1.

Modernism
Picture Dictionary of Modern Architecture: Modernism
The Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art at Cornell University is a Modernist building by I.M. Pei.

Photo © Jackie Craven

View Full-Size
I.M. Pei, Architect - Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art at Cornell University
Modernist architecture emphasizes function. It attempts to provide for specific needs rather than
imitate nature. The roots of Modernism may be found in the work of Berthold Luberkin (1901-
1990), a Russian architect who settled in London and founded a group called Tecton. The Tecton
architects believed in applying scientific, analytical methods to design. Their stark buildings ran
counter to expectations and often seemed to defy gravity.

Modernist architecture can express a number of stylistic ideas, including:

• Structuralism
• Formalism
• Bauhaus
• The International Style
• Brutalism
• Minimalism
Modernist architecture has these features:

• Little or no ornamentation
• Factory-made parts
• Man-made materials such as metal and concrete
• Emphasis on function
• Rebellion against traditional styles

For examples of Modernism in architecture, see works by:

• Rem Koolhaas
• I.M. Pei
• Le Corbusier
• Philip Johnson
• Mies van der Rohe

In the later decades of the twentieth century, designers rebelled against the rational Modernism
and a variety of post modern styles evolved. Examples of post modern architecture include:

• Postmodernism
• High Tech
• Organic
• Deconstructivism
2. Expressionism and Neo-expressionism
Picture Dictionary of Modern Architecture: Expressionism and Neo-expressionism
Built in 1920, the Einstein Tower (Einsteinturm) in Potsdam is an Expressionist work by architect
Erich Mendelsohn.

Photo: Creative Commons by Doris Antony

View Full-Size
The Einstein Tower (Einsteinturm) in Potsdam is an Expressionist work by architect Erich
Mendelsohn, 1920
Expressionism evolved from the work of avant garde artists and designers in Germany and other
European coutries during the first decades of the twentieth century. Key features of
Expressionism are:

• distorted shapes
• fragmented lines
• organic or biomorphic forms
• massive sculpted shapes
• extensive use of concrete and brick
• lack of symmetry
• many fanciful works rendered on paper but never built
Neo-expressionism built upon expressionist ideas. Architects in the 1950s and 1960s designed
buildings that expressed their feelings about the surrounding landscape. Sculptural forms
suggested rocks and mountains. Organic and Brutalist architecture can often be described as
Neo-expressionist.
Expressionist and Neo-expressionist Architects

• Gunther Domenig
• Hans Scharoun
• Rudolf Steiner
• Bruno Taut
• Erich Mendelsohn
• Walter Gropius (early works)
• Eero Saarinen
3. Structuralism
Picture Dictionary of Modern Architecture: Structuralism
The Berlin Holocaust Memorial is a controversial Structuralist work by architect Peter Eisenman.

Photo (cc) cactusbones/Flickr.com

View Full-Size
Berlin Holocaust Memorial by Peter Eisenman
Structuralism is based on the idea that all things are built from a system of signs and these signs
are made up of opposites: male/female, hot/cold, old/young, etc. For Structuralists, design is a
process of searching for the relationship between elements. Structuralists are also interested in
the social structures and mental processes that contributed to the design.

Structuralist architecture will have a great deal of complexity within a highly structured framework.
For example, a Structuralist design may consist of cell-like honeycomb shapes, intersecting
planes, cubed grids, or densely clustered spaces with connecting courtyards.

Architect Peter Eisenman often brings a Structuralist approach to his works.

4. Formalism
Picture Dictionary of Modern Architecture: Formalism
Architect I.M. Pei has been praised for the "elegant formalism" of his Bank of China Tower in
Hong Kong.

Photo courtesy the Pritzker Prize Committee

The Bank of China Tower, 1990, by Pritzker Prize-winning architect Ieoh Ming Pei
As the name suggests, Formalism emphasizes form. The architect is interested in visual
relationships between the building parts and the work as a whole. Shape, often on a monumental
scale, is the focus of attention. Lines and rigid geometric shapes predominate in Formalist
architecture.

You will find Formalism in many Modernist buildings, especially in Bauhaus and International
Style architecture. Architect I.M. Pei has often been praised for the "elegant formalism" of his
works.

Learn more about the Bank of China Tower >>

5. High-tech
Picture Dictionary of Modern Architecture: High-tech
The Centre Pompidou in Paris is a High-tech building by Richard Rogers, Renzo Piano, and
Gianfranco Franchini.

Photo by Katsuhisa Kida, Courtesy Richard Rogers Partnership

View Full-Size
Centre Pompidou in France by by Richard Rogers, Renzo Piano, and Gianfranco Franchini.
High-tech buildings are often called machine-like. Steel, aluminium, and glass combine with
brightly colored braces, girders, and beams. Many of the building parts are prefabricated in a
factory and assembled later. The support beams, duct work, and other functional elements are
placed on the exterior of the building, where they become the focus of attention. The interior
spaces are open and adaptable for many uses.

The High-tech Centre Pompidou in Paris appears to be turned inside out, revealing its inner
workings on the exterior facade.

