dual Polarity mixed up if you are not very careful.
Power Supply
Surface-mount technology is entirely different to normal through-hole
Bass-treble tone
control circuit placement and some of the differences are explained in this article.
FET Audio Mixer The major difference is size and if you are having trouble soldering 1/4
Personal alarm watt resistors, you will have ten times more difficulty with surface
Door Alarm
mount. SM items are so small it takes the keenest eyesight to read the
figures on the component and the nimblest of fingers to pick them up
Emergency Light &
Alarm and place them.
Field-strength meter But until you buy a kit and see what the parts look like, you will have
LED Photo Sensor no idea if you will be able to cope.
FM Beacon Nevertheless surface mount has arrived and is here to stay. Most
Broadcast modern designs already include surface mount components and many
Transmitter (88-
108 MHz) are already entirely surface mount. Take pocket cameras, watches,
Very simple FM/AM pendant transmitters, toys, video recorders, video cameras and
Receiver using computers for example. Their miniaturisation has been almost entirely
TDA7088
due to using smaller componentry.
Simple FM
transmitter with a Surface mount is very easy to implement on a large scale as the
single transistor components are available in large quantities on reels or in tubes but
How to Make when it comes to a one-off project, things are different. Few suppliers
Practical PCB
sell individual surface-mount components and some sell them in lots
of 10 or 100. The normal purchase for surface-mount is on a reel of
1,000 to 5,000 pieces.
Followers The only solution is to provide a kit and to make it easy for everyone to
put together, we have just converted the resistors to surface-mount.
Mga sumusubaybay (1)
Some of the other components are not available in surface-mount
(such as the coil) and there is no real advantage in converting
Sundin everything to surface mount as the battery cannot be reduced in size
without reducing the number of hours of operation.
The main difficulty with surface mount is placing them on the printed
About Me circuit board and holding them in place while soldering. There are a
GuEsTyE.net
number of aids to help you do this, such as solder pastes and solder
creams, silicon and infra-red setting glues but most of these come in
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syringes and cost as much as $20 for a 1oz (30gm) tube. For a simple
project, this additional cost is out of the question.
To keep costs down we are going to hand solder each resistor without
the aid of glue and the technique we use is called RE-FLOW
SOLDERING.
Re-flow soldering only requires two hands. Normal soldering requires
three hands - one to hold the component in place, one to hold the
soldering iron and one to hold the solder. If you have three hands
available, (such as the help of an assistant), you can use the normal
soldering method.
Basically re-flow soldering consists of heating up the solder on the
board AND THE END OF THE RESISTOR AT THE SAME TIME so that
the resistor makes a perfect connection to the board. This is discussed
fully in the soldering section.
HOW THE CIRCUIT WORKS

