ELEC9713

Industrial and Commercial Power Systems

Fault Calculation Methods

There are two major problems that can occur in electrical

systems: these are open circuits and short circuits. Of the
two, the latter is the most dangerous because it can lead to
very high fault currents and these currents can have very
substantial effects (thermal heating and electromechanical
forces) on equipment that may require replacement of
equipment and may even cause fires and other similar
ensuing effects in the electrical system. Building systems
are particularly at risk.

To prevent problems from short circuits, it is necessary to

design electrical protection systems that will be able to
detect abnormal fault currents that may occur and then take
remedial action to isolate the faulty section of the system in
as short a time as is consistent with the magnitude of the
short circuit fault current level. This requires that the fault
current be predicted for a fault in any particular location of
the circuit system. We thus need to establish methods of
fault calculation.

Fault calculation is not simple for a number of reasons:

ƒ There are many different types of fault in three phase
systems

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 1

 ƒ The impedance characteristics of all electrical items in
the system must be known
ƒ The fault impedance itself may be non-zero and
difficult to estimate
ƒ There may be substantial fault current contribution
from rotating machines etc.
ƒ The initial cycles of fault current may be asymmetric
with substantial DC offset
ƒ The earth impedance in earth faults can be difficult to
estimate accurately
ƒ DC system faults also include inductance effects in
fault current growth

For example, the possible fault types that may occur in a

three-phase system are:
ƒ Three phase (symmetrical) faults (the most severe in
terms of current)
ƒ Phase to phase fault
ƒ Single phase to earth fault
ƒ Three phase to earth fault
ƒ Phase to phase to earth fault

Each of these fault types will have different fault current

when they occur at the same location and the electrical
protection system will need to take this into account when
operating time is determined.

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 2

In the very simplified coverage of fault calculations that
follows we will look only at symmetrical three phase faults.
We do not cover any asymmetrical faults (phase to phase
and single phase) except for some general comments on
their behaviour. In general, three phase symmetrical faults
will give the maximum fault current level at any location
and thus such calculations represent worst case situations in
general.

Because they have low impedance systems, low voltage

electrical systems, such as those in buildings, generate very
high levels of fault currents.

The prospective short-circuit current and the fault level

(power) at the connection point to the utility supply are
important parameters that the designer of an electrical
installation needs to know and can be obtained from the
electricity utility distributor.

The prospective short-circuit current is defined as the

current which would flow as a result of a bolted 3-phase
fault. Typical value at the point of supply for 230/400V
NSW distribution systems:
ƒ Suburban residential areas: 10 kA
ƒ Commercial and industrial areas: 25 kA

(the bolted terminology means a zero impedance fault that

has no effect on the fault current, as opposed to a high
impedance fault where the fault impedance will have some
effect on the fault current (by diminishing it)).

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 3

Knowing the fault level, the impedance of the upstream
circuit and devices (e.g. transformers, conductors) can be
derived. The prospective fault current varies at different
points in the supply:
ƒ At the supply transformer terminals, it is limited by the
impedance of the distribution transformer and feeder
conductors.
ƒ At the main switchboard, the fault current is further
reduced because of the additional cable impedance of
the consumer’s mains.
ƒ At the distribution board, the fault current is further
decreased by the cable impedance of the submains.

Supply
Transformer MSB DB

Utility Consumers Submains

cables / lines mains cables cables

Example:

An 11kV to 400/230V transformer has a prospective fault

current of 32kA at the secondary terminals. The consumers
mains circuit has a route length of 25m, using single-core
120mm2 active conductors and 70mm2 neutral. The
submains circuit has a route length of 35m, using 16mm2
multi-core cables.

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 4

We want to determine the prospective fault current at the
main switchboard and the distribution board (for the
purpose of selecting appropriately rated protection devices
and switchgear).

