The Effects of Reading Intervention to Teach Silent Reading with Comprehension on the

Speaker-As-Own-Listener Capability among Third Grade Students

and Comparisons with Fluent Readers

Joanne Marie Hill-Powell

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
under the Executive Committee
of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

2015

i
 © 2015

Joanne Marie Hill-Powell

All rights reserved

ii
 ABSTRACT

The Effects of a Treatment Package to Teach Silent Reading on Comprehension

and Comparisons with Fluent Readers

Joanne Marie Hill-Powell

I conducted two experiments on silent reading. Experiment I was a non-intervention

experimental comparison study conducted with 60 participants. Data were collected across two

reading conditions 1) reading aloud or 2) reading silently and answering multiple choice

comprehension questions. The data were analyzed within and between two groups, elementary-

age and adult readers, across the two conditions using a repeated measure ANOVA. The results

indicated significant differences in fluency rates between age groups and reading conditions and

non-significant effects between and within subjects for reading comprehension. Adult readers

read on average, two times faster with accurate reading comprehension in the silent reading

condition compared to the read aloud condition and when compared to elementary-aged

participants across both reading conditions. The results indicated that fluent adult readers are

more efficient when reading silently. Experiment II tested the effects of a treatment package

designed to teach participants to read silently on reading comprehension with six third graders

using a delayed non-concurrent multiple probe design. Participants selected for the study could

not read silently and respond correctly to comprehension questions. All of the participants had

fluent vocal textual responding at a minimum rate of 90 correct words per minute with no more

than two errors for their reading level and speaker-as-own-listener comprehension when they

read aloud. The dependent variables consisted of silent reading probes and listener and speaker

comprehension responses. The independent variable was a reading instruction treatment package

using a peer-yoked contingency game board. During intervention sessions, participants rotated

iii
between opportunities to read silently and listening to audio recordings of spoken text.

Participants completed selection and production questions to assess comprehension following

each reading condition. Participants were matched in pairs based upon reading capabilities,

reading repertoires, and the peer contingences that were arranged during intervention sessions

with a yoked contingency game board. During intervention, progression on the peer-yoked

contingency game board was contingent upon silent reading and criterion level responding to

comprehension questions for both participants in the pair. Following the intervention, all

participants acquired silent reading and criterion level comprehension.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES v

LIST OF FIGURES vi

Acknowledgements xi-xvii

Dedication xviii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 1-40

History of Reading 3-4

Changes in the Reading Environment 5

Reading from an Educational Perspective 6

America and Literacy 7-8

Reading Initiatives 9-11

Reading Development from Theoretical Perspectives 12

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory: Application to Reading 12-14

Vygotsky’s Theory on Learning and Development: Application to Reading 15-16

Vygotsky’s Theory of Inner Speech: Application to Reading Development 17

Verbal Behavior 19-20

Speaker as His Own Listener 21

Textual Responding 22

Verbal Behavior Developmental Theory 22

VBDT and Reader Status 23

Reader Status and Speaker-As-Own-Listener 24

Verbal Behavior Developmental Cusps and Capabilities 24

v
 Empirical Research on Speaker As Own Listener 25-26

VBDT Protocols Related to Reader Status 27

Reading and Conditioned Reinforcement 29-30

Reading and Audience Control 31

The Speaker as His Own Audience 32

Skinner’s Verbal Behavior Theory and Vygotsky’s Developmental Theory 33-34

Prevalence of Silent Reading in Reading Instruction and Assessment 34-35

Empirical Research on Silent Reading 35-40

Rationale for Study 41-42

CHAPTER II: Experimental I

Participants 43-44

Participant Selection: Graduate Student Participants 45

Participant Selection: Elementary-aged Participants 46-47

Setting 48

Materials 49

Graduate Student Reading Materials 49-51

Elementary-aged Participant Materials 52-53

Procedures 54-59

Responses Definition and Data Collection 60-62

Reading Rate 60

Comprehension 61-62

Design 62-63

vi
 Interscorer Agreement 63-67

Results 68-76

Discussion 77

CHAPTER III: General Method and Experiment II 78

Overview 78

Participants 78

Participant Selection Criteria 79

Prerequisites for Participation in the Study 79

Preintervention Assessments 80-88

Setting 89

Materials 90

Assessment of Prerequisite Skills Needed for Participation in the Study 91-100

Pre-and postintervention Assessment- Developmental Reading Inventory 91-93

Pre-and postintervention Assessments-Qualitative Reading Inventory, QRI 94-95

Pre-and postintervention Assessment-Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early