The circuit consists of two stages - an audio amplifier and an RF
oscillator.
The electret microphone contains a FET transistor and can be counted
as a stage, if you wish. The microphone detects audio in the form of air
vibrations that enter the hole (at the end of the mic) and move the
diaphragm. This diaphragm is a thin piece of metallised plastic such as
mylar and is charged with electrical charges during manufacture.
Next to this is a metal plate containing a number of holes so that the
air readily passes through. The relative distance of the mylar
diaphragm to the metal plate makes the charges move on the
diaphragm (remember static electricity theory: like-charges repel and
unlike-charges attract). Some of the charges pass down a lead that
touches the metal plate and into a FET amplifier - it looks like a three
legged transistor. The FET amplifies the charges and gives a reading on
the output lead.
The output must be connected to a supply via a resistor called the load
resistor. The FET draws a varying current during its operation and this
creates a varying voltage on the output (across the load resistor).
The reason why a FET has been used is due to it having a very high
input impedance and does not have any loading effect on the charges.
The output waveform from the microphone will be typically 3 - 30mV
in our case, depending on how close it is to the source of the sound.
The circuit is capable of detecting a whisper at 10ft (3M) and only very
sensitive microphones have been included in the kits.
You can also get medium and low sensitivity devices from suppliers so
you have to be careful as they are not labelled.
A 22n capacitor on the output of the microphone couples the signal to
the input of the first audio amplifier stage. This capacitor is designed to
separate the DC voltage on the microphone from the base voltage on
the transistor.
The first transistor stage consists of transistor and two biasing
resistors.
The stage is said to be "AC coupled" as it has a capacitor on both the
input and output so the DC voltages of the other stages do not
influence the voltage on the stage.
The stage is also said to be "self-biased" with the 1M base resistor
turning the transistor on until the collector voltage drops to about half
rail voltage. The value of the base resistor is chosen so that this occurs.
The value can be chosen by experimentation. If the value is too low,
the voltage on the collector will be below half rail. If it is too high, the
collector voltage will be too high. The AC gain of the stage is about 70
and the signal is amplified and passed to the oscillator stage via a 100n
capacitor.
The signal is now typically 200mV to 2,000mV in amplitude and this
is adequate for injection into the oscillator stage.
The oscillator stage is designed to operate at about 100MHz and this
frequency is set by the value of inductance of the 5 turn coil and the
capacitor(s) across it. The 39p and air trimmer can be considered as a
single capacitor. The frequency is also determined to a lesser extent by
the transistor, the 10p feedback capacitor and also the 470R emitter
biasing resistor and the 47k base bias resistor. The supply voltage also
has an effect as the oscillator can be classified as voltage controlled.
There are a lot of things that set the frequency and even though the
parts have a 5%, 10% or even 20% tolerance, they are STABLE at their
present value. The 10p and 39p are NPO types and this means they are
stable even when the temperature changes a small amount. The
frequency is firstly set by pushing the turns of the coil closer together
to lower the frequency or pulling them apart to raise the frequency
and then the air trimmer is adjusted to obtain the precise frequency
required. The air trimmer has a range of about 2MHz.
The circuit will stay at the desired frequency providing the supply
voltage remains constant and the temperature of the parts do not rise
appreciably (such as when the project is left in the sun etc).
Voyager MkII is not designed to be handled and is not suitable to be
worn on the body. It is designed to be placed on a shelf and left in
position.
The most important components in the oscillator stage are the coil and
capacitor(s), making up the parallel tuned circuit.
They do almost all the work in setting the frequency and generating
the waveform. The transistor merely turns on at the correct instant in
each cycle to deliver a small amount of energy to the tuned circuit.
How this is done: The transistor is firstly turned on via base-bias
resistor and it injects a small amount of energy into the parallel tuned
circuit. A few low-amplitude cycles now take place and we pick up
the operation when the tuned circuit is operating at full amplitude and
producing a sinewave at about 100MHz. This frequency is called the
CARRIER.
The parallel tuned circuit is also called a TANK CIRCUIT and the name
was coined during the development of the earliest transmitters where
it was found a coil and capacitor in parallel would smooth out
electrical pulses like filling a water tank in bursts so that it delivers an
even flow of water.
This name has stayed with us and is an ideal way of describing a
coil/capacitor combination.
The waveform from the tank circuit is passed to the 10p and this
modifies the voltage on the emitter of the transistor.
There are two ways of turning on a transistor. One is to raise the
voltage on the base while holding the emitter fixed and the other is to
hold the base rigid while lowering the voltage on the emitter.
The second method is used in this circuit and the 10p moves the
emitter up a very small amount at the rate of 100 million times per
second to turn the transistor off.
The base is held rigid via a 1n capacitor and this value is sufficient to
hold the base rigid at 100MHz but allows it to move up and down at
audio frequencies so that audio being processed by the first transistor
can be passed to the oscillator.
The oscillator transistor does not determine the waveshape of the
signal, it mainly delivers a pulse of energy to the tank circuit at the
correct instant where the coil and capacitor do all the work in creating
the carrier signal. There is one more feature of the tank circuit. Even
though it is injected with a pulse of energy of only a few millivolts, it is
capable of producing a higher amplitude waveform on its output. In
other words the tank circuit is capable of amplifying the voltage
supplied to it. This is called its Q-factor.
The other two components in the stage are the 47k base-bias resistor
and 470R emitter resistor. The 47k turns the transistor on when the
power is first applied and sets the operating point for the stage. The
470R emitter resistor acts as a current limiting resistor and allows the
transistor to be injected via the emitter.
The voltage produced by the tank circuit is monitored by the 10p and
passed to the emitter of the transistor. During a portion of the cycle, the
voltage it delivers, turns the transistor off. This effectively removes the
transistor from the circuit and allows the waveform from the tank
circuit to be passed to the antenna.
When a waveform at 100MHz is passed into a wire (such as an
antenna) the signal is very easily radiated as electromagnetic energy.
This is how the signal is radiated to the surroundings.
The 22n supply capacitor across the battery is designed to tighten up
the power rails. The power rails have also been kept tight by
connecting the battery directly to the printed circuit board.
Note: The circuit will not operate from a power supply without
generating a lot of "mains hum" - the annoying 100 or 120 cycle hum
from the mains - you must use a battery to get a crystal clear, hum-
free, output.
Test voltages have been provided on the circuit diagram to help with
servicing. They are only approximate and apply to our prototype. They
show how each transistor has a voltage on the base of about 0.6v,
with respect to the emitter, to turn it on.
The voltages around the oscillator stage cannot be measured with an
ordinary multimeter when the circuit is operating as the leads of the
multimeter will act as an antenna and kill the operation of the circuit.
This is certainly the case on the emitter of the second transistor, where
the leads of a multimeter will draw off so much energy that the stage
will stop working.
Because you cannot detect the operation with a multimeter, we have
developed a piece of test equipment called a LED POWER METER. This
is covered below and shows how the output of the high frequency RF
oscillator stage can be measured without loading it too much.

Posted by GuEsTyE.net at 10:20 PM 0 comments
FM Transmitter with double
transistor
The next progressive step is to add a transistor to give the electret

microphone more sensitivity. The electret microphone contains a Field
Effect Transistor and you can consider it to be a stage of amplification.
That's why the electret microphone has a very good output.
A further stage of amplification will give the bug extremely good
sensitivity and you will be able to pick up the sound of a pin dropping
on a wooden floor.
Many of the 1 transistor circuits over-drive the microphone and this
will create a noise like bacon-and-eggs frying. The microphone's used
by Talking Electronics require a load resistor of 47k for a 6v supply
and 22k for a 3v supply. The voltage across the microphone is about
300mV to 600mV. It will produce an audio waveform of about 2-
20mV.
Only a very simple self-biasing common-emitter stage is needed for
the audio amplifier. This will give a gain of approx 70 for a 3v supply.
The next circuit shows this audio amplifier, added to the previous
transmitter circuit. This circuit is the best design using 2 transistors on
a 3v supply. The circuit takes about 7mA and produces a range of
about 200 - 400metres.
2 Transistor FM Transmitter
Five points to note in the circuit above:
1. The tank circuit has a fixed 39p and is adjusted by a 2-10p trimmer.
The coil is stretched to get the desired position on the band and the
trimmer fine tunes the location.
2. The microphone coupling is a 22n ceramic. This value is sufficient as
its capacitive reactance at 3-4kHz is about 4k and the input to the
audio stage is fairly high, as noted by the 1M on the base.
3. The 1u between the audio stage and oscillator is needed as the base
has a lower impedance as noted by the 47k base-bias resistor.
4. The 22n across the power rails is needed to keep the rails "tight." Its
impedance at 100MHz is much less than one ohm and it improves the
performance of the oscillator enormously.
5. The coil in the tank circuit is 5 turns of enameled wire with air core.
This is much better than a coil made on a PC board and is cheaper
than a bought inductor. The secret to long range is high activity in the
oscillator stage. The tank circuit (made up of the coil and capacitors
across it) will produce a voltage higher than the supply voltage due to
the effect known as "collapsing magnetic field" and this occurs when
the coil collapses and passes its reverse voltage to the capacitor. The
antenna is also connected to this point and it receives this high
waveform and passes the energy to the atmosphere as electromagnetic
radiation.
When the circuit is tightly constructed on a PC board, the frequency
will not drift very much if the antenna is touched. This is due to the
circuit design and layout as well as the use of large-value capacitors
in the oscillator. If low value capacitors are used, the effect of your
body has a greater effect on changing the frequency.
Wednesday, January 20, 2010
Fm Transmitter PNP Design
Before we go to an improved design, here is an unusual circuit using

a PNP (BC 557) transistor. Firstly, PNP transistors do not work as well
as NPN transistors. I would reverse the 4k7 and electret mic as the
voltage between base and 0v rail is very small and the 4k7 is not
biasing the transistor - it is not needed! The range will be 50 to 100
metres and the current is about 3mA.
Note: A reader built this circuit. It did not work!!
Try putting the 47p across the coil. The 33p may need to be reduced to
10p.
It is just a BAD design, but a good challenge to see if you can get this
type of design to work.