Transformer impedance:
V 230
ZTX = = = 0.00718 Ω
I 32000
Assume cable temperature is 45oC, from Table 34 of
AS3008.1, impedance of consumers mains (1 phase):
0.170
Z CM = × 25 = 0.00425 Ω
1000
Prospective fault current at main switchboard:
230
I SC = = 20.2 kA
0.00718 + 0.00425
Assume cable temperature is 45oC, from Table 35 of
AS3008.1, impedance of the submains (1 phase):
1.26
Z SM = × 35 = 0.0441 Ω
1000
Prospective fault current at the distribution board:
230
I SC = = 4.158 kA
0.00718 + 0.00425 + 0.0441

Note that the above calculations are for a balanced three

phase short-circuit fault across all three phases with the
result that there is no neutral impedance to consider. A
single phase short-circuit from a single phase conductor to
neutral will produce a lower fault current. Here, we need to
include the impedance of the neutral cable because the
(unbalanced) fault current will flow in the neutral.

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 5

1. The Per Unit System

Fault calculations are simplified very substantially if they

are performed using the per-unit system and normalising
all electrical quantities relating to the fault in per unit
values for the fault analysis. This allows the removal of the
complexity of transformer ratios in the fault calculations.
The transformer can be included as a simple impedance.

In the per unit system we express voltage, current, kVA and

impedance as per unit values of selected base values of
those quantities.

Thus
V
Vpu = VB is the voltage base value
VB
I
I pu = IB is the current base value
IB
S
S pu = SB is the kVA base
SB
Z
Z pu = ZB is the impedance base
ZB
It is usual to specify the two base values VB and SB and then
the other two base values IB and ZB are able to be
determined from the specified VB and SB values by normal
(Ohm’s Law) electrical relationships:

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 6

 SB
IB =
VB
VB VB2
ZB = =
I B SB

Normally, the voltage base VB is taken as the rated system

voltage and SB is arbitrarily specified (often 100, 10 or 1
MVA is chosen), although a common method is to use the
rating of a major element in the system such as a
transformer or generator as the base SB.

For balanced symmetrical three phase faults the fault

calculation is able to be done on a single phase basis using
the per unit phase impedances in the one-line diagram of
the fault circuit.

Some care must be taken to use the proper phase kVA and
voltage levels in the single-phase circuit to calculate the
appropriate base values of current and impedance.
SB
IB =
3 VB
VB2
ZB =
SB

where VB and SB are the line voltage and three phase kVA
values.

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 7

In the fault calculation the impedances in the fault circuit
must include all significant components and all of these
must have their impedance expressed in per unit terms
using the appropriate base value. This requires changes in
some per unit values if they are already expressed (for
example on the name plate) using different base values.
This may commonly occur with transformer impedances.

To change per unit impedances from one base value to

another we have to use the following equation as the basis
for change:
Z ohms S
Z pu = = Z ohms B2
ZB VB
Thus:

(i) For change of kVA base (SB), the new Zpu is given by:
S B( new )
Z pu ( new ) = Z pu( old ) ×
S B( old )

(ii) For change of voltage base (VB)

VB2( old )
Z pu ( new ) = Z pu( old ) × 2
VB( new )

(iii) For change of both kVA and voltage bases at the same
time:
S B( new ) VB2( old )
Z pu ( new ) = Z pu( old ) × ×
S B( old ) VB2( new )

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 8

In most cases the impedances of items such as transformers,
generators, motors etc, will be given on name plates in per
unit or percentage terms based on the equipment’s rated
voltage and power levels. These given values must be
adjusted to the base values chosen for fault calculations if
these are different from the nameplate values.

For cables, overhead lines, busbars, etc, the impedances

will most likely be given or obtained in ohmic values.
These must then be used with the appropriate base values to
get their per unit values referred to the common bases. Thus
the appropriate operating voltage and chosen SB must be
used to get ZB and IB.