Literacy Skills, DIBELS 96-98

Intervention Materials-Read Naturally Curriculum 99-100

Dependent Variables and Data Collection 101

Grade Level Equivalent Reading Level 101-104

Silent Reading Probes 104-107

Baseline Measure using the Read Naturally Intervention Curriculum 108

Data Collection 109

Grade Level Equivalent Reading Level 109

vii
 Silent Reading Probes 109

Baseline Measures using the Read Naturally Intervention Curriculum 110

Design 110

Independent Variable: Silent Reading Treatment Package 111-113

Procedure 113-117

Interobserver and Interscorer Agreement 117-120

Results 121-138

CHAPTER IV-GENERAL DISCUSSION 139-142

Educational Significance and Implications 143-145

Limitations 146-147

Future Research 147

Conclusion 147

REFERENCES 148-159

APPENDICES 160-165

Appendix 1. Description of Elementary-aged Participants-Experiment I 160

Appendix 2. Description of Adult Participants-Experiment I 161

Appendix 3. Classroom Environment Picture 162

Appendix 4. Developmental Reading Assessment (DRA) Materials 163

Appendix 5. Qualitative Reading Inventory (QRI) Assessment Book 164

viii
 LIST OF TABLES

Page

1. The Percentage of Mean Agreement for Interscorer Agreement Calculated for Graduate

Student Participants 66

2. The Percentage of Mean Agreement for Interscorer Agreement Calculated for Elementary-

aged Participants 67

3. Descriptive Statistics for Dependent Variables Between Conditions for Children and Adults in

the Sample 68

4. ANOVA Results for Fluency Measures 69

5. Description of the Participants by Age, Gender, Diagnosis, Qualification for Free and Reduced

Lunch and Qualifying Services for Academic Support-Experiment II 83

6. Description of the Participants by DRA Test Scores, Textual Response Rates, and Reading

Grade Level 86

7. Overview of the Matched Pairs Including Reading Rate and DRA Reading Level 112

8. The Percentage of Experimental Silent Reading Probe Sessions during which Interscorer

Agreement was Conducted, Mean Agreement, and Range of Agreement 120

9. The Percentage of Intervention Session during which Interscorer Agreement was Conducted,

the Mean Agreement, and Range of Agreement 120

10. Description of the Dependent Variables of Grade Level Equivalent Reading Level and

Reading Fluency for Participants Pre-and Postintervention 138

11. Range Expectations for Oral Reading Rate and Correct Words Read Per Minute Referenced

by the Qualitative Reading Inventory 138

ix
 LIST OF FIGURES

Page

1. Sample of GMAT Reading Comprehension Passage 51

2. Sample of Reading Passages Presented to Fifth Grade Participants 53

3. Script used for Graduate Student Participants 58

4. Script used for Elementary-aged Participants 59

5. Marginal Means for Comprehension Scores 71

6. Aloud Reading Condition Comprehension Scores 72

7. Silent Reading Condition Comprehension Scores 73

8. Elementary-aged Participants Comprehension Scores across Conditions 74

9. Adult Participants Comprehension Scores across Conditions 75

10. Estimated Marginal Means of Fluency 76

11. Verbal Developmental Pyramid-Pre-Reader 84

12. Verbal Developmental Pyramid-Reader/Writer 85

13. Correlational Reading Chart for Reading Level 87

14. Correlational Reading Chart for Grade Level Equivalent Reading Passages 88

15-16. DRA Assessment Scoring Sheets 92

17. QRI Scoring Sheet 93

18-19. DIBELS Assessment Materials Sample 97-98

20. Read Naturally Curriculum Sample 100

21. Silent Reading Expectations Benchmark 107

22. Experimenter Intervention Script 114

23-28. Experimental Probes and Intervention Session Data for Participants 1-6 112-137

x
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

“Trust in the Lord with all your heart and lean not on your own understanding. In all your ways

acknowledge him and he will make straight your paths.” Proverbs 3:5-10

My greatest acknowledgement is to my Creator and Savior, Jesus Christ. You are my

greatest teacher and I thank you for keeping my in your palm throughout this journey. Father,

you continuously make paths straight and pave a way for me in all of my professional endeavors.

This journey was never about me-but the plan and purpose that you have for my life and my

ability to impact others. I strive to remain humble and appreciative of your grace and mercy.

I am blessed to have an abundance of family, friends, professors, mentors and colleagues

to whom I would like to express my sincere gratitude for their love and support throughout this

journey.

Dearest Dr. R. Douglas Greer, you were right to teach us “this is not a sprint but a

marathon.” I have become faster, stronger, and constantly in search of ‘best practices for

training’ as a result of your mentorship. Your commitment to a science of teaching and

improving learning outcomes is unequivocally unmatched. You have shaped and redefined my

teaching philosophy in ways that will positively influence generations of students and teachers

alike. Thank you for your confidence in me. One day you called me a STAR teacher. The truth

is that you are a star polisher and there were times when I was falling and you consistently

picked me up and helped me climb my way back to where you always felt I belonged. I am

honored to be a part of the CABAS© family and I am committed to carrying on the mission of

closing the achievement gap and providing quality teacher training and preparation for the noble

tasks presented in today’s classrooms.

xi
 To Dr. Singer-Dudek, I acknowledge your incredible perspective as a researcher and your

ability to apply a standard of practicality to the meaningful work that we do with students.

Thank you for your consistent support throughout this process and detailed feedback on my

paper. I am still working on my comma use and I am thankful for the learn units! I look forward

to opportunities to continue to work with you and learn from your mentorship.

To Dr. Delgado, you have been a remarkable mentor and supervisor. I am so grateful for

the countless time that you spent in my classroom and the support that you provided. I always

felt comfortable being transparent with you and valued your insight and perspective on my life

inside and outside of the classroom. Your passion for applying Behavior Analysis within the

general education setting is inspiring and I hope that you know what a tremendous impact you

are having on students, teachers, and aspiring teachers-we are all greatly benefiting from your

efforts.

Dr. Keohane, I am grateful to have had the opportunity to be formally introduced into the

field of Behavior Analysis and best practices in education from your coursework. You provided

me with an unshakeable foundation and I only regret that we did not have more opportunities to

work together during my years as a teacher. I know that you will continue to revolutionize the

field of education.

I will be forever appreciative of my stellar dissertation committee: Dr. Singer-Dudek,

Dr. Jahromi, Dr. Perez-Gonzalez, and Dr. Peverly. To date, June 11th 2014 was one of the

greatest days of my life and it was a gratifying experience to share it with all of you. The joys of

that day were taken to new heights less than a month later at our wedding. Thank you all for

respecting and supporting my goal to complete my Ph.D. before starting my dissertation in

marriage!

xii
 I wish to acknowledge the Cooperating Teachers that served as mentors for me during the

program: Dr. Nicole Luke, Dr. Darcy Walsh, and Dr. Petra Wiehe-Lieberman. Thank you for

allowing me to learn from you and with you. I have benefited from your exemplars of teaching

and it has shaped my practice in positive ways for which I am truly grateful.

I have a tremendous amount of appreciation for Mrs. Josephine Noone and the Morris

School District. Thank you to the students, staff, and families of Alexander Hamilton School-the

site of my research laboratory-my third grade classroom. My life was deeply enhanced by the

time spent with all of you. I appreciate you entrusting me with your students and children and

hope that you know how honored I was to have the opportunity to be their teacher. The students

that I have worked with have left their footprints on my heart and instilled in me the belief that

“the student always knows best.”