High-tech Architects:

• Richard Rogers
• Norman Foster

See more images of Centre George Pompidou:

• Close-up view
• Competition Drawing
• Competition Drawing
6. Bauhaus
Picture Dictionary of Modern Architecture: Bauhaus
Architect Walter Gropius used Bauhaus ideas when he built his monochrome home in Lincoln,
Massachusetts.
Gallery Index
Image 6 of 12
< Prev. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Next >

Photo © Jackie Craven

View Full-Size
The Bauhaus Gropius House in Lincoln, Massachusetts
Bauhaus is a German expression meaning house for building. In 1919, the economy in Germany
was collapsing after a crushing war. Architect Walter Gropius was appointed to head a new
institution that would help rebuild the country and form a new social order. Called the Bauhaus,
the Institution called for a new "rational" social housing for the workers. Bauhaus architects
rejected "bourgeois" details such as cornices, eaves, and decorative details. They wanted to use
principles of Classical architecture in their most pure form: without ornamentation of any kind.

Bauhaus buildings have flat roofs, smooth facades, and cubic shapes. Colors are white, gray,
beige, or black. Floor plans are open and furniture is functional.
The Bauhaus school disbanded when the Nazis rose to power. Walter Gropius, Ludwig Mies van
der Rohe, and other Bauhaus leaders migrated to the United States. The term International Style
was applied to the American form of Bauhaus architecture.

See examples of Bauhaus and the International Style:

• The Seagram Building

• The Gropius House
• The Farnsworth House
• Philip Johnson's Glass House
• The Transco Building by Philip Johnson
• United Nations Headquarters by Le Corbusier
• Anna Stern House by Richard Neutra
• The Lovell House by Richard Neutra
• The Bauhaus Building in Dessau, Germany
• Furniture by Bauhaus Architects

Bauhaus Architects

• Le Corbusier
• Richard Neutra
• Philip Johnson
• Mies van der Rohe

More Information:

• The International Style

• The Art Moderne House Style
• Bauhaus Chronology
7. International Style
Picture Dictionary of Modern Architecture: International Style
Le Corbusier's United Nations Secretariat building in New York is a famous example of the
International Style.
Gallery Index
Image 7 of 12
< Prev. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Next >

Photo: ArtToday.com
Le Corbusier's United Nations Secretariat building over-looks the New York City skyline along
the East River.
International Style is a term often used to describe Bauhaus architecture in the United States.
The name came from the book The International Style by historian and critic Henry-Russell
Hitchcock and architect Philip Johnson. The book was published in 1932 in conjunction with an
exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. The term is again used in a later book,
International Architecture, by Walter Gropius.

While German Bauhaus architecture had been concerned with the social aspects of design,
America's International Style became a symbolism of Capitalism: The International Style is the
favored architecture for office buildings, and is also found in upscale homes built for the rich. One
of the most famous examples of the International Style is Le Corbusier's United Nations
Secretariat building. The smooth glass slab dominates New York's skyline along the East River.

See examples of Bauhaus and the International Style:

• The Seagram Building

• The Gropius House
• The Farnsworth House
• Philip Johnson's Glass House
• The Transco Building by Philip Johnson
• United Nations Headquarters by Le Corbusier
• Anna Stern House by Richard Neutra
• The Lovell House by Richard Neutra
• The Bauhaus Building in Dessau, Germany
• Furniture by Bauhaus Architects

Bauhaus Architects

• Le Corbusier
 • Richard Neutra
• Philip Johnson
• Mies van der Rohe

More Information:

• The Bauhaus Style

• The Art Moderne House Style
• Bauhaus Chronology
8. Brutalism
Picture Dictionary of Modern Architecture: Brutalism
Brutalism was a guiding principle for Paulo Mendes da Rocha, who designed stark, economical
concrete buildings in Brazil.
Gallery Index
Image 8 of 12
< Prev. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Next >

Photo © Annette Spiro

View Full-Size
The Paulo Mendes da Rocha Residence in São Paulo, Brazil by Paulo Mendes da Rocha, 2006
Pritzker Architecture Prize Laureate
The term Brutalism was first used in the early 1950s to describe the simple concrete buildings
designed by Le Corbusier. Stark and angular, Brutalism grew out of the International Style, but
the designs may strike you as less refined. Brutalist buildings can be constructed quickly and
economically.

Brutalist architecture has these features:

• Precast concrete slabs

• Rough, unfinished surfaces
• Exposed steel beams
• Massive, sculptural shapes

The Prizker Prize-winning architect Paulo Mendes da Rocha is often called a "Brazilian Brutalist"
because his buildings are constructed of prefabricated and mass-produced concrete components.
Shown here is his home in São Paulo, Brazil.
9. Minimalism
Picture Dictionary of Modern Architecture: Minimalism
The Minimalist home of Mexican architect Luis Barragán is reduced to dramatically lit lines and
planes.
Gallery Index
Image 9 of 12
< Prev. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Next >

Photo by Salas Portugal, courtesy of the Pritzker Prize Committee

The Minimalist Luis Barragan House, or Casa de Luis Barragán, was the home and studio of
Mexican architect Luis Barragán. This building is a classic example of the Pritzker Prize
Laureate's use of texture, bright colors, and diffused light.
One important trend in Modernist architecture is the movement toward minimalist or reductivist
design. Hallmarks of Minimalism include:

• Buildings are stripped of all but the most essential elements

• Emphasis is placed on the outline, or frame, of the struture
• Interior walls are eliminated
• Floor plans are open
• Lighting is used to dramatize lines and planes
• The negative spaces around the structure are part of the overall design

Modernist architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe paved the way for Minimalism when he said, "Less
is more." Minimalist architects drew much of their inspiration from the elegant simplicity of
traditional Japanese architecture. Minimalists were also inspired by a movement of early
twentieth century Dutch artists known as De Stijl. Valuing simplicity and abstraction, De Stijl
artists used only straight lines and rectangular shapes.