The base impedances and currents for a 1 MVA (1000

kVA) base and typical common voltage levels are shown
below, using VB equal to rated voltage:

[Note that 1000 kVA is the 3-phase base value]

Line Phase Base Base

Voltage Voltage Current Impedance
(V) (V) (A) (Ω)
415 240 1391 0.1722
3300 1905 175 10.89
6600 3810 87.5 43.56
11000 6351 52.5 121.0
33000 19053 17.5 1089
66000 38105 8.75 4356

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 9

Example: A 3-phase radial transmission system is shown
below. Calculate terminal voltage of the generator. Use a
base of 100MVA for all circuits.
VS VS

11kV 132kV 132kV 33kV 50MW

Line
0.8pf
j100Ω lagging
50MVA 50MVA
X=10% X=12%
30kV

Base impedance of the line:

(132 × 10 )
2
2 3
V
ZB = = B
= 174 Ω
SB 100 × 10 6

Per-unit reactance of the line:

Z j100
= = = j 0.575
Z B 174
Per-unit reactance of sending-end transformer:
S B (new) 100
= Z pu(old) = j 0.1 = j 0.2
S B (old) 50
Per-unit reactance of receiving-end transformer:
S B (new) 100
= Z pu(old) = j 0.12 = j 0.24
S B (old) 50
Load current (using formula P = 3VL I L cos φ ):
50 × 106
= = 1203 A
3 × ( 30 × 10 ) × 0.8
3

Base current for the 33kV line:

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 10

 SB 100 × 106
= = = 1750 A
3 × VB 3 × 33 × 10 3

Hence, per-unit load current is:

I 1203
= = = 0.687 pu
I B 1750
Per-unit voltage of load busbar:
V 30
= = = 0.91 pu
VB 33
The equivalent circuit is shown below:

0.687pu
j0.2pu j0.575pu j0.24pu 0.8pf
lagging

ES VS VR=
0.91pu Load

Hence,

VS = 0.687 ( 0.8 − j 0.6 )( j 0.2 + j 0.575 + j 0.24 ) + ( 0.91 + j 0.0 )

VS = 1.328 + j 0.558 pu
VS = 1.44 pu or 1.44 × 11 kV = 15.84 kV

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 11

2. Fault Calculation Effects and Requirements

Fault levels in a power system are required to be

determined at the design stage to allow determination of the
following parameters:
(i) overcurrent protection requirements
(ii) peak electromagnetic forces
(iii) thermal heating effects
(iv) the maximum fault current (and the minimum fault
current)
(v) the (time) discrimination requirements of protection
operation
(vi) the touch voltages on earthed objects (personnel
safety)

2.1 Sources of fault currents

In a complex electrical system, there are a number of

potential sources of fault current when a short circuit occurs
in the system. These are:

(i) the electrical utility supply grid system

(ii) any in-house generation systems operating at the
time of the fault
(iii) any motors operating within the system at the time of
the fault
(iv) any electrical storage elements in the system (e.g
capacitors)

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Static equipment such as power electronic inverters and
converters, transformers, induction heaters are not sources
of fault current. Capacitors in power factor correction
systems and battery operated uninterruptible power supplies
may be fault current sources however, although generally
the contribution of fault current is low and of very short
duration.

The supply utility contribution to the fault provides a

constant fault current (see the diagram below) as will the
in-house synchronous generation for a short period, but
operating motors will provide decaying fault current
contributions as their magnetic excitation fields collapse.
Synchronous motors will sustain their fault current level
much longer than induction motors.

2.2 Fault impedance variation

In calculating fault currents, all components, including the

source impedances, must be represented in the one line
diagram by an effective impedance in per unit values. For
the utility supply this is constant (a stiff power source) but
for the motors there is a time-varying impedance depending
on the time after the short circuit. Depending on when the
fault current needs to be calculated, any of three rotating
impedances may need to be used:

(i) sub-transient reactance (Xd”)

(ii) transient reactance (Xd’)
(iii) synchronous reactance (Xs)

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 13

We must use the sub-transient reactance for the fault
current during the first few cycles, the transient reactance
for the fault current up to a fraction of a second and the
synchronous reactance for very long duration faults (usually
synchronous reactance is not necessary as the protection
should operate before it comes into effect).