Words cannot express my gratitude for the exceptional teachers and teaching assistants

that I had the privilege of working with and learning from throughout my tenure: Derek

Shanman, Haley Pellegren, Laura Lyons, Timothy Yeager, Karlee Miller, Meghan Tully, Jomari

Kaminski, and Christine Aquino. Christine and Jomari, you were an incredible support during

my last year of teaching and my most intensive work on my dissertation. I could not have

fulfilled this mission without you. Thank you to the Honda CRV carpool. Countless rides over

the GW Bridge and conversations about education later, I am fully aware that I am a better

person and educator because of all of you.

To my mentors: Mrs. Mary Abatemaro, my fifth grade teacher and first mentor in special

education, thank you for igniting a passion for special education in me. Who knew that my first

experience in inclusive classrooms with you would be the catalyst for a career committed to

inclusion and civil rights for individuals with dis/Abilities? You are a precious reminder of the

xiii
incredible influence that a teacher has on the life of a child. To Dr. Bertina Combes and Dr.

Kevin Callahan, my experiences at the University of North Texas with both of you truly prepared

me for this feat and I thank you for grooming me for a rigorous graduate program and giving me

wings to fly.

To my mentors and true friends, Dr. Jessica Neu and Dr. Anjalee Nirgudkar, who better

to start and end this journey with than both of you. You are truly mentors and proof that beauty

and brains does exist! Thank you for coaching me, supporting me and loving me every step of

the way. Jess, you came into my life at the most perfect time and have been present every step of

the way to catch me when I fall and celebrate me when I sprint. I cry writing this knowing how

much God orchestrated our meeting and designed us to be sisters. I love and appreciate you

sissy.

I would be remised without acknowledging incredible friends from my cohort: Sarah

Orlans and Kimberly Mosca. We have shared so many memories, challenges, and triumphs

together. I am fortunate to experience this journey with you. Sarah, you and I have traveled the

world together and those memories will last me a lifetime. I would not have conquered the

certification exam without you! You are one of the most committed teachers that I know and

children’s lives are better because of your work. Kim, you never cease to amaze me-marriage,

babies, and a principal position later you inspire me with your ability to juggle your professional

goals with your commitment to your beautiful family.

Dearest Dr. Katie Baker, you have impacted my life in ways that I would have never

imagined. It is not by accident that our bond was established in the home stretch. Your positive

outlook ability to create a task analysis was always appreciated, especially on the most

xiv
challenging days. You reminded me that the “only way out was through” and we got through it

together (with a behavior plan).

I am thankful for the opportunity to acknowledge my lifelong friends. My father always

taught me that ‘friends are the family that we choose for ourselves,’ you are a representation of

some of my greatest choices in life. Christine Fan, you were my first best friend in life and

taught me the true meaning of friendship. You were also an incredible influence on my

education and always made me strive to the best student I could be. To the beautiful women of

JTD2: Tifanni, Darene, and Danielle, this journey would not be worth it without the opportunity

to share it with sisters like you. I do not know of a friendship deeper than ours. Most of my time

spent in classrooms was spent with all of you! I am the person that I am today because of all of

you and the collective life lessons that I have learned from the unparalleled memories that we

have shared. I celebrate this milestone with all of you because you have been present every step

of the way to see me through. I love you all dearly.

This is a ‘serious matter’-to my electrifying sorority sisters of Alpha Kappa Alpha

Sorority Inc. thank you for reinforcing the importance of education and executing your goals

with grace and poise. In particular, I wish to acknowledge Chalet, Monica Kay, Dylan, Brittany,

Euriel, Hellen, Nattie, Lauren, and Baruch, for all of their encouragement, love, and support

throughout this process. Thank you for being loyal sisters and friends.

To my family: “We may not have it all together, but together we have it all!” Heartfelt

thanks and appreciation to my grandparents, all of my aunts, uncles, and cousins who

championed me on this journey and endured many conversations about education, autism, and

my research over Sunday dinners. A very special thank you to my Godmother, Dionne, for

always encouraging me to be my personal best. I started this journey with your help and support

xv
and am forever grateful for the role that you have played in my life. Warmest thanks and

appreciation to the Powell Family: Mama Powell, Pop Powell, and Brittany for cheering me on

every step of the way and being such strong support in the final stages of this process.

To my beautiful mother, Lady Di, regal father, Lord Hill and brilliant brothers

Christopher and Andrew: “Our family is a circle of strength; founded on faith, joined in love, and

kept by God, together forever.” It was a very difficult decision to leave all of you in pursuit of

this dream. You are my greatest muse because I always seek to honor what we as a family stand

for and aim to represent: education, integrity, leadership, community, and love. Mom and Dad,

you made countless sacrifices throughout my life to provide me with opportunities. I learned

from your consistent example my guiding principles: “success is when opportunity meets

preparation” and “discipline is the bridge between thought and accomplishment.” You have

loved me unconditionally and nurtured me in ways that every child deserves. This was not

optional because of that path that you created for me. Dearest Chris, growing up you made me

strong-and I carried that strength into this task! I encourage you to continue chasing your dreams

and know that the race is not given to the “swift but to those who endure until the end” (Eccles.

