Introduction to mechatronics
Lecturer: Bereket Walle (MSc in Mechatronics engineering)
1.1 Introduction
• Even though development of automated mechanical systems
occurred long before, the term automation was not popular since
1940s.
• The term automation was introduced by Ford Motor Company to
denote a process in which a machine transferred a sub-assembly
item from one station to another and then positioned the item
precisely for additional assembly operations.
• But the early applications of automatic control systems appeared in
Greece from 300 to1 B.C.
Definition of Mechatronics
• The word "mechatronics" was registered as trademark by the
Yaskawa Electric Corporation company in Japan with the registration
number of in 1971.
• However, afterward the company released the right of using the word
to public, and the word "mechatronics" spread to the rest of the
world.
• The word, mechatronics, is composed of Mecha from Mechanism
and the tronics from electronics.
• Mechatronics is the application of complex decision making to the
operation of physical systems.
• Mechatronics is a methodology used for the optimal design of
electromechanical products.
Def. Cont..
• A mechatronic system is not just a marriage of electrical and
mechanical systems and is more than just a control system; it is a
complete integration of all of them.
4. Intelligent Control
• Feedback control systems are widespread not only in nature and the
home but also in industry.
• There are many industrial processes and machines which control
many variables automatically.
• Temperature, liquid level, fluid flow, pressure, speed, etc. are
maintained constant by process controllers.
• Adaptive control and intelligent manufacturing are the areas where
mechatronic systems are used for decision making and controlling the
manufacturing environment.
Applications Cont…
5. Robotics
• Robot technology uses mechanical, electronic, and computer systems.
A robot is a multifunctional reprogrammable machine used to handle
materials, tools, or any special items to perform a particular task.
• Manipulation robots are capable of performing operations, assembly,
spot welding, spray painting, etc.
• Service robots such as mail service robots, household servant robots,
nursing robots in hospitals are being used nowadays.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Mechatronics
• The objectives of mechatronics are the following
1 To improve products and processes
2 To develop novel mechanisms
3 To design new products
4 To create new technology using novel concepts
• Earlier the domestic washing machine used cam-operated switches in order to
control the washing cycle. Such mechanical switches have now been replaced by
microprocessors.
• The application of mechatronics has helped to improve many
• mass-produced products such as the domestic washing machine, dishwasher,
microwave oven, cameras, watches, and so on.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Mechatronics
• Mechatronic systems are also used in cars for active suspension,
antiskid brakes, engine control, speedometers, ABS, TCS, vehicle
collision avoidance systems etc.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Mechatronics
• Future mechatronic systems on automobiles may include a fog-free windshield
based on humidity and temperature sensing and climate control, self-parallel
parking, rear parking aid, lane change assistance, fluid less electronic brake-
by-wire, and replacement of hydraulic systems with electromechanical servo
systems
• Mechatronic systems are not without their disadvantages. One disadvantage is
that the field of mechatronics requires a knowledge of different disciplines.
• The design cannot be finalized and safety issues are complicated in
mechatronic systems.
• Such systems also require more parts than others, and involve a greater risk of
component failure
1.2 review of Measurement system
Sensor/transducers specifications
• Transducers or measurement systems are not perfect systems.
• Mechatronics design engineer must know the capability and shortcoming of a transducer or
measurement system to properly assess its performance.
• There are a number of performance related parameters of a transducer or measurement
system.
• These parameters are called as sensor specifications.
• Sensor specifications inform the user to the about deviations from the ideal behavior of the
sensors.
• Following are the various specifications of a sensor/transducer system.
1. Range: indicates the limits between which the input can vary.
2. Span: The span is difference between the maximum and minimum values of the input
1.2 Measurement system Cont…
3. Error: is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value.
4. Accuracy: is the closeness of the agreement between the actual measurement result and a true
value of the measurand.
5. Precision: Is the closeness of repeated measurement values.
6. Sensitivity: Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the ratio of change in output value of a sensor to
the per unit change in input value that causes the output change
7. Nonlinearity: The nonlinearity indicates the maximum deviation of the actual measured curve of a
sensor from the ideal curve.
1.2 Measurement system Cont…
Applications of potentiometer
• These sensors are primarily used in the control systems with a feedback loop to ensure
that the moving member or component reaches its commanded position.
• These are typically used on machine-tool controls, elevators, liquid-level assemblies,
forklift trucks, automobile throttle controls.
• In manufacturing, these are used in control of injection molding machines,
woodworking machinery, printing, spraying, robotics, etc.
• These are also used in computer-controlled monitoring of sports equipment.
1.2 Measurement system Cont…
• Capacitive sensor is of non-contact type sensor and is primarily used to measure the
linear displacements from few millimeters to hundreds of millimeters.
• It comprises of three plates, with the upper pair forming one capacitor and the lower pair
another. The linear displacement might take in two forms:
a. One of the plates is moved by the displacement so that the plate separation changes
b. Area of overlap changes due to the displacement
1.2 Measurement system Cont…
• As the central plate moves near to top plate or bottom one due to the movement of the
element/work piece of which displacement is to be measured, separation in between
the plate changes.