The Mexico City home of the Pritzker Prize-winning architect Luis Barragán is Minimalist in its
emphasis on lines, planes, and open spaces.

Architects known for Minimalist designs include:

• Tadao Ando
• Luis Barragan
• Yoshio Taniguchi
• Richard Gluckman
10. Deconstructivism
Picture Dictionary of Modern Architecture: Deconstructivism
The Seattle Public Library by Dutch architect Rem Koolhaas is an example of Deconstructivist
architecture.
Gallery Index
Image 10 of 12
< Prev. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Next >

Photo ©2005 Niko Vujevic / iStockphoto

View Full-Size
The new main central branch of the Seattle Public Library was designed by the Dutch architect
Rem Koolhaas and opened in 2004.
Deconstructivism, or Deconstruction, is an approach to building design that attempts to view
architecture in bits and pieces. The basic elements of architecture are dismantled.
Deconstructivist buildings may seem to have no visual logic. They may appear to be made up of
unrelated, disharmonious abstract forms. Deconstructive ideas are borrowed from the French
philosopher Jacques Derrida.

For examples of Deconstructivism in architecture, look at works by:

• Peter Eisenman
• Frank Gehry
• Richard Meier
• Rem Koolhaas
11. Organic Architecture
Picture Dictionary of Modern Architecture: Organic
Designed by Jorn Utzon, the Sydney Opera House in Australia is an example of Organic
architecture.
Gallery Index
Image 11 of 12
< Prev. 11 12 Next >

Photo by David Messent, courtesy of Jørn Utzon/Utzon Architects and the Pritzker Prize Committee
The Sydney Opera House, designed by Jørn Utzon, winner of the Pritzker Architecture Prize in
2003
Frank Lloyd Wright said that all architecture is organic, and the Art Nouveau architects of the
early twentieth century incorporated curving, plant-like shapes into their designs. But in the later
half of the twentieth century, Modernist architects took the concept of organic architecture to new
heights. By using new forms of concrete and cantilever trusses, architects could create swooping
arches without visible beams or pillars.

Organic buildings are never linear or rigidly geometric. Instead, wavy lines and curved shapes
suggest natural forms.

Examples of Organic Modernism:

• Frank Lloyd Wright used shell-like spiral forms when he designed the Solomon R.
Guggenheim Museum in New York City
• Artist and architectural designer used ocean motifs when he designed Sea Ranch Chapel
in Gualala, California
• Architect Eero Saarinen is known for designing grand bird-like buildings such as the TWA
terminal at New York's Kennedy Airport and Dulles Airport near Washington D.C.
• Architect Jorn Utzon borrowed shell-like forms for the Sydney Opera House in Australia.

Learn more about Organic Architecture >>

12. Postmodernism
Picture Dictionary of Modern Architecture: Postmodernism
Philip Johnson's At&T Headquarters (now the SONY Building) is often cited as an example of
Postmodernism.
Gallery Index
Image 12 of 12
< Prev. 11 12 Next >

Photo by Dan McKay, Flickr Creative Commons

View Full-Size
Philip Johnson's At&T Headquarters (now the SONY Building) is often cited as an example of
postmodernism.
Postmodern architecture evolved from the modernist movement, yet contradicts many of the
modernist ideas. Combining new ideas with traditional forms, postmodernist buildings may startle,
surprise, and even amuse. Familiar shapes and details are used in unexpected ways. Buildings
may incorporate symbols to make a statement or simply to delight the viewer.

Philip Johnson's At&T Headquarters is often cited as an example of postmodernism. Like many
buildings in the International Style, the skyscraper has a sleek, classical facade. At the top,
however, is an oversized "Chippendale" pediment.

The key ideas of Postmodernism are set forth in two important books by Robert Venturi:
Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture and Learning from Las Vegas.
Postmodern Architects:

• Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown

• Michael Graves
• Philip Johnson

Further Reading:
Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture
In this groundbreaking book, published in 1966, Robert Venturi challenged modernism and
celebrated the mix of historic styles in great cities such as Rome. (Compare Prices)

Learning from Las Vegas

Subtitled "The Forgotten Symbolism of Architectural Form," this postmodernist classic called the
"vulgar billboards" of the Vegas Strip emblems for a new architecture. Published in 1972, the
book was written by Robert Venturi, Steven Izenour, and Denise Scott Brown. (Compare Prices)

Also See:

• Disney Architects
• The Postmodern Style House