9:11). Andrew Charles, you made me better, purely because I knew you were always watching. I

am enthusiastic about how we are going to positively impact the special education community

together. Thank you brothers for always celebrating me and sharing in my success and

challenges. The three of us are well prepared for the plans that God has set forth, let’s make mom

and dad proud.

xvi
 To my husband, Walter Blake Powell, you are truly my life partner and best friend. You

have perhaps been the most patient participant in this study! You asked me to marry you and

were willing to wait for me to conquer this task before fully sharing my life with you. Your

understanding and support is the most selfless gift anyone has ever given me. From the time that

we first met, you respected my professional goals and I could not have achieved them without

you by my side. In the final stretch you were ever present-cooking endless dinners, sitting with

me in the library, sleeping on the couch while I was writing, and wiping my tears. Let’s not

forget that you helped me birth the idea for my first Experiment! You have endured the

highlights and hurdles of the journey, which for me makes our love story even sweeter and likely

to endure the test of time. This is clearly evidence that there is nothing in life that we cannot

accomplish together without hard work, commitment, patience, and unconditional love. I look

forward to us teaching our future children to read one day and telling them all about this chapter

in our book.

xvii
 DEDICATION

I dedicate my research to my father, Anthony Washington Hill and my mother, Diana Marie Hill,

my greatest standard upon which my life decisions are measured.

xviii
 Chapter 1

Introduction

For most fluent readers, reading is a private event that is typically performed silently and

independent of others (Prior & Welling, 2001). The ability to read text covertly and comprehend

what is read is an advanced skill that can be established though modeling and instruction. The

foundation for silent reading both for academic success and as a preferred activity may be

developed across both home and school environments and experiences (Anderson, Hiebert,

Scott, & Wilkinson, 1985). For some children, exposure to reading and reading readiness begins

at home prior to school-age years. For others, school creates the first experiences for reading and

expectations for reading development. In either case, reading development typically begins with

children learning to read aloud for social experiences, instruction, and progress monitoring. As

reading skills improve and independence is gained, silent reading emerges. The ability to read

transitions from overt episodes (e.g. reading with parent, reading aloud in a classroom literature

group, or reading aloud to oneself), to a covert private activity that fluent readers engage in

(Prior & Welling). Silent reading can be shaped and may improve as children progress through

grade levels. Children are expected to engage in covert reading for instruction (e.g. completing a

written assignment) and in social settings (e.g. reading a menu at a restaurant).

Over the last century, silent reading has been a prevalent topic in the literature on reading

instruction and practice. An emphasis has been placed on the importance of students acquiring

proficient silent reading abilities. As a result, a body of research investigating silent reading has

emerged (Cole, 1938; Cunningham, 1978; Hale et al., 2007, 2011; Germane & Germane, 1922;

Holmes & Allison, 1985; Wright, Sherman & Jones, 2004; Stone, 1922). Among the literature,

there are various perspectives on silent reading, the development of the skill, and the impact of

1
silent reading on fluency and comprehension. Despite the varying perspectives, there is a

common acknowledgement of the necessity of the ability to read silently and comprehend text

for long-term academic success and independent learning.

Within the literature, theories of reading development attempt to explain the transition

from oral to silent reading from the perspective of social, cultural, and environmental contexts

(Burkholder & Pelaez, 2000). Historical accounts of reading throughout the centuries have

examined the cultural shift from oral to silent reading (Manguel, 1996; Saenger, 1982, 1997).

These references account for societal influence and provide a frame upon which the transition

from overt to covert reading as a modern stage of reading development can be considered.

According to the theoretical literature, the underlying topic connected to silent reading is based

upon philosophies on private events. Theorists have presented positions on private events from

varying perspectives based upon disciplines that relate to language and thought (Greer, 2005;

Piaget, 1973; Skinner, 1957; Vygtosky, 1962). The integration of these theories can function as a

reference for understanding the private event of silent reading with comprehension as an

advanced skill in a fluent reader’s reading repertoire.

Despite the widespread theoretical and experimental literature on silent reading, the

reading literature lacks in the identification of evidenced-based strategies to teach silent reading

with comprehension. Much of the research has focused on analyzing the differences in fluency

or comprehension between oral and silent reading, without addressing how skill deficit can be

remediated (Denton et al., 2011; Freedland et al., 2000; Prior et al., 2011). Additionally, applied

research has often compared this stage of reading development among same age populations.

There is a need to analyze silent reading, fluency, and comprehension across age groups to

identify potential similarities and differences in silent reading abilities among children and

2
adults. This comparison could provide a better understanding of how silent reading develops

across a reader’s lifespan. Given this understanding of development, educators and practitioners

can advance a reader’s repertoire by identifying component skills to teach readers in the early

stages of development. Additionally, tested procedures to teach prerequisite reading skills are

needed to remediate reading deficits that impede learning across all subject areas.

Review of the Literature

History of Reading

How we engage in the act of reading has altered over time. Today’s readers do not

engage with written text in the same format as the past. Ancient reading was an oral activity that

occurred in groups, independently, or in an overt “muffled tone.” Conversely, modern reading is

characterized as a silent solitary activity that requires rapid fluent reading abilities (Saenger,

1997, p.1). Theorists summarizing the historical evolution of reading attributed changes in text

format, variations in the transcription of language, cultural differences in the way meaning is

extracted from text, and industrial advances, to the historical changes in reading over the

centuries (Manguel, 1996; Saenger, 1997). Saenger studied the differences in graphic

representation of text across cultures and highlighted his findings with neuroscience research

analyzing the way in which the brain processes language from printed text. In his comparisons,

Chinese characters in text were described as more likely to help a reader transition to rapid silent

reading in comparison to other modern and ancient languages. Conversely, ancient Greek,

Roman, and Latin manuscripts were transcribed in scriptura continua, translated as ‘continuous

script’ a form of writing that did not have spaces in between words or sentences. As a result,

oral reciting of text was historically a part of reading experiences and competent adult readers

were known to engage in overt ‘mumbling’ to sound out text. The structure of text prompted

3
medieval readers, to read orally, memorize text, and recite readings in oral performances

(Saenger, 1997). Oral reading was a dominant form of expression in the early history of reading

and contributed to the transmission of history, culture, and heritage through storytelling (Ong,

2002).

The evolution of text construction began as early as the seventh century, and resulted in

a difference in physical structure of manuscripts. Scriptura Continua, evolved into separated

words and required readers to read text orally and slowly to promote comprehension. The new

fragmentation of text structure maintained the need for an overt voice when reading. It was

perceived that attempting to extinguish an exterior voice would further decrease reading speed

(Saenger, 1997, p.8). However, the standardization of text predicated the transition to covert

reading. By the fifteenth century, the prevalence of the printing press advanced the transmission

of information through printed text. Greater access to books promoted reading as an individual

and silent activity. Prior to this time, reading was often a group activity or performance that was

often accompanied with an audience. The technologies of standardized text structure, the

integration of punctuation, and production of small books occasioned independent silent reading

and private thoughts within the culture of reading (Ong, 2002).