Simple 1 transistor FM Transmitter
The 22n is not shown. This is a later addition.
FM Transmitter Bad Layout
Here is a circuit with a very bad layout. The circuit may work but it
relies on a "Q-factor" from the coil and capacitor in the tank circuit to
produce a high voltage. This high voltage gives the circuit a good
range.
Firstly the coil and capacitor should be near each other. The coil should
not have long leads. and a 22n capacitor should be across the supply
to give the circuit better performance. The value of C2 is too high. It
should be 10p. The coil should be 5 turns. The electret mic should not
be connected directly to the base of the transistor. As you can see, the
circuit is full of faults.
You can learn a lot from other people's mistakes.
Tuesday, January 19, 2010
Simplest FM Transmitter
The following circuit is the simplest FM circuit you can get. It has no
microphone but the coil is so MICROPHONIC that it will pick up noises
in the room via vibrations on a table.
The circuit does not have any section that determines the frequency. In
the next circuit and all those that follow, the section that determines
the frequency of operation is called the TUNED CIRCUIT or TANK

CIRCUIT and consists of a coil and capacitor. The transistor and
components surrounding the tuned circuit simply keep the tuned
circuit operating at its RESONANT FREQUENCY. This circuit does not
have this feature. The transistor turns on via the 47k and this puts a
pulse through the 15 turn winding. The magnetic flux from this
winding passes through the 6 turn winding and into the base of the
transistor via the 22n capacitor. This pulse is amplified by the
transistor and the circuit is kept active.
The frequency is determined by the 6 turn coil. By moving the turns
together, the frequency will decrease. The circuit transmits at 90MHz.
It has a very poor range and consumes 16mA.
THE SIMPLEST BUG
The components soldered to the 2 cells
Rear view of the simplest bug
FM Transmitter with one transistor
This is clearly shown in the diagram. For best performance the circuit
should be built on a PC board with all components fitted close to each
other. The photo below shows the circuit using a coil etched on the
board. This type of coil is totally unsuitable. It does not have a high "Q"
and the range is very poor. The board cannot be touched as the
capacitance of your body causes the circuit to drift. A wound coil will
improve the stability considerably. See photos below for the details of a
wound coil.
A one transistor circuit
Do not use an etched coil

Here is the 1-transistor circuit produced by GuEsTyE.net on a home-
made PC board and heat-shrunk so the air-trimmer is adjustable via a
small hole.
The PC board drilled ready for fitting the components
The 10 components (plus heatshrink, battery and wire)
The components mounted on the board
The board ready for fitting into heatshrink
The finished bug with "studs" for the battery

and a cut-out for the air trimmer
At On Air
Monday, January 18, 2010
Simple FM transmitter with a single
transistor
Mini FM transmitters take place as one of the standard circuit types in

an amateur electronics fan's beginning steps. When done right, they
provide very clear wireless sound transmission through an ordinary
FM radio over a remarkable distance. I've seen lots of designs through
the years, some of them were so simple, some of them were powerful,
some of them were hard to build etc.
Here is the last step of this evolution, the most stable, smallest,
problemless, and energy saving champion of this race. Circuit given
below will serve as a durable and versatile FM transmitter till you
break or crush it's PCB. Frequency is determined by a parallel L-C
resonance circuit and shifts very slow as battery drains out.
Technical datas:
Supply voltage : 1.1 - 3 Volts
Power consumption : 1.8 mA at 1.5 Volts
Range : 30 meters max. at 1.5 Volts
Main advantage of this circuit is that power supply is a 1.5Volts cell
(any size) which makes it possible to fix PCB and the battery into very
tight places. Transmitter even runs with standard NiCd rechargeable
cells, for example a 750mAh AA size battery runs it about 500 hours
(while it drags 1.4mA at 1.24V) which equals to 20 days. This way
circuit especially valuable in amateur spy operations :)
Transistor is not a critical part of the circuit, but selecting a high
frequency / low noise one contributes the sound quality and range of
the transmitter. PN2222A, 2N2222A, BFxxx series, BC109B, C, and

even well known BC238 runs perfect. Key to a well functioning, low
consumption circuit is to use a high hFE / low Ceb (internal junction
capacity) transistor.
Not all of the condenser microphones are the same in electrical
characteristics, so after operating the circuit, use a 10K variable
resistance instead of the 5.6K, which supplies current to the internal
amplifier of microphone, and adjust it to an optimum point where
sound is best in amplitude and quality. Then note the value of the
variable resistor and replace it with a fixed one.
The critical part is the inductance L which should be handmade. Get
an enameled copper wire of 0.5mm (AWG24) and round two loose
loops having a diameter of 4-5mm. Wire size may vary as well. Rest of
the work is much dependent on your level of knowledge and
experience on inductances: Have an FM radio near the circuit and set
frequency where is no reception. Apply power to the circuit and put a
iron rod into the inductance loops to chance it's value. When you find
the right point, adjust inductance's looseness and, if required, number
of turns. Once it's OK, you may use trimmer capacitor to make further
frequency adjustments. You may get help of a experienced person on
this point. Do not forget to fix inductance by pouring some glue onto it
against external forces. If the reception on the radio lost in a few
meters range, than it's probably caused by a wrong coil adjustment
and you are in fact listening to a harmonic of the transmitter instead of
the center frequency. Place radio far away from the circuit and re-
adjust. An oscilloscope would make it easier, if you know how to use
it in this case. Unfortunately I don't have any :(
Every part should fit on the following PCB easily. Pay attention to the
transistor's leads which should be connected right. Also try to connect
trimmer capacitor's moving part to the + side, which may help
unwanted frequency shift while adjusting. PCB drawing should be
printed at 300DPI.
The one below is a past PCB work of mine, which was prepared to
fit into a pocket flashlight. Since it was so crowded, use the new
computerized PCB artwork instead, yet very small.
Here is a completed and perfectly running circuit, mounted in a