For synchronous motors only the sub-transient and transient

reactance are normally used before the exciting field dies
away and the fault current contribution is then effectively
reduced to zero.

For induction motors, only the sub-transient reactance is

used before the fault current contribution dies to zero.

The combined overall fault current will thus decrease in the

manner shown below.

Examples of fault current waveforms

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 14
2.3 DC Offset (See figure below)

This must be included in fault calculations, particularly in

low voltage systems as the offset can increase the initial
current levels substantially and this is an important
consideration for the circuit breaker (the momentary current
rating): a very high initial current even for less than a cycle
can open breaker contacts prematurely and result in contact
welding.

The magnitude and duration of the DC offset level is

governed primarily by the X/R ratio of the faulted circuit.
[The offset magnitude is also dependent on the angle on the
voltage waveform at which the fault occurs. However the
worst-case situation is always assumed in the fault
calculation].

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 15

2.4 Types of AC faults
The classes of faults that can occur in AC power systems
are:
ƒ Three phase fault
ƒ Three phase to earth fault
ƒ Phase to phase fault
ƒ Phase to phase to earth fault
ƒ Single phase to earth fault.

The first of these gives the highest fault current and is the
one which will be used in the following examples.

However the most common fault is the last type, the single
phase to earth fault and at low voltages the fault impedance
becomes an important factor in that type, particularly at low
voltages. The estimation of fault impedance in such cases is
very difficult. Whereas in high voltage faults (11kV and
above) it is usual to assume zero or negligible fault
impedance, this cannot be done in LV faults where the
voltage drop over the fault itself is significant compared to
the system voltage and thus there is substantial impact on
the fault current.

I single phase faults it is normal to assign some multiplying

factors (less than unity) when the bolted short circuit levels
are calculated to give an estimate of the high impedance
arcing fault current.

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 16

The following diagrams show some of the above effects of
fault currents.

Fault type Magnitude

3-phase (most severe) (E/Z) x multiplier
Line-to-line About 0.87 x 3-phase fault
Line-to-ground Depends on system grounding
(usually least severe)

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 17

3. Fault Calculation Methods

For the simple fault calculations that we will cover here, we

assume the following:

(i) The fault is balanced 3-phase symmetrical.

(ii) The per unit impedances are pure reactances: any
resistance is neglected, i.e. it is effectively a DC
analysis. This is not a very good approximation for
LV systems where the resistance can be significant
(see item (vii) below).
(iii) All significant component impedances are included
(iv) The fault itself has zero impedance [that is, it is a
“bolted” short circuit]
(v) Earth circuit impedance is neglected because of the
balanced 3-phase nature which eliminates the earth
impedance.
(vi) The appropriate rated voltage is used as the voltage
base value.
(vii) For LV systems where resistance is important, we
use the impedance determined by Z = R 2 + X 2
and a DC analysis.
(viii) Record X R for all equipment, if necessary, to
calculate the level of the DC offset multiplier after
the symmetrical fault current has been calculated. It
is necessary to know R and L separately.

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 18

The first step in the process is to convert all impedances to
per unit values and to then use these to draw a single line
diagram of the fault circuit, including all possible sources
modelled as an ideal voltage source with their appropriate
source impedance value connected. Then, by a process of
circuit simplification the impedance diagram is reduced to a
single per unit impedance ZF connected to true earth and to
an ideal voltage source.

Vpu = 1

Z F ( pu )

Then the fault current and fault power in per unit value are:
Vpu Vpu2
I F ( pu ) = and S F (pu) =
Z F (pu) Z F ( pu )

1
Thus: I F (pu) = S F (pu) = when we define Vpu = 1
Z F ( pu )

The actual fault current is I F = I F ( pu ) × I B amps and fault

power is S F = S F ( pu ) × S B VA .