Saenger (1997) identified that young readers who are required to read silently may have

difficulty with comprehension. Based upon his study of language interpretation through text, he

attributed this to the “measurement of the eye-voice span and the variable quantity of text that a

reader visually scans, decodes, but has not yet pronounced in oral reading.” Readers who

consistently read text without boundaries, were described as being able to “adapt and improve

their reading rates over time” (p. 6-7).

4
 The First Account of Silent Reading. Saint Ambrose was identified as one of the first

‘silent readers’ in history. He was described as reading text covertly as early as 383 AD (Hiebert

& Reutzel 2010). According to the first written accounts identified in Western literature, Saint

Augustine observed St. Ambrose reading “silently with only the eyes and the mind.” Ambrose’s

behavior was considered an anomaly among readers of his time. His form of reading was

perceived to be a way of seeking privacy while reading and a method to avoid the disclosure of

information from his text (Saenger, 1997, p.8).

Changes in the Reading Environment. The social norms of reading transformed across

environments and resulted in changes in the behavior of readers. Historically, reading aloud has

been a routine practice of religious leaders. Ancient churches were equipped with carrels

designed to accommodate readers who orally recited scripture to themselves and others.

Medieval libraries were described as boisterous environments where readers studied text in overt

tones. It was socially accepted and expected that text would be shared orally both for

information and enjoyment (Saenger, 1982). This was largely maintained by the limited access to

printed text in libraries. It was common for one individual to be appointed to read aloud to a

group. In some cases, printed text was chained to designated group reading areas to protect the

limited supply (Saenger; Vais, 2012). The invention of the printing press resulted in increased

access to printed text, and as a result, influenced the aesthetic structure of libraries. Overtime,

libraries were restructured from spaces divided by carrels and stone walls for overt group reading

areas, to open spaces where readers could sit collaboratively, but engage in reading

independently and silently. These changes in the physical reading environment and the behavior

of readers resulted in the need for libraries to employ rules that prohibited talking in the library.

The earliest accounts for such restrictions are evidenced by Oxford Library’s 1412 mandate for

5
silence in the library (Baron, 2001). This social norm continues today in library settings and

environments where readers are engaged with text.

Reading from an Educational Perspective

Beginning formal schooling and learning to read are perhaps the most significant

milestones in modern education (Kern & Friedman, 2008). Reading is a complex skill that

results in an ability to gain access to the world through written language (Alexander, 2003). The

term reading is a simplified description of the simultaneous integration of several component

skills that results in comprehension and understanding of text. Initial reading development is

based upon the acquisition of skills related to phonological awareness, phonics, vocabulary, and

reading fluency (National Reading Panel, 2000). A proficient reader applies reading readiness

skills and his/her personal experiences, or instructional histories, to interpret text, while

competent readers seek text for a purpose, develop a perspective based upon what is read, and

respond to the content based upon a conversation between the text and self (Ruddel & Unrau,

1994). A body of research has been dedicated to investigating reading development across the

lifespan by identifying the stages through which a reader progresses and the skills associated

with reading from cognitive, behavioral, and psychological perspectives (Abramson &

Goldinger, 1997; Greer & Ross, 2008; Kirkland, 1978). The identification of stages of reading

development is essential to determining best practice for expanding the reading repertoire from

early childhood into adulthood. Continued educational research in the area of reading

development is needed to identify evidence-based practices for teaching competent reading skills

within the reading repertoire (RAND Reading Study Group, 2002).

6
America and Literacy

Several applied studies have found correlations between competent reading abilities and

educational attainment, long-term academic success, and a progressive trajectory of life

experiences (Butler, Marsh, Sheppard & Sheppard, 1985; Juel, 1988; Kern & Friedman, 2008).

Other longitudinal studies have identified a link between a lack of reading achievement and

potential academic failure (Hernandez, 2011). Societal issues surrounding literacy often begin in

schools. Nearly 20% of America’s high school graduates are completing their primary and

secondary schooling without achieving a level of competent literacy in reading and writing,

which statistically, is likely to continue into adulthood (National Center for Education Statistics,

2013). According to a study conducted by the National Institute of Literacy, over 30 million

adults in the United States are considered illiterate. Within this sample, over 20% of adults

perform on the equivalent of a 5th grade reading level (U.S. Department of Education, 2013).

Literacy concerns remain prominent, with a lack of progress indicated by the stagnant

literacy rates among America’s students and adults within the last decade. Standardized test

scores across states and adult literacy assessments indicate little progress in improving literacy in

America. Reading deficits go beyond America’s classrooms and have significant impact on

American society at large (National Assessment of Adult Literacy, 2003). Reading competency

will likely impact an individual’s highest level of education completed, economic status, access

to health care, and civil contributions to society.

The Department of Justice (O’Cummings, Bardack, & Gonsoulin, 2010) correlated

academic failure and juvenile delinquency and violence. Nearly 90% of the youth who are

integrated into the juvenile court system are functionally illiterate, or lacking the reading and

writing skills to manage daily living tasks. This aligns with the disproportionate statistic that

7
70% of the inmates incarcerated in prison system perform on average, at a 4th grade reading

level. The data shows that illiterate young adults and adults typically read between a fourth and

fifth grade reading level. This indicates that students are not developing essential reading skills

in primary grade levels.

The achievement gap between students who have difficulty in reading often widens as

students increase in grade level. Students who perform below grade level in reading often

perform below grade level expectations for the remainder of their primary and secondary

education. Most studies indicate that students who are at risk for not acquiring competent

reading and writing skills are identified as early as third grade (Butler et al., 1985; Hernandez,

2011; Juel, 1988). Students between the third and fourth grade have comprised a widely studied

population to determine the longitudinal impact of delayed reading abilities and below grade

level achievement in reading.