pocket light, taking the advantage of the 1.5V AA cell slot near it.
Microphone is fixed into the bulb's place and antenna is made out of a
30cm soft cable. When cover is placed, it becomes very handy!
Do not forget, restrictions on radio frequency transmitting devices

may differ in your local area. This circuit has a power output that
should be less than 1mW so have to be safe under many kinds of legal
conditions but particular attempts such as listening to other people's
private life will always be disapproved everywhere.
Fading Red Eyes
This circuit is used to slowly illuminate and fade a pair of red LEDs (light
emitting diodes). The fading LEDs could be installed as 'eyes' in a small
pumpkin or skull as a Halloween attraction, or mounted in a Christmas tree
ornament. Or, they might be used as a fancy power indicator for your
computer, microwave oven, stereo system, TV, or other appliance.
In operation, a linear 3 volt (peak to peak) ramping waveform is generated at
pin 1 of the LM1458 IC and buffered with an emitter follower transistor stage.
The 22uF capacitor and 47K resistor connected to pin 2 establish the
frequency which is about 0.5 Hz. You can make the rate adjustable by using
a 100K potentiometer in place of the 47K resistor at pin 2.
The circuit consists of two operational amplifiers (opamps), one producing a
slow rising and falling voltage from about 3 volts to 6 volts, and the other
(on the right) is used as a voltage comparator, the output of which supplies a
alternating voltage switching between 2 and 7 volts to charge and discharge
the capacitor with a constant current.
Each of the op-amps has one of the inputs (pins 3 and 6) tied to a fixed
voltage established by two 47K resistors so that the reference is half the
supply voltage or 4.5 volts. The left opamp is connected as an inverting
amplifier with a capacitor placed between the output (pin 1) and the inverting
input (pin 2). The right opamp is connected as a voltage comparator so that
the output on pin 7 will be low when the input is below the reference and
high when the input is higher than the reference. A 100K resistor is
connected between the comparator output and input to provide positive
feedback and pulls the input above or below the switching point when the
threshold is reached. When the comparator output changes at pin 7, the
direction of the current changes through the capacitor which in turn causes
the inverting opamp to move in the opposite direction. This yields a linear
ramping waveform or triangle waveform at pin 1 of the inverting opamp. It is
always moving slowly up or down, so that the voltage on the non-inverting
input stays constant at 4.5 volts.
Adjustments to the point where the LEDs extinguish can be made by altering
the resistor value at pin 3 and 6 to ground. I found a 56K in place of the 47k
shown worked a little better with the particular LEDs used. You can
experiment with this value to get the desired effect.
How to build Fading Red Eyes