The advantage of using Vpu = 1 is evident from the above.

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 19

4. Faults in DC Systems

DC systems are becoming increasingly common with the

use of power electronics and the calculation of fault
currents in such systems is also necessary to consider in
modern commercial and industrial systems.

In DC systems the impedance elements which determine

the steady state fault current level are only resistance
elements. However in most cases the system inductance
will also have a significant effect in that it will determine
the rate of increase of the fault current level in DC system
faults. The L/R time constants of such systems are usually
long enough that the steady state fault current will not be
reached before protection operates and the protection will
thus be interrupting current when that current is still rising.
Thus DC fault calculations are not necessarily simple to
perform.

The sources of DC fault currents are, typically, any of the

following:
ƒ DC generators
ƒ Synchronous converters
ƒ DC motors
ƒ Rectifier systems
ƒ Battery banks
ƒ UPS systems

Another factor that must be considered in the design of the

protection system is that DC arc currents are more difficult

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 20

to interrupt than AC arc currents. An AC circuit breaker has
100 current zeroes per second to interrupt the fault current,
while a DC breaker has none. Thus the arc interruption is
much more difficult for DC than for AC. In a DC breaker
the arc voltage developed is an important factor in the
protection design and in determining fault current levels. As
a result of the difference between AC and DC faults, either
specialised DC breakers or fuses must be used or, more
commonly, if AC breakers are used they must be de-rated
for use on a DC system.

The fault calculation procedure must involve the

determination of the time constant and thus the initial
exponential rate of rise of current as it is most likely that
interruption will occur during this period.

A DC fault is modelled by a DC supply in series with a

fixed circuit resistance, a fixed circuit inductance and a
variable resistance in the form of the circuit breaker arc
when its contact open (see figure over page).

The governing equation during the initial transient is:

dI
VS = VR + Va + L
dt
dI
or L = (VS − VR ) − Va
dt

Initially, when Va is small or zero, (VS − VR ) > Va and dI dt

is positive and current increases, but later as the arc

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 21

develops and lengthens, (VS − VR ) < Va and dI dt is
negative and current decreases. The typical behaviour is
shown below.
dI
L
VR dt
+ +

+ R L I +
VS Va
_ C.B. _

DC fault circuit and C.B.

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 22

5. Fault calculation data and calculation example
The following tables give details relating to various
parameters required for fault calculations and an example
of a typical fault calculation procedure.

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 23

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 24
5.1 Example of a Simple Fault Current Calculation

The system has supply from a utility connection at top left

and an in-house generator at top right. In addition there will
be a fault current contribution from the 4.8kV, 200kVA
motor which we take to be an induction motor because only
one impedance value is given.

We have to use an impedance diagram as below and we

have to use per unit impedances so that we can remove the
transformer ratio complications.

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 25

We are required to find the three phase fault current at
location A: the voltage there is 480V.

(1) Utility (3) Generator

supply

(2) Transformers (4) Cable

(4’) Cable (6) (5)

(7) Cable Cable Motor

(8) Power transformer

(9) Current transformer

(10) Cable

Impedance circuit

Use base of 20 MVA for p.u calculation, i.e. S B = 20 MVA

At 4.8 kV:
VB2
Vpu = 1 ZB = = 1.152 Ω
SB
SB
IB = = 2406 A
3 × VB
At 480 V:
Vpu = 1 Z B = 0.01152 Ω
I B = 24056 A

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 26

(1) Source impedance:
1
500 MVA fault level ≡ 25 p.u Z pu = = 0.04 p.u
25
X R=6 ⇒ Z pu = 0.0066 + j 0.0395

(2) Transformer:
20
3000 kVA, 6% Z pu = 0.06 × = 0.4 p.u
3
X R = 8 ⇒ Z pu = 0.05 + j 0.4

(3) Generator:
20
1000 kVA, 15% Z pu = 0.15 × = 3 p.u.
1
X R = 10 (negligible R) ⇒ Z pu = j 3.0