The results of a longitudinal study conducted with approximately 4,000 participants

indicated that students who failed to achieve mastery of reading milestones by the end of third

grade were at risk for not completing high school and living in poverty. Third grade has been

described as a critical stage in education, when students must make the transition from “learning

to read, to reading to learn” (Hernandez, 2011). According to the data collected from parent

surveys and reading assessments, students who are not proficient readers in third grade are four

times more likely than their peers performing on grade level to drop out of school prior to

obtaining a high school diploma. Few interventions introduced after third grade have been

proven to be as effective at remediating reading difficulties as those implemented prior to or

within the grade level (Hernandez).

8
 Students lacking reading readiness skills at an elementary level are at risk for academic

failure due to an inability to acquire skill sets across all subjects, leaving students poorly

prepared to be contributing members of society. This is evident by the National Assessment of

Educational Progress Report (2012), which identified that a fourth grade student who is

performing below grade level in reading has nearly an 80% chance of remaining below grade

level throughout his/her secondary education. Long term, over two thirds of students who are

not proficient readers at the conclusion of 4th grade are at risk for being integrated into the

correctional system or living in poverty into their independent adult years. The most current

report on reading achievement, The Nation’s Report Card, showed no significant improvements

in reading scores for fourth grade students in the last two years (National Assessment of

Education Progress, 2013). The outcomes of these studies reinforce economic research that has

confirmed that quality schooling impacts an individual’s ‘human capital.’ Effective education

offers a ‘good return on investment,’ beginning as early as preschool and spanning beyond

college. However, research indicates that ‘returns’ are the highest from the earliest years of

formal schooling when children are learning to read; conversely, the loss is significant for an

individual and society at large when children are not acquiring reading skills (Anderson et al.,

1985).

Reading Initiatives

In 1985, The Commission of Reading issued a report, Becoming a Nation of Readers.

The goal of the commission was to identify state of the art teaching practices in reading to

address reading outcomes for students throughout the United States. The report offered 17

recommendations for teaching conditions that were most likely to “produce citizens who would

read with high levels of skills and do so frequently and with satisfaction” (p.1). The

9
recommendations addressed reading instruction, teacher training and professional development,

school communities fostering literacy, and parental support all related to reading outcomes.

The National Reading Panel, NRP, was designed by Congress to evaluate educational

research and identify the best practices for teaching reading. The Panel identified six key

components in effective reading instruction: a) explicit instruction in phonemic awareness, b)

systematic phonics instruction, c) fluency-based instruction, d) guided oral reading,

e) vocabulary instruction, and f) teaching reading comprehension strategies. The Partnership for

Reading, formed by the National Institute for Literacy, was charged with the task to disseminate

evidence-based reading research and ensure that classrooms were employing evidence-based

methods to teach the component skills identified by The National Reading Panel (2000).

In 2001 President George Bush set forth the No Child Left Behind Act, NCLB. The

NCLB act was a revision of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, ESEA (1965), aimed

directly at addressing the importance of early reading skill development among all students. The

initiative mandated all states to assess reading skills annually beginning in third grade, and

categorize results based upon race and ethnicity, socio-economic status (e.g. students living in

poverty), students diagnosed with disabilities, and English Language Learners. This federal

mandate required changes at state levels. Each state was required to systematically measure and

report reading outcomes for all students. However, at the time the legislation was enacted, states

continued to maintain control of the academic standards that would be taught and how student

achievement in reading would be assessed.

Race to the Top (2009) is an Assessment Program designed to reward schools in the form

of grants for developing reliable assessments that inform instructional practice, measure student

achievement, and ensure that students acquire the necessary skill sets to successfully complete

10
secondary education and pursue higher education. The program was created as part of President

Obama’s goal to have the nation lead in college graduation rates. Nearly four years since

inception, the program involves over 40,000 schools and has awarded over $4 billion dollars to

programs across 19 states (White House Press Release, 2014). In 2010 the Obama

Administration adopted a blueprint to revise the ESEA (1965) to Putting Reading First, with the

goal to address the need for students to be “college and career ready” through federal investment

in identifying and implementing research-based early reading instruction (U.S. Department of

Education). The Common Core Standards were formally introduced in 2008, as a set of

internationally referenced learning standards in the content areas of math and language arts for

students enrolled in K-12 schooling. Common Core Standards were designed to ensure that

students across America would gain the necessary skills to advance their education beyond high

school, enter the workforce, and compete globally for education and career opportunities

(National Governor’s Association & Jerald, 2008).

Given the conglomerate of supports and interventions that have been established from

government reading initiatives, federal funds, and comprehensive reports on best practices in

reading, it is evident that a key component to improving reading outcomes is to have a

comprehensive understanding of the stages of reading development and evidence-based practices

for reading instruction (Anderson et al., 1985; NRP, 2000). Educators need to be cognizant of

the component skills to teach developing readers, fluent in practices for identifying missing

prerequisite skills which may prevent mastery of component reading skills, and knowledgeable

in regards to teaching tactics to remediate skill deficits among students that perform below grade

level in reading.

11
Reading Development from Theoretical Perspectives

Literature from the fields of linguistics, child development, psychology, and behavioral

sciences has identified reading as an “integration of numerous learned processes” (Anderson et

al., 1985, p.6). There are three perspectives upon which reading development, more specifically,

the ability to read silently with comprehension, will be analyzed: a) Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive

Development (1973) b) Vygotsky’s Theory of Inner Speech (1978), and c) Skinner’s Verbal

Behavior Theory (Skinner, 1957).

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory: Application to Reading Development and

Instruction. Jean Piaget (1973) developed a theory on cognitive development that defined

learning as an experience that is constructed from the environment. The theory placed emphasis

on investigating the mental processes associated with thinking, perception, memory, belief,

reasoning, and problem solving. According to Piaget, children learn by doing and perceive the

world based upon their experiences. Piaget’s philosophy on child development was based upon

direct observation of children and his interest in exploring “how we come to know” (Singer &

Revenson, 1997, p. 13). Based upon Piaget’s beliefs, children construct an understanding of the

world around them in stages over time. Each stage is relevant and the transition to each stage

may be gradual but is necessary to achieve the full capacity of intellectual function as an adult.