Circuit description:
This circuit is used to slowly illuminate and fade a pair of red LEDs (light
emitting diodes). The fading LEDs could be installed as 'eyes' in a small
pumpkin or skull as a Halloween attraction, or mounted in a Christmas tree
ornament. Or, they might be used as a fancy power indicator for your
computer, microwave oven, stereo system, TV, or other appliance.
In operation, a linear 3 volt (peak to peak) ramping waveform is generated at
pin 1 of the LM1458 IC and buffered with an emitter follower transistor stage.
The 22uF capacitor and 47K resistor connected to pin 2 establish the
frequency which is about 0.5 Hz. You can make the rate adjustable by using
a 100K potentiometer in place of the 47K resistor at pin 2.
The circuit consists of two operational amplifiers (opamps), one producing a
slow rising and falling voltage from about 3 volts to 6 volts, and the other
(on the right) is used as a voltage comparator, the output of which supplies a
alternating voltage switching between 2 and 7 volts to charge and discharge
the capacitor with a constant current.
Each of the op-amps has one of the inputs (pins 3 and 6) tied to a fixed
voltage established by two 47K resistors so that the reference is half the
supply voltage or 4.5 volts. The left opamp is connected as an inverting
amplifier with a capacitor placed between the output (pin 1) and the inverting
input (pin 2). The right opamp is connected as a voltage comparator so that
the output on pin 7 will be low when the input is below the reference and
high when the input is higher than the reference. A 100K resistor is
connected between the comparator output and input to provide positive
feedback and pulls the input above or below the switching point when the
threshold is reached. When the comparator output changes at pin 7, the
direction of the current changes through the capacitor which in turn causes
the inverting opamp to move in the opposite direction. This yields a linear
ramping waveform or triangle waveform at pin 1 of the inverting opamp. It is
always moving slowly up or down, so that the voltage on the non-inverting
input stays constant at 4.5 volts.
Adjustments to the point where the LEDs extinguish can be made by altering
the resistor value at pin 3 and 6 to ground. I found a 56K in place of the 47k
shown worked a little better with the particular LEDs used. You can
experiment with this value to get the desired effect.
Parts List:
Description - Mfg Part# -Allied Part# - Quantity - Cost
Operational Amplifier LM1458 - 288-1090 - 1 - .48
47K Resistor - 296-2182 - 4 - .42
100K Resistor - 296-5610 - 1
100 Ohm Resistor - 895-0465 - 1 - .24
Transistor 2N3904 - 568-8253 - 1 - .1
22uF Capacitor - 852-6516 - 1 - .07
Solderless Breadboard - 237-0015 - 1 - 6.99
Red Light Emitting Diode (LED) - 670-1224 - 2 - 0.50
Note: The LED listed has a narrow viewing angle of 30 degrees and appears
brightest when looking directly at it. It's not a pure red color, and a little on
the orange side, but should be brighter compared to other selections. For a
wider viewing angle at reduced intensity, try part number 670-1257 which
is viewable at 60 degrees and has a red diffused lens.
Construction details:
Layout of the solderless breadboard:
Refer to the drawing below the schematic diagram and note the solderless
breadboard is arranged in rows labeled A-J, and columns numbered 1 to 65.
Each group of 5 holes in the same column are the same connection, so that
holes A1,B1,C1,D1 and E1 are all connected together. Likewise holes F1,G1,H1,I1
and J1 are all the same connection. The outer rows along the length of the
board are also connected together and are normally used for power supply
connections. However, there is a break in the mid section of the outer rows,
so a short jumper wire connecting the mid section of the outer rows should
be installed to connect the entire outer row together. If you have a DMM, use
the low ohms range and probe the various holes to get familiar with the
board layout.
Installing the components:
Orientate the LM1458 so the nook or punch mark on one edge is near column
30 and the opposite edge is near column 33. Install the LM1458 on the
breadboard so the pins straddle the center section of the board and pin 1 of
the IC is occupying hole E30 and pin 8 is in hole F30. The pins are numbered
counter clockwise, so pin 4 will be occupying F33 and pin 5 will be in E33.
Possible connections for the LM1458, 9 volt battery, and a couple other parts
is illustrated in the lower drawing of the solderless breadboard, but it is not
complete with all parts.
Refer to the schematic diagram, and install the various other components so
they connect to the appropriate pins of the LM1458. Use whatever connection
holes are convenient. For example, the 22uF capacitor connects between pins 1
and 2 of the IC, which occupy holes (F30,F31) so it could be placed in the
holes (H30, H31) or (J30,J31) or (I30,I31). But not all parts will conveniently
fit, so you may have to use a short jumper wire (#22 preferred) to connect
parts from one side of the chip to the other.
The board I assembled was connected this way:
LM1458 F30 to F33, and E30 to E33
22uF capacitor H30 to H31
47K resistor I30 to I35
47K resistor C27 to C31
47K resistor F25 to Positive battery row
47K resistor J25 to Negative Battery row
100K resistor B31 to B33
2N3904 Transistor G36, G37, G38 with emitter at G38
100 Ohm resistor D38 to F38
LED B43 to B44 (Cathode at B44)
LED I43 to I44 (Cathode at I43)
Jumper A30 to Positive battery row
Jumper F36 to Positive battery row
Jumper J33 to Negative battery row
Jumper J43 to Negative battery row
Jumper H25 to J32
Jumper J30 to J37
Jumper E27 to G31
Jumper D32 to G32
Jumper D33 to H35
Jumper C38 to C43
Jumper E44 to F44
9 Volt Battery Postive battery row to negative row.
Circuit diagram

The circuit below illustrates two pairs of LEDs that operate out of phase so
as one pair slowly illuminate, the other pair will fade.

Posted by GuEsTyE.net at 9:46 AM 0 comments
Sunday, January 17, 2010
Line Powered White LEDs
The LED circuit below is an example of using 25 white LEDs in series

connected to the 120VAC line. It can be modified for more or less LEDs by
adjusting the resistor value. The exact resistance will depend on the particular
LEDs used. But working out the resistor value is a bit complicated since
current will not continously flow through the resistor. In operation, the
output of the bridge rectifier will be about 120 DC RMS or 170 volts peak. If
we use 25 white LEDs with a forward voltage of 3 volts each, the total LED
voltage will be 75 volts. The peak resistor voltage will be 170- 75 or 95 volts
but the resistor voltage will not be continous since the input must rise above
75 before any current flows. This (dead time) represents about 26 degrees of
the 90 degree half wave rectified cycle, (asin) 75/170 = (asin) .44 = 26
degrees. This means the resistor will conduct during 90-26 = 64 degrees, or
about 71 percent of the time.
Next we can work out the peak LED current to determine the resistor value.
If the LED current is 20mA RMS, the peak current will be 20*1.414 or 28mA.
But since the duty cycle is only 71 percent, we need to adjust this figure up
to 28/0.71 = 39mA. So, the resistor value should be 95/.039 = 2436 ohms
(2.4K) and the power rating will be .02^2 *2400= .96 watts. A two watt size
is recommended.
Now this circuit can also be built using 2 diodes and resistor as shown in the
lower drawing. The second diode in parallel with the LEDs is used to avoid a
reverse voltage on the LEDs in case the other diode leaks a little bit. It may not
be necessary but I thought it was a good idea.
Working out the resistor value is similar to the other example and comes out
to about half the value of the full wave version, or about 1.2K at 1 watt in
this case. But the peak LED current will be twice as much or about 78mA.
This is probably not too much, but you may want to look up the maximum
current for short duty cycles for the LEDs used and insure 79mA doesn't
exceed the spec.
Black Light
http://www.diy-electronic-
projects.com/projects/144/bigs/theoritical.gif

