Kinematics of

Particles
Introduction
• Dynamics includes:
- Kinematics: study of the geometry of motion. Kinematics is used to
relate displacement, velocity, acceleration, and time without reference to
the cause of motion.
- Kinetics: study of the relations existing between the forces acting on a
body, the mass of the body, and the motion of the body. Kinetics is used
to predict the motion caused by given forces or to determine the forces
required to produce a given motion.

• Rectilinear motion: position, velocity, and acceleration of a particle as it

moves along a straight line.

• Curvilinear motion: position, velocity, and acceleration of a particle as it

moves along a curved line in two or three dimensions.

11 - 2
Rectilinear Motion: Position, Velocity & Acceleration
• Particle moving along a straight line is said
to be in rectilinear motion.
• Position coordinate of a particle is defined
by positive or negative distance of particle
from a fixed origin on the line.
• The motion of a particle is known if the
position coordinate for particle is known for
every value of time t. Motion of the particle
may be expressed in the form of a function,
e.g.,
x  6t 2  t 3
or in the form of a graph x vs. t.

11 - 3
Rectilinear Motion: Position, Velocity & Acceleration
• Consider particle which occupies position P
at time t and P’ at t+Dt,
Dx
Average velocity 
Dt
Dx
Instantaneous velocity  v  lim
Dt 0 Dt

• Instantaneous velocity may be positive or

negative. Magnitude of velocity is referred
to as particle speed.
• From the definition of a derivative,
Dx dx
v  lim 
Dt 0 Dt dt
e.g., x  6t 2  t 3
dx
v  12t  3t 2
dt
11 - 4
Rectilinear Motion: Position, Velocity & Acceleration
• Consider particle with velocity v at time t and
v’ at t+Dt,
Dv
Instantaneous acceleration  a  lim
Dt 0 Dt

• Instantaneous acceleration may be:

- positive: increasing positive velocity
or decreasing negative velocity
- negative: decreasing positive velocity
or increasing negative velocity.
• From the definition of a derivative,
Dv dv d 2 x
a  lim   2
Dt 0 Dt dt dt
e.g. v  12t  3t 2
dv
a  12  6t
dt
11 - 5
Rectilinear Motion: Position, Velocity & Acceleration
• Consider particle with motion given by
x  6t 2  t 3
dx
v  12t  3t 2
dt
dv d 2 x
a   12  6t
dt dt 2

• at t = 0, x = 0, v = 0, a = 12 m/s2

• at t = 2 s, x = 16 m, v = vmax = 12 m/s, a = 0

• at t = 4 s, x = xmax = 32 m, v = 0, a = -12 m/s2

• at t = 6 s, x = 0, v = -36 m/s, a = 24 m/s2

11 - 6
Determination of the Motion of a Particle
• Recall, motion of a particle is known if position is known for all time t.

• Typically, conditions of motion are specified by the type of acceleration

experienced by the particle. Determination of velocity and position requires
two successive integrations.

• Three classes of motion may be defined for:

- acceleration given as a function of time, a = f(t)
- acceleration given as a function of position, a = f(x)
- acceleration given as a function of velocity, a = f(v)

11 - 7
Determination of the Motion of a Particle
• Acceleration given as a function of time, a = f(t):
v t  t t
dv
 a  f t  dv  f t  dt  dv   f t  dt vt   v0   f t  dt
dt v 0 0
0
x t  t t
dx
 vt  dx  vt  dt  dx   vt  dt xt   x0   vt  dt
dt x0 0 0

• Acceleration given as a function of position, a = f(x):

dx dx dv dv
v or dt  a or a  v  f  x 
dt v dt dx
v x  x x
v dv  f  x dx  v dv   f  x dx 1 v x 2
2
 12 v02   f  x dx
v0 x0 x0

11 - 8
Determination of the Motion of a Particle
• Acceleration given as a function of velocity, a = f(v):
v t  t
dv dv dv
 a  f v   dt  f v    dt
dt f v  v 0
0
v t 
dv
 f v   t
v0
x t  v t 
dv v dv v dv
v  a  f v  dx   dx   f v 
dx f v  x v
0 0
v t 
v dv
xt   x0  
v0 f v 

11 - 9
Uniform Rectilinear Motion
For particle in uniform rectilinear motion, the acceleration is zero and
the velocity is constant.