In his 1973 work, Piaget identified four sequential stages of development a) Sensory-Motor, b)

Preoperational, c) Concrete, and d) Formal, each of which was categorized by developmental

traits. The Preoperational, Concrete, and Formal stages will be described in relation to language

development and reading readiness.

The Preoperational Stage spans from age two through seven. This stage is marked with

language expansion and egocentric thoughts. The Preoperational child views the world from

12
his/her perspective. This stage is marked by curiosity, a greater interest in others and the desire to

investigate and explore. Piaget described children as egocentric and therefore, likely to engage in

egocentric speech in this stage. He defined egocentric speech as a child’s thoughts in play. He

did not believe that this form of speech had a function and mainly served to reinforce the activity

that the child was engaging in. Piaget hypothesized that egocentric speech decreased as the child

matured socially and cognitively.

During the ages of seven through eleven, children are within the Concrete Operations

Stage. In this stage there is advancement in the ability to perform mental operations,

calculations, and problem solving. This stage is also marked by reversibility. Within this stage,

children are able to reverse thoughts by understanding opposite relationships (e.g. multiplication

vs. division) or reversing steps (e.g. follow a route to return back to a point or origin, or locate a

misplaced item). Although Piaget did not directly suggest this hypothesis, the ability to reverse

thinking and replay steps may indicate that children in this stage continue to engage in egocentric

speech, but at a covert level. Children engaging in problem solving may be “talking to

themselves” in an unobservable form to aid in their understanding of more complex patterns and

relationships.

The final stage of Formal Operations is experienced from ages eleven through sixteen as

children transition to young adults. Young adults can use concrete understanding developed in

the Concrete Operations Stage to make predictions about the future and understand abstract

concepts. The adolescent period within this stage is marked by the ability to reason and make

inferences in comparison to the Concrete Operations stage. During this stage the thoughts of

young adults are increasingly more systematic yet flexible, which occasions the foundation for

more complex problem solving and perspective taking.

13
 Piaget placed great emphasis on identifying the developmental level of children based

upon their logical thinking. His belief was that academic expectations should be based upon “the

child’s logical ability to perform the task presented” (Kirkland, 1978, p.497). Piaget’s theory has

significantly impacted the field of educational practice, theories of child development,

curriculum, and instruction. He has been identified as one of the most cited and referenced

psychologists of his century (Bond & Tryphon, 1998).

Several published papers have applied Piaget’s theory to early reading instruction and

the stages of reading development (Heatherly, 1974; Kirkland, 1978; Roberts, 1976). Roberts

(1976) applied a Piagetian perspective of child development to explain reading readiness.

Piaget’s theory is described as a typical sequence of development that informs educators and

practitioners how children learn and how to address learning difficulties. When children have the

developmental characteristics needed for specific learning tasks, teachers should organize

teaching strategies that will develop their student’s abilities. In the case that a learner “does not

display mature enough logic, the teacher must set up an environment that allow the child to

learn” (Kirkland, 1978, p. 498).

According to Piaget’s stages of development, most children are exposed to reading and

begin to receive reading instruction in the preoperational stage of development (between the ages

of two and seven). From Piaget’s perspective, reading requires mature cognitive development

that is necessary for a learner to understand and apply a variety of rules, make abstractions, and

classify information presented in text. Based upon a Piagetian model, reading readiness skills

require a child to have directionality (perception of location), the ability to make discriminations,

classify, and recognize common characteristics. These skills are prerequisites to letter

identification, print/sound relationships, and phonemic awareness.

14
 Piaget presented his beliefs on “cognitive shifts of centering,” in which a relationship

between thought and language is considered. Piaget believed that thoughts were synonymous

with speech. Jean Piaget’s major distinction between thought and language was his belief that

thought precedes language. Egocentric speech can be considered the evidence of thought while

co-operative speech, is essentially the ability to engage in speaker and listener exchanges in

conversation. This can be applied to reading, in the context of listening to oneself while reading,

comprehending, and perspective taking within written text (Kirkland, 1978).

In a paper presented in 1974, Heatherly discussed reading instruction from a Piagetian

perspective during the Pre-operational and Concrete Operations stages of development.

Heatherly, proposed that readiness for printed reading material is typically attained in the

Concrete Operations stages of development. In this stage, the reader must be able to role-play

and assume the roles and perspectives of characters in the story as a prerequisite to

comprehending the text. Heatherly (1974) described this skill as a “self-other” position while

reading. Based upon Piaget’s stages of development and Heatherly’s application of Piaget’s

theory to reading readiness and instruction, it can be inferred that a reader must possess this skill

covertly in the Concrete Operations stage.

Vygotsky: Theory on Learning and Development and Application to Reading

Development. Since translation of his original writings in 1962, Vygotsky has been credited

with presenting a theory on thought and language based upon culture and the environment

(Burkholder & Pelaez, 2000). Vygotsky (1978) stated that the problems encountered in the field

of teaching would not be resolved or addressed without recognizing the relationship between

learning and development. His socio-historical theory was rooted in the belief that learning

begins prior to children matriculating in school. According to Vygotsky all children have the

15
potential for a prior history or social experience with the content presented in school, these prior

experiences or lack thereof must be taken into account when delivering instruction. This claim is

particularly relevant for reading development. Vast discrepancies are identified in language

development and reading readiness as early as kindergarten. This may be attributed to the

academic and social experiences that children encounter or lack prior to enrolling in formal

education (Hart & Risley, 1995; Juel et al., 1986; Juel, 1988).

Vygotsky’s theory was based upon the impact of social and cultural contexts on

development. He believed that the development of children begins on a social level, with

engagement between people, which, over time transitions to an individual level, considered

“inside” the child. Vygotsky applied this theory to language development. His perception was

that language greatly impacts social interaction and was a medium for transferring culture.