This circuit is a simple ultraviolate light that can be powered by a 6 volt

battery or power supply that is capable of supplying 1 or more amps.
Parts
C1 0.0047uf Mono Capacitor
C2 0.1uf Disc Capacitor
D1, D2 1N4007 Diode
FTB Filtered Blacklight Tube
IC1 555 Timer IC
P1 10k Trim Pot
Q1 TIP30 PNP Power Transistor
R1 470 Ohm Resistor
R2 270 Ohm Resistor
T1 Medium Yellow Inverter Transformer
MISC IC Socket, Heat Sink For Q1, Screw, Nut, Wire and PC Board
Notes:
1. P1 changes brightness of the black light tube.
Saturday, January 16, 2010
AC Line powered LEDs
The circuit below illustrates powering a LED (or two) from the 120 volt AC
line using a capacitor to drop the voltage and a small resistor to limit the
inrush current. Since the capacitor must pass current in both directions, a
small diode is connected in parallel with the LED to provide a path for the
negative half cycle and also to limit the reverse voltage across the LED. A
second LED with the polarity reversed may be subsituted for the diode, or a
tri-color LED could be used which would appear orange with alternating
current. The circuit is fairly efficient and draws only about a half watt from
the line. The resistor value (1K / half watt) was chosen to limit the worst
case inrush current to about 150 mA which will drop to less than 30 mA in
a millisecond as the capacitor charges. This appears to be a safe value, I have
switched the circuit on and off many times without damage to the LED. The
0.47 uF capacitor has a reactance of 5600 ohms at 60 cycles so the LED
current is about 20 mA half wave, or 10 mA average. A larger capacitor will
increase the current and a smaller one will reduce it. The capacitor must be a
non-polarized type with a voltage rating of 200 volts or more.
The lower circuit is an example of obtaining a low regulated voltage from the
AC line. The zener diode serves as a regulator and also provides a path for the
negative half cycle current when it conducts in the forward direction. In this
example the output voltage is about 5 volts and will provide over 30
milliamps with about 300 millivolts of ripple. Use caution when operating
any circuits connected directly to the AC line.
120VAC Lamp Chaser
This circuit is basically the same as the 10 channel LED sequencer with the
addition of solid state relays to control the AC lamps. The relay shown in the
diagram is a Radio Shack 3 amp unit (part no. 275-310) that requires 1.2
volts DC to activate. No current spec was given but I assume it needs just a
few milliamps to light the internal LED. A 360 ohm resistor is shown which
would limit the current to 17 mA using a 9 volt supply. I tested the circuit
using a solid state relay (of unknown type) which required only 1.5 mA at 3
volts but operates up to 30 volts DC and a much higher current. The chaser
circuit can be expanded up to 10 channels with additional relays and driver
transistors. The 4017 decade counter reset line (pin 15) is connected to the
fifth count (pin 10) so that the lamps sequence from 1 to 4 and then repeat.
For additional stages the reset pin would be connected to a higher count.
Friday, January 15, 2010
1.5 Volt LED Flashers
The LED flasher circuits below operate on a single 1.5 volt battery. The circuit
on the upper right uses the popular LM3909 LED flasher IC and requires
only a timing capacitor and LED.
The top left circuit, designed by Andre De-Guerin illustrates using a 100uF
capacitor to double the battery voltage to obtain 3 volts for the LED. Two
sections of a 74HC04 hex inverter are used as a squarewave oscillator that
establishes the flash rate while a third section is used as a buffer that
charges the capacitor in series with a 470 ohm resistor while the buffer
output is at +1.5 volts. When the buffer output switches to ground (zero volts)
the charged capacitor is placed in series with the LED and the battery which
supplies enough voltage to illuminate the LED. The LED current is
approximately 3 mA, so a high brightness LED is recommended.
In the other two circuits, the same voltage doubling principle is used with the
addition of a transistor to allow the capacitor to discharge faster and supply a
greater current (about 40 mA peak). A larger capacitor (1000uF) in series
with a 33 ohm resistor would increase the flash duration to about 50mS.
The discrete 3 transistor circuit at the lower right would need a resistor
(about 5K) in series with the 1uF capacitor to widen the pulse width.
Two Transistor Led Flasher
Thursday, January 14, 2010
Infra Red Switch
This is a single channel (on / off) universal switch that may be used with
any Infra Red remote control that uses wavelengths between 850-950nm.
R1 3k3
R2 1k
R3 22k
R4 220k
R5 1M
R6 3k3
B1 12 V
D1 1N4148
D2 1N4003
Q1 B109
LED1 CQX35A
IC1 IR1 available from Harrison Electronics
IC2 4049
IC3 CA555
IC4 SN74HCT74
IC5 LM7805
Relay 12 Volt coil with changeover contact
C1 100u
C2 22u
C3 100n
C4 2u2
Infra-red Level Detector
Useful for liquids level detection and proximity devices

Up to 50 cm. range, optional relay operation
R1 10K 1/4W Resistor
R2,R5,R6,R9 1K 1/4W Resistors
R3 33R 1/4W Resistor
R4,R8 1M 1/4W Resistors
R7 10K Trimmer Cermet
C1,C4 1µF 63V Electrolytic or Polyester Capacitors
C2 47pF 63V Ceramic Capacitor
C3,C5,C6 100µF 25V Electrolytic Capacitors
D1 Infra-red LED
D2 Infra-red Photo Diode (see Notes)
D3,D4 1N4148 75V 150mA Diode
D5 LED (Any color and size)
D6,D7 1N4002 100V 1A Diodes
Q1 BC327 45V 800mA PNP Transistor
IC1 555 Timer IC
IC2 LM358 Low Power Dual Op-amp
IC3 7812 12V 1A Positive voltage regulator IC
RL1 Relay with SPDT 2A @ 220V switch
Coil Voltage 12V. Coil resistance 200-300 Ohm
J1 Two ways output socket
IR Remote Control Tester
As I was developing my IR Extender Circuit, I needed to find a way of

measuring the relative intensities of different Infra red light sources. This
circuit is the result of my research. I have used a photodiode, SFH2030 as an
infra red sensor. A MOSFET opamp, CA3140 is used in the differential mode
to amplify the pulses of current from the photodiode. LED1 is an ordinary
coloured led which will light when IR radiation is being received. The output
of the opamp, pin 6 may be connected to a multimeter set to read DC volts.
Infra red remote control strengths can be compared by the meter reading, the
higher the reading, the stronger the infra red light. I aimed different remote
control at the sensor from about 1 meter away when comparing results. For
every microamp of current through the photodiode, about 1 volt is produced
at the output. A 741 or LF351 will not work in this circuit. Although I have
used a 12 volt power supply, a 9 volt battery will also work here.
IR Remote Control Jammer
Don't like your little brother's TV channel selection? Hate the volume your
wife sets the stereo at? Want to just annoy someone? This circuit does all
that and more by jamming most IR remote signals. The circuit releases a flood
of pulsing IR light that confuses the reciever by corrupting the data stream.
R4 1K 1/4W Resistor
R5 See "Notes"
C1 10nF Ceramic Disc Capacitor
C2 1uF Electrolytic Capacitor
D1, D2, D3 High Output IR LED
Q1 2N4403 PNP Transistor
Q2 2N4401 NPN Transistor
S1 Normally Open Momentary Push Botton
B1 4.5V Battery (Three "AA"'s In Series)
MISC Wire, Case, Board
Tuesday, January 12, 2010
IR Receiver Toggle Switch
Light/Dark Detector
This handy little circuit can tell the difference between darkness and light,
making it very useful for switching on and off signs, porch lights or other
things when it gets dark or light.
R1 100K Pot
Q1 2N3904 NPN Transistor or 2N2222
Q2 NPN Phototransistor
RELAY 9V Relay
MISC Board, Wire, 9V Battery Snap (if battery used), Knob For R1
Monday, January 11, 2010
LED Photo Sensor
Here's a circuit that takes advantage of the photo-voltaic voltage of an