(4) Cable (4.8kV):

0.06 + j 0.03 Ω Z B = 1.152 Ω
0.06 + j 0.03
⇒ Z pu = = 0.052 + j 0.026 p.u.
1.152

(4’) Cable (4.8kV):

0.05 + j 0.02 Ω Z B = 1.152 Ω
0.05 + j 0.02
⇒ Z pu = = 0.043 + j 0.017 p.u.
1.152

(5) Motor:

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 27

 20
200 kVA, 10% Z pu = 0.1× = 10 p.u.
0.2
X R = 10 (negligible R) ⇒ Z pu = j10

(6) Cable (4.8 kV):

Αs (4) ⇒ Z pu = 0.052 + j 0.026 p.u.

(7) Cable (4.8 kV):

0.1 + j 0.04 Ω
Z B = 1.152 Ω
0.1 + j 0.04
⇒ Z pu = = 0.087 + j 0.035 p.u
1.152

(8) Power transformer:

20
1000 kVA, 4% Z pu = 0.04 × = 0.8 p.u.
1
X R=4 ⇒ Z pu = 0.194 + j 0.776 p.u.

(9) Current transformer (480V):

Z = 0.0001 + j 0.0005
Z B = 0.01152 Ω
0.0001 + j 0.0005
⇒ Z pu = = 0.0087 + j 0.0043 p.u.
0.01152

(10) Cable (480V):

0.002 + j 0.002 Ω
Z B = 0.01152 Ω ⇒ Z pu = 0.174 + j 0.174 p.u.

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 28

Thus we have the impedance diagram simplified to :

(1)+(2) (3)+(4)

(4’) (5)+(6)

(7)+(8)+(9)+(10)

(1) + ( 2 ) = 0.0566 + j0.4395 = 0.443 p.u

( 3) + ( 4 ) = 0.052 + j3.03 = 3.03 p.u
( 5) + ( 6 ) = 0.052 + j10.03 = 10.03 p.u
( 4' ) = 0.043 + j 0.017 = 0.046 p.u
( 7 ) + (8) + ( 9 ) + (10 ) = 0.4637 + j0.9893 = 1.093 p.u
Approximation :

⎣⎡(1) + ( 2 ) ⎦⎤ ⎣⎡( 3) + ( 4 ) ⎦⎤ = 0.443 3.03 = 0.384

0.384 + ( 4' ) = 0.430

0.430 ⎡⎣( 5 ) + ( 6 ) ⎤⎦ = 0.430 10.03 = 0.412

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 29

0.412 + ⎣⎡( 7 ) + ( 8 ) + ( 9 ) + (10 ) ⎦⎤ = 0.412 + 1.093 = 1.505

Total Z pu = 1.505 p.u.

1
Fault I pu = = 0.664
Z pu

At 480V: I F = 0.664 × I B = 0.664 × 24056 = 15970 A

At 4.8 kV: I F = 0.664 × I B = 0.664 × 2406 = 1597 A

Alternatively :

⎡⎣(1) + ( 2 ) ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣( 3) + ( 4 ) ⎤⎦ = 0.0440 + j 0.3843

( 0.0440 + j 0.3843) + ( 4') = 0.0870 + j 0.4013

( 0.0870 + j 0.4013) ⎡⎣( 5 ) + ( 6 ) ⎤⎦ = 0.0805 + j 0.3865

( 0.0805 + j 0.3865) + ⎡⎣( 7 ) + (8) + ( 9 ) + (10 )⎤⎦

= 0.5442 + j 3758
Total Z pu = 0.5442 + j1.3758 = 1.4795 p.u.
1
Fault I pu = = 0.676
Z pu

At 480V: I F = 0.676 × I B = 0.676 × 24056 = 16262 A

At 4.8 kV: I F = 0.676 × I B = 0.676 × 2406 = 1626 A

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 30

ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 31
ELEC9713: Industrial and Commercial Power Systems p. 32