Note; Let you have a read about the rest of the displacement and position sensor, Velocity, motion,
force and pressure sensors
1.2 Measurement system Cont…
Temperature sensors such as bimetallic strips, thermocouples, thermistors are widely used
in monitoring of manufacturing processes such as casting, molding, metal cutting etc.
1. Bimetallic strips
1.2 Measurement system Cont…
where Rt is the resistance at temperature T (⁰C) and R0 is the temperature at 0⁰C and α
is the constant for the metal termed as temperature coefficient of resistance.
1.2 Measurement system Cont…
• Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing, Food Processing, Stoves and grills
• Textile production, Plastics processing, Petrochemical processing, Micro electronics
• Exhaust gas temperature measurement
1.2 Measurement system Cont…
3. Thermistors:
Thermistors follow the principle of decrease in resistance with increasing
temperature.
4. Thermocouple:
Thermocouple works on the fact that when a junction of dissimilar metals heated, it
produces an electric potential related to temperature.
1.2 Measurement system Cont…
Light sensors
• Transducers sense physical phenomenon such as rise in temperature and convert the
measurand into an electrical signal viz. voltage or current.
• However these signals may not be in their appropriate forms to employ them
to control a mechatronics system.
1.2 Measurement system Cont…
1. Amplification/Attenuation
• Various applications of Mechatronics system such as machine tool control unit of a
CNC machine tool accept voltage amplitudes in range of 0 to 10 Volts. However
many sensors produce signals of the order of milli volts.
• This low level input signals from sensors must be amplified to use them for further control
action.
• Operational amplifiers (op-amp) are widely used for amplification of input signals.
• Operational Amplifier is a basic and an important part of a signal conditioning system.
1.2 Measurement system Cont…
• op-amp amplifies the difference between input voltages (V+ and V-). The
output of an operational amplifier can be written as
2. Filtering
• Output signals from sensors contain noise due to various external factors like
improper hardware connections, environment etc.
• Noise gives an error in the final output of system.
• Therefore it must be removed.
• In practice, change in desired frequency level of output signal is a commonly noted
noise.
1.2 Measurement system Cont…
9. Reference
All references we have cited in the proposal should be put here with proper format.
End of Chapter I
Chapter II
Semiconductor Device
&
Motor Controlling
Introduction
• Materials that permit flow of electrons are called conductors (e.g., gold,
silver, copper, etc.).
• Materials that block flow of electrons are called Insulators (e.g., rubber,
glass, Teflon, mica, etc.).
• Materials whose conductivity falls between those of conductors and insulators
are called semiconductors.
• Semiconductors are “part-time” conductors whose conductivity can be
controlled.
Energy Level
•There are three bands:
1.Valence band: have valence electrons
2.Forbidden band: have no electrons
3.Conduction band: full of excess free or
delocalized electrons
Temperature oc
Covalent Bonds
• When atoms combine to form a solid, crystalline material,
they arrange themselves in a symmetrical pattern.
• The atoms in the crystal structure are held together by
covalent bonds
• The covalent bonding of an Intrinsic Si, Pure Si, is shown
below.
Silicon Crystal
At 0°K, each electron is in its lowest possible energy state, and each
covalent bounding position is filled.
If a small electric field is applied, the electrons will not move →
silicon is an insulator
Conduction Electrons and Holes
• If the temperature increases, the valence electrons will gain some
thermal energy, and breaks free from the covalent bond
• It leaves a positively charged hole
• In orderto break from the covalent bond, a valence electron must
gain a minimun energy
Eg: Bandgap energy
• An intrinsic (Pure) Si crystal at room temp had sufficient heat
(thermal) energy for some valance electrons to jump the gap from
the valance band into the conduction band, becoming free
electrons, called conduction electrons.
Electron and Hole Current
• When a voltage is applied across a piece of intrinsic silicon, the thermally
generated free electrons in the conduction band, will be attracted to the
positive end
• This is called electron current.
• Another current in the valance band is created because of the movement of
valance electrons filling the vacant holes.
• This relative motion of holes is called, hole current
Intrinsic Carrier Concentration
ni: intrinsic carrier concentration for free electrons (same for holes)
Where;
B: constant related to specific semiconductor material
Eg: Bandgap energy (eV)
T: Temperature (°K)
K: Boltzman Constant (86 E-06 eV/°K)
Semiconductor Constants
Types of Semiconductor Materials
The characteristics of semiconductor materials can be altered significantly by
the addition of certain impurity atoms into the relatively pure semiconductor
material.
These impurities, although only added to perhaps 1 part in 10 million, can alter
the band structure sufficiently to totally change the electrical properties of the
material.
No Bias Condition:
Note the regions for No Bias, Reverse Bias, and Forward Bias conditions.
Look closely at the scale for each of these conditions!
Majority and Minority Carriers in Diode
Zener Region
• Another detail about the diode is the useful Zener region.
• The diode is in the reverse bias condition.
• At some point the reverse bias voltage is so large .
• The reverse current increases dramatically the diode breaks down.
• This maximum voltage is called avalanche breakdown voltage and the
current is called avalanche current.
• A Zener is a diode operated in reverse bias at the Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
called the Zener Voltage (VZ).