ordinary LED. The LED voltage is buffered by a junction FET transistor and
then applied to the inverting input of an op-amp with a gain of about 20. This
produces a change of about 5 volts at the output from darkness to bright
light. The 100K potentiometer can be set so that the output is around 7 volts
in darkness and falls to about 2 volts in bright light.
Photo Electric Street Light
This is basically a Schmitt Trigger circuit which receives input from a

cadmium sulfide photo cell and controls a relay that can be used to switch
off and on a street lamp at dawn and dusk. I have built the circuit with a 120
ohm/12 volt relay and monitored performance using a lamp dimmer, but did
not connect the relay to an outside light.
The photo cell should be shielded from the lamp to prevent feedback and is
usually mounted above the light on top of a reflector and pointed upward at
the sky so the lamp light does not strike the photo cell and switch off the
lamp.
The photo cell is wired in series with a potentiometer so the voltage at the
junction (and base of transistor) can be adjusted to about half the supply, at
the desired ambient light level. The two PNP transistors are connected with a
common emitter resistor for positive feedback so as one transistor turns on,
the other will turn off, and visa versa. Under dark conditions, the photo cell
resistance will be higher than the potentiometer producing a voltage at Q1
that is higher than the base voltage at Q2 which causes Q2 to conduct and
activate the relay.
The switching points are about 8 volts and 4 volts using the resistor values
shown but could be brought closer together by using a lower value for the
7.5K resistor. 3.3K would move the levels to about 3.5 and 5.5 for a range of
2 volts instead of 4 so the relay turns on and off closer to the same ambient
light level. The potentiometer would need to be readjusted so that the voltage
is around 4.5 at the desired ambient condition.
Sunday, January 10, 2010
Dual-rail Variable DC Power Supply
This design was conceived as an add-on for the Variable DC Power Supply, a
very successful circuit posted to this website. This simple unit provides a
dual-rail variable output ranging from ±2.5V to ±15Vdc with precise tracking
of the positive and negative output voltages, still retaining the current limiting
and short-proof capabilities of the "master" circuit. As the purpose of such a
dual-rail design is to supply experimental or under-repair circuits, the
maximum current output delivered was deliberately kept to about 500 -
600mA per rail, thus avoiding the use of expensive power transistors and
complex circuitry.
R1 = 4.7K-1/2W
R1 = 4.7K-1/2W
C1 = 100nF-63V
C2 = 220µF-25V
C3 = 220µF-25V
C4 = 100nF-63V
C5 = 100nF-63V
Q1 = BD437
Q2 = BD438
IC1 = LM358
Discrete Virtual Ground Circuit
Here is the simple virtual ground circuit based on discrete components. This
simple design comes from miniaturization guru Sijosae. Is to make a buffer
from generic discrete components. The transistors can be most any
complementary pair of small-signal transistors. Suitable alternatives are the
PN2222A and PN2907A. The diodes are generic small-signal types. An
acceptable alternative is the 1N914. This circuit has better performance than a
simple resistive divider virtual ground, and the parts cost is lower than for
any other circuit mentioned here. It is, however, the least accurate of the
buffered virtual ground circuits.
R1,R2 = 4.7K
R3,R4 = 4.7R
C1,C2 = 470uF-25V
C3,C4 = 47uF-25V
D1,D2 = 1N4148
Q1 = 2SC1384
Q2 = 2SA684
B1 = Battery
Saturday, January 9, 2010
Circuit of PSU
Switching Regulator with L4972A
The LA9472A is a 2A monolithic step down switching regulator operating in

continuous mode and realized in a new BCD technology allowing the
integration of isolated, vertical DMOS power transistors with mixed
CMOS/bipolar transistors. The device can deliver 2A at an output voltage
adjustable from 5.1V to 40V and contains diagnostic and control functions
that make it particularly suitable for microprocessor based systems.
Integrated functions include a reference voltage of 5.1V at 2%, soft start,

under-voltage lockout, an oscillator with feed-forward control, pulse by pulse
current current limit, thermal shutdown and a reset and power failure
circuit.
Friday, January 8, 2010
Telephone line monitor
This nifty little circuit lets you record your phone conversations
automatically. The device connects to the phone line, your tape recorder's
microphone input, and the recorder's remote control jack. It senses the voltage
in the phone line and begins recording when the line drops to 5 volts or less.
R1 270K 1/4 W Resistor
R2 1.5K 1/4 W Resistor
C1 0.22uF 150 Volt Capacitor
Q1, Q2 2N4954 NPN Transistor
D1 1N645 Diode
MISC Wire, Plugs To Match Jacks On Recorder, Board, Phone