dx
 v  constant
dt
x t
 dx  v  dt
x0 0
x  x0  vt
x  x0  vt

11 - 10
Uniformly Accelerated Rectilinear Motion
For particle in uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion, the acceleration of
the particle is constant.
v t
dv
 a  constant  dv  a  dt v  v0  at
dt v0 0
v  v0  at

x t
dx
dt
 v0  at  dx   v0  at dt x  x0  v0t  12 at 2
x0 0

x  x0  v0t  12 at 2

v 2  v02   ax  x0 
v x
dv
v  a  constant  v dv  a  dx 1
2
dx v0 x0

v 2  v02  2a x  x0 
11 - 11
Motion of Several Particles: Relative Motion
• For particles moving along the same line, time
should be recorded from the same starting
instant and displacements should be measured
from the same origin in the same direction.

x B A  xB  x A  relative position of B
with respect to A
xB  x A  xB A

v B A  v B  v A  relative velocity of B
with respect to A
vB  v A  vB A

a B A  a B  a A  relative acceleration of B
with respect to A
aB  a A  aB A
11 - 12
Graphical Solution of Rectilinear-Motion Problems

• Given the x-t curve, the v-t curve is equal to

the x-t curve slope.

• Given the v-t curve, the a-t curve is equal to

the v-t curve slope.

11 - 13
Graphical Solution of Rectilinear-Motion Problems

• Given the a-t curve, the change in velocity between t1 and t2 is

equal to the area under the a-t curve between t1 and t2.

• Given the v-t curve, the change in position between t1 and t2 is

equal to the area under the v-t curve between t1 and t2.

11 - 14
Other Graphical Methods
• Moment-area method to determine particle position at
time t directly from the a-t curve:
x1  x0  area under v  t curve
v1
 v0t1   t1  t dv
v0

using dv = a dt ,
v1
x1  x0  v0t1   t1  t  a dt
v0
v1
 t1  t  a dt  first moment of area under a-t curve
v0 with respect to t = t1 line.

x1  x0  v0t1  area under a-t curve t1  t 

t  abscissa of centroid C

11 - 15
Other Graphical Methods

• Method to determine particle acceleration

from v-x curve:
dv
av
dx
 AB tan 
 BC  subnormal to v-x curve

11 - 16
Curvilinear Motion: Position, Velocity & Acceleration
• Particle moving along a curve other than a straight line
is in curvilinear motion.

• Position vector of a particle at time t is defined by a

vector between origin O of a fixed reference frame and
the position occupied by particle.

• Consider particle which occupies position P defined

 
by r at time t and P’ defined by r  at t + Dt,
 
 Dr dr
v  lim 
Dt 0 Dt dt
 instantaneous velocity (vector)
Ds ds
v  lim 
Dt 0 Dt dt
 instantaneous speed (scalar)
11 - 17
Curvilinear Motion: Position, Velocity & Acceleration

• Consider velocity v of particle at time t and velocity

v  at t + Dt,
 
 Dv dv
a  lim 
Dt 0 Dt dt
 instantaneous acceleration (vector)

• In general, acceleration vector is not tangent to

particle path and velocity vector.

11 - 18
Derivatives of Vector Functions
• Let Pu  be a vector function of scalar variable u,
   
dP DP Pu  Du   Pu 
 lim  lim
du Du 0 Du Du 0 Du
• Derivative of vector sum,
   
d P  Q  dP dQ
 
du du du
• Derivative of product of scalar and vector functions,
 
d  f P  df  dP
 P f
du du du
• Derivative of scalar product and vector product,
   
d P  Q  dP   dQ
 Q  P
du du du
   
d P  Q  dP   dQ
 Q  P
du du du
11 - 19
Rectangular Components of Velocity & Acceleration
• When position vector of particle P is given by its
rectangular components,
   
r  xi  y j  zk

• Velocity vector,
 dx  dy  dz    
v  i  j  k  xi  y j  zk
dt dt dt
  
 vx i  v y j  vz k

• Acceleration vector,
 d 2 x d 2 y  d 2 z    
a  2 i  2 j  2 k  xi  y j  zk
dt dt dt
  
 ax i  a y j  az k
11 - 20
Rectangular Components of Velocity & Acceleration
• Rectangular components particularly effective
when component accelerations can be integrated
independently, e.g., motion of a projectile,
a x  x  0 a y  y   g a z  z  0
with initial conditions,
x0  y 0  z 0  0 v x 0 , v y  , v z 0  0
0

Integrating twice yields

v x  v x 0  
v y  v y  gt
0
vz  0
x  v x 0 t  0
y  v y y  12 gt 2 z0

• Motion in horizontal direction is uniform.

• Motion in vertical direction is uniformly accelerated.