• Used to supply regulated voltage for the load.
It also used to generator simple square-wave
• Made specially to operate in the reverse breakdown region.
• Useful as a “reference” voltage in many circuits.
2. Light Emitting Diode (LED)
This diode when forward biased emits photons. These can be in the visible
spectrum.
For ideal diode D1 & D2 what will be the current through R1 and R2?
Rectification;
• Converting ac to dc is accomplished by the process of rectification.
• Two processes are used:
• Half-wave rectification;
• Simplest process used to convert ac to dc.
A diode is used to clip the input signal excursions of one polarity to zero.
Full-wave rectification.
The dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be improved 100% using a process
called full-wave rectification.
CLIPPERS
• There are a variety of diode networks called clippers, that have the ability
to “clip” off a portion of the input signal without distorting the remaining
part of the alternating waveform.
• The half-wave rectifier is an example of the simplest form of diode clipper-
one resistor and diode.
CLAMPERS
• The clamping network is one that will “clamp” a signal to a different dc level.
• The network must have a capacitor, a diode, and a resistive element,
Steps to analyze clamping networks:
1. Start the analysis of clamping networks by considering that part of the input
signal that will forward bias the diode.
2. During the period that the diode is in the “on” state, assume that the
capacitor will charge up instantaneously to a voltage level determined by the
network.
3. Assume that during the period when the diode is in the “off” state the
capacitor will hold on to its established voltage level.
4. Throughout the analysis maintain a continual awareness of the location and
reference polarity for Vo to ensure that the proper levels for Vo are obtained.
5. Keep in mind the general rule that the total swing of the total output must
match the swing of the input signal.
Diode Arrays
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Construction
• The BJT is, a semiconductor device, constructed with three doped
semiconductor regions separated by two p-n junctions
• The three regions are called emitter, base, and collector
• There are two types of BJTs
–NPN and PNP type
Transistor mode of Operation
• In order for a BJT to operate properly as an amplifier, the two p-n
junctions must be
• correctly biased with external dc voltages.
–The base-emitter junction forward biased
–The base-collector region reverse biased
Cont…
• To demonstrate the mode of operation of pnp transistor first let us consider the forward
bias base emitter P-N junction as shown in figure
• The depletion region has been reduced in width due to the applied bias, resulting in a
heavy flow of majority carriers from the p- to the n-type material.
Cont.…
• For the next case consider the reverse-biased base collector N-P
Junction only The flow of majority carriers is zero, resulting in a
minority-carrier flow, as indicated;
• The arrow in the graphic symbol defines the direction of emitter
current (conventional flow) through the device.
BJT Characteristics & Parameters
• The dc current gain of a transistor is the ratio of the dc collector current
(IC) to the dc base current (IB) and is designated dc beta (βDC ).
• The ratio of the dc collector current (IC) to the dc emitter current (IE) is
the dc alpha (αDC).
BJT Circuit Analysis
• Consider the basic transistor bias circuit configuration
• Three transistor dc currents and three dc voltages can be identified.
• IB: dc base current , IE: dc emitter current, IC: dc collector current
• VBE: dc voltage at base with respect to emitter
• VCB: dc voltage at collector with respect to base
• VCE: dc voltage at collector with respect to emitter
• When the base-emitter junction is forward biased, it is like a forward-
biased diode and has a nominal forward voltage drop of
For the common-base configuration the ac input resistance is quite small and
typically varies from 10Ω to 100Ω.
The output resistance is quite high and typically varies from 50kΩ to 1MΩ.
• Using a common value of 20Ω for the input resistance and 100kΩ for output
resistance, we find that
• Typical values of voltage amplification for the common-base
configuration vary from 50 to 300. The current amplification
(IC/IE) is always less than 1 for the common-base configuration.
• This latter characteristic should be obvious since
IC= αIE
and α is always less than 1.
Operational Amplifiers
Single-ended Amplifier
• Differential Amplifier
• Amplifies difference between inputs
Operational Amplifier
• Output gain high
• A ~= 106
• Tiny difference in the input voltages result in a very large output
voltage
• Output limited by supply voltages
• Comparator
• If V+>V-, Vout = HVS
• If V+<V-, Vout = LVS
• If V+=V-, Vout = 0V
3-stage Op-Amp
Why are they useful?
• Sensor signals are often too weak or too noisy Op Amps ideally increase the
signal amplitude without affecting its other properties
Inverting Op-Amp
Uses: Amplify…straight up
Calculate the output voltage of a non inverting amplifier shown above for values of V1 2V,
Rf 500k, and R1 100k.
Cont.…
• From the circuit shown above what will be the output has R1 =100k and Rf =500k, what
output voltage results for an input of V1 2 V?
Cont.…
• In position control mode, each of the four position buttons indexes the motor
to specific angular positions relative to the starting point (0, 45, 90, 180).
• The LED provides a visual cue to the user to indicate that the PIC is cycling
properly.
• ADC converter is used to convert the pot’s voltage to a digital value.
• A microcontroller uses that value to generate signals for a stepper motor driver
circuit to make the motor rotate.
End of Chapter III