Plug
Phone Busy Indicator
This circuit may cause problems for some when used. You may want to build
a different circuit.
Have you ever been using the modem or fax and someone else picks up the
phone, breaking the connection? Well, this simple circuit should put an end to
that. It signals that the phone is in use by lighting a red LED. When the phone
is not in use, a green LED is lit. It needs no external power and can be
connected anywhere on the phone line, even mounted inside the phone.
Q1, Q2 2N3392 NPN Transistor
BR1 1.5 Amp 250 PIV Bridge Rectifier
LED1 Red LED
LED2 Green LED
MISC Wire, Case, Phone Cord
Thursday, January 7, 2010
Set/Reset Flip Flop
This is an example of a set/reset flip flop using discrete components. When

power is applied, only one of the transistors will conduct causing the other to
remain off. The conducting transistor can be turned off by grounding it's
base through the push button which causes the collector voltage to rise and
turn on the opposite transistor.
Digital Step-Km Counter
R1,R3 22K 1/4W Resistor
R2 2M2 1/4W Resistor
R4 1M 1/4W Resistor
R5,R7,R8 4K7 1/4W Resistor
R6 47R 1/4W Resistor
R9 1K 1/4W Resistor
C1 47nF 63V Polyester Capacitor
C4 10µF 25V Electrolytic Capacitor
D1 Common-cathode 7-segment LED mini-display (Hundreds

meters)
D2 Common-cathode 7-segment LED mini-display (Kilometers)
IC1 4093 Quad 2 input Schmitt NAND Gate IC
IC2 4024 7 stage ripple counter IC
IC3,IC4 4026 Decade counter with decoded 7-segment display

outputs IC
Q1,Q2 BC327 45V 800mA PNP Transistors
P1 SPST Pushbutton (Reset)
P2 SPST Pushbutton (Display)
SW1 SPST Mercury Switch, called also Tilt Switch
SW2 SPST Slider Switch (Sound on-off)
SW3 SPST Slider Switch (Power on-off)
BZ Piezo sounder
B1 3V Battery (2 AA 1.5V Cells in series)
LM317 VARIABLE POWER SUPPLY
Follow all the safety precautions when working with mains voltage. Insulate
all connections on the transformer.
A truly timeless circuit. LM317 is a versatile and highly efficient 1.2-37V

voltage regulator that can provide up to 1.5A of current with a large heat
sink. It's ideal for just about any application. This was my first workbench
power supply and I still use it. Since LM317 is protected against short-circuit,
no fuse is necessary. Thanks to automatic thermal shutdown, it will turn off
if heating excessively. All in all, a very powerful (and affordable!) package,
indeed. Although LM317 is capable of delivering up to 37V, the circuit pictured
here is limited to 25V for the sake of safety and simplicity. Any higher output
voltage would require additional components and a larger heat sink. Make
sure that the input voltage is at least a couple of Volts higher than the desired
output. It's ok to use a trimmer if you're building a fixed-voltage supply.
Dual Polarity Power Supply
This dual polarity power supply is easy to build, requires few parts, and is
adjustable from 0-15 volts. It is great for powering op amp circuits, as well as
other circuits that require a dual supply voltage.
C1, C2 2200uF 35V Electrolytic Capacitor
C3, C4, C5, C7 1uF 35V Electrolytic Capacitor
C6, C8 100uF 35V Electrolytic Capacitor
R1, R4 5K Pot
R2, R3 240 Ohm 1/4 W Resistor
BR1 2A 30V Bridge Rectifier
U1 LM317 Adjustable Positive Regulator
U2 LM337 Adjustable Negative Regulator
T1 30V Center Tapped 2 Amp Transformer
S1 SPST 2 Amp Switch
MISC Heatsinks For U1 And U2, Line Cord, Case, Knobs For Pots,
Wire
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Search This Blog Thursday, January 21, 2010

800m FM Transmitter 9v battery

There was an error in this gadget

fully in the soldering section.

HOW THE CIRCUIT WORKS

Posted by GuEsTyE.net at 10:20 PM 0 comments

FM Transmitter with double

The next progressive step is to add a transistor to give the electret

Posted by GuEsTyE.net at 10:07 PM 2 comments

Wednesday, January 20, 2010

Fm Transmitter PNP Design

Before we go to an improved design, here is an unusual circuit using

The 22n is not shown. This is a later addition.

Posted by GuEsTyE.net at 10:03 PM 0 comments

FM Transmitter Bad Layout

Posted by GuEsTyE.net at 9:59 PM 0 comments

Tuesday, January 19, 2010

the frequency of operation is called the TUNED CIRCUIT or TANK

THE SIMPLEST BUG

The components soldered to the 2 cells

Rear view of the simplest bug

Posted by GuEsTyE.net at 9:55 PM 0 comments

FM Transmitter with one transistor

A one transistor circuit

Do not use an etched coil

The PC board drilled ready for fitting the components

The 10 components (plus heatshrink, battery and wire)

The components mounted on the board

The board ready for fitting into heatshrink

The finished bug with "studs" for the battery

Posted by GuEsTyE.net at 9:45 PM 0 comments

Monday, January 18, 2010

Simple FM transmitter with a single

Mini FM transmitters take place as one of the standard circuit types in

the transmitter. PN2222A, 2N2222A, BFxxx series, BC109B, C, and

computerized PCB artwork instead, yet very small.

Here is a completed and perfectly running circuit, mounted in a

Do not forget, restrictions on radio frequency transmitting devices

Posted by GuEsTyE.net at 9:19 PM 0 comments

Fading Red Eyes

How to build Fading Red Eyes

Description - Mfg Part# -Allied Part# - Quantity - Cost

Operational Amplifier LM1458 - 288-1090 - 1 - .48

47K Resistor - 296-2182 - 4 - .42

100K Resistor - 296-5610 - 1

100 Ohm Resistor - 895-0465 - 1 - .24

Transistor 2N3904 - 568-8253 - 1 - .1

22uF Capacitor - 852-6516 - 1 - .07

Solderless Breadboard - 237-0015 - 1 - 6.99

Red Light Emitting Diode (LED) - 670-1224 - 2 - 0.50

LM1458 F30 to F33, and E30 to E33

22uF capacitor H30 to H31

47K resistor I30 to I35

47K resistor C27 to C31

47K resistor F25 to Positive battery row

47K resistor J25 to Negative Battery row

100K resistor B31 to B33

2N3904 Transistor G36, G37, G38 with emitter at G38

100 Ohm resistor D38 to F38