• Motion of projectile could be replaced by two

independent rectilinear motions.
11 - 21
Motion Relative to a Frame in Translation
• Designate one frame as the fixed frame of reference.
All other frames not rigidly attached to the fixed
reference frame are moving frames of reference.
• Position vectors for particles A and B with respect to
 
the fixed frame of reference Oxyz are rA and rB .

• Vector B A joining A and B defines the position of
r
B with respect to the moving frame Ax’y’z’ and
  
rB  rA  rB A
• Differentiating twice,
   
vB  v A  vB A vB A  velocity of B relative to A.
   
a B  a A  a B A a B A  acceleration of B relative
to A.
• Absolute motion of B can be obtained by combining
motion of A with relative motion of B with respect to
moving reference frame attached to A.
11 - 22
Tangential and Normal Components
• Velocity vector of particle is tangent to path of
particle. In general, acceleration vector is not.
Wish to express acceleration vector in terms of
tangential and normal components.
 
• et and et are tangential unit vectors for the
particle path at P and P’. When drawn with
  
respect to the same origin, Det  et  et and
D is the angle between them.

Det  2 sin D 2 


Det sin D 2   
lim  lim en  en
D 0 D D 0 D 2

 det
en 
d

11 - 23
Tangential and Normal Components
 
• With the velocity vector expressed as v  vet
the particle acceleration may be written as
  
 dv dv  de dv  de d ds
a  et  v  et  v
dt dt dt dt d ds dt
but 
det  ds
 en  d  ds v
d dt
After substituting,
 dv  v 2  dv v2
a  et  en at  an 
dt  dt 
• Tangential component of acceleration reflects
change of speed and normal component reflects
change of direction.
• Tangential component may be positive or
negative. Normal component always points
toward center of path curvature.
11 - 24
Tangential and Normal Components
• Relations for tangential and normal acceleration
also apply for particle moving along space curve.
 dv  v 2  dv v2
a  et  en at  an 
dt  dt 

• Plane containing tangential and normal unit

vectors is called the osculating plane.
• Normal to the osculating plane is found from
  
eb  et  en

en  principal normal

eb  binormal

• Acceleration has no component along binormal.

11 - 25
Radial and Transverse Components
• When particle position is given in polar coordinates,
it is convenient to express velocity and acceleration
with components parallel and perpendicular to OP.

• The particle velocity vector is


 d  dr  der dr  d 
v  rer   er  r  er  r e
dt dt dt dt dt
 
 r er  r e
 
r  re r
  • Similarly, the particle acceleration vector is
der  de 
 e  er  d  dr  d  
d d a   er  r e 
dt  dt dt 
   
der der d  d d 2 r  dr der dr d  d 2  d de
  e  2 er   e  r 2 e  r
dt d dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
 
 
de de d  d  r  r 2 er  r  2r e
 
  er
dt d dt dt
11 - 26
Radial and Transverse Components
• When particle position is given in cylindrical
coordinates, it is convenient to express the
velocity and acceleration
 vectors using the unit
 
vectors eR , e , and k .

• Position vector,
  
r  R e R z k

• Velocity vector,
 
 dr   
v  R eR  R e  z k

dt

• Acceleration vector,

 dv
a
dt
 R  2
  

  R eR  R  2 R  e  z k
 

11 - 27
Newton’s Second Law
N.S.L."The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to
the NET FORCE AND inversely proportional to the mass."

a  FNET
Acceleration is directly proportional to the NET Force.
DIRECTLY = They do the same thing. If the force
increases, the acceleration increases. If the force
decreases, the acceleration decreases.

1
a
Acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass.
INVERSELY = They do the opposite.
If the mass decreases, the acceleration will increase. If
m the mass increases, the acceleration will decrease.
Putting it all together
a  FNET 1
a
m 10 N 3N
10 kg

FNET
a  FNET  ma
m
FNET  Total Force   F
Magnitude of FNET= 7N
FNET  0
Direction = RIGHT

Acceleration = 0.70 m/s/s

 Inertial Reference Frames
The position, velocity, and
acceleration of a point are
specified, in general, relative to
an arbitrary reference frame.
The Newton’s second law
cannot be expressed in terms of
just any reference frame.
Newton’s second law
may be applied with
good results using
reference frames that
accelerate and rotate by
properly accounting for
the acceleration and
rotation.
An airplane uses a brake parachute and other
means of braking as it slows down on the runway
after landing as shown in Figure. Its acceleration is
given by a = −0.0045 v2 − 3 m/s2. Consider an
airplane with a velocity of 300 km/h that opens its
parachute and starts deceleration at t = 0 s.
Determine
(a) Velocity as function of time from t = 0 until
airplane stops.
(b) Distance that airplane travels as a function of
time.