Unlike Paiget, Vygotsky believed that thoughts and language were separate systems that could

develop simultaneously and “merge” together, producing verbal thoughts. Given this perception,

there is an alignment of theoretical beliefs between Vygotky and B.F. Skinner, who also believed

that thought and language was “integrated” beneath the skin and was the mark of an individual

being verbal and able to navigate the environment as both a listener and a speaker. Similarities in

the theoretical frameworks of Vygotsky and Skinner will be presented in more detail in a

subsequent section.

Vygotsky’s understanding of language development was rooted in the belief that speech

begins socially (e.g. consider speech between a child and his/her caregivers). As language

develops, children begin to alter their speech for self, known as egocentric speech and

communication for others. Egocentric speech was perceived to occur when a child is transferring

social behavior. Consider the case of young children who can be observed “thinking aloud” in

16
play or when engaging in a task. Egocentric speech typically transitions to inner speech, or

covert unobservable speech between the ages of seven and eight (Enrich, 2006; Vygotsky, 1986).

Vygotsky believed that there were transitional stages in speech development (e.g. social,

egocentric) that resulted in the development of inner speech (Ehrich).

Vygotsky’s Theory of Inner Speech: Application to Reading Development. Vygotsky

(1986) identified inner speech as a phenomenon related to language development, language use,

and overall learning. He identified the theory of inner speech as under-researched and likely one

of the most challenging topics to investigate (Vygotsky). Inner speech is described as a product

of higher thought that is developed through a sequence of developmental stages “going from the

external world and travelling inwards” (Enrich, 2006, p.15). Inner speech was hypothesized to

be the result of an individual’s engagement with problem solving.

Although Vygotsky did not directly investigate the role of inner speech in the

reading process, his theory of inner speech has been presented in the literature on silent reading

(Abramson & Goldinger, 1997; Coltheart, 1979; Enrich, 2006; Huey, 1968). It is suggested that

readers utilize inner speech for phonological processing when reading (e.g. to decode and blend

sounds), to engage in subvocal rehearsal, and comprehend or recall information from text.

Subvocal rehearsal is described as a means of maintaining information in short-term memory

(e.g. reciting a phone number to yourself). Inner speech is utilized by readers at various stages of

reading development, beginning with early readers in the case of decoding text and is further

developed and maintained as readers become more skilled, in the case of comprehension of text

(Abramson & Goldinger, 1997). However research also indicates that mature readers may revert

to overt social speech, or reading aloud, when presented with reading challenges (Baddeley &

Lewis, 1981; Faaborg-Anderson & Edfeldt, 1958; Sokolov, 1972).

17
 Sokolov (1972) conducted a study in which he observed and measured movement of the

participant’s mouth musculature while reading as overt evidence of inner speech. Across a series

of experiments, participants were presented with reading tasks, including reading tasks in the

participant’s native language, complex reading tasks, and tasks presented in a foreign language

that the participant had a prior history with but had not achieved mastery. The results of

electromyographic measurement indicated frequent motor impulses when participants read

complex phrases in their native language and tasks presented in a foreign language. During the

experiment, the researcher manipulated the reading tasks presented. When the difficulty level of

the reading task was manipulated to a less challenging task, the frequency of mouth motor

movements decreased. In one aspect of the study, Sokolov restricted movement of the

participant’s mouth. The restriction of movement prevented several participants from correctly

completely tasks that were in the participants’ repertoire.

Baddeley and Lewis (1981) conducted a study in which they presented participants

written sentences that were semantically meaningful or contained nonsense words, which

negated meaning. In some conditions, the participants were presented with the task to count

from numbers 1-6 while being visually presented with the written sentence. The researchers

attempted to weaken phonological processing through the use of subvocal rehearsal by

potentially blocking the participant’s ability to utilize inner speech. The results indicated that the

counting condition did, in fact, negatively impact performance.

Applied research on reading and comprehension adopting the Vygotskian theory on inner

speech may provide increased understanding of the cognitive process that occurs during private

events such as silent reading (Enrich, 2006).

18
Verbal Behavior

Skinner (1957) was known for his theory on verbal behavior based upon a systematic

analysis of the behavior of the “speaker” who is only considered truly verbal if the individual

emits verbal behavior that has an effect on the environment. In his Verbal Behavior text, Skinner

presents six foundational forms of verbal behavior: a) the mand, b) the tact, c) echoic, d) textual

and intraverbal behavior, f) the audience relation, and the g) autoclitic. Applying these

components of verbal behavior, the “speaker” can affect the “listeners” in the environment

through a range of behaviors from vocal exchanges to textual behavior applied in writing.

Skinner identified the ability to transmit verbal behavior through literature and documents (e.g.

religious writings, diaries, codes of law). He described various written accounts as a forum,

“which give the reader almost unlimited contact with the environments of other men” (Skinner,

1957, p. 433).

While Skinner devoted a great deal of his analysis to verbal behavior in the context of the

environment of listeners and speakers, he also took interest in verbal behavior “when a group is

not involved-when, in short, a man talks to himself” (Skinner, 1957, p. 433). Skinner identified

the separation of the listener and speaker and theorized about the rotation of both roles beneath

the skin of one individual. He presented a theory in which an individual plays both the role of the

“listener” and the “speaker.” Skinner defined this role within the context of covert behavior and

more specifically, “thinking” (p. 433).

In his 1957 work, Verbal Behavior, Skinner provided the example of a man sitting quietly

being asked, “What are you doing?” and replying with, “Nothing, I’m just thinking” (p. 434).

According to Skinner, “thinking” is often used to describe an activity outside of “doing,” which

is often unobservable. Skinner rejected the notion that an organism is “doing nothing” when

19
“thinking,” despite the fact that the behavior is likely unobservable. Within his development of

Verbal Behavior Theory, Skinner acknowledged that in the field of behavior analysis, behavior

that is covert, or not directly observable, is easier to exclude from the field. Despite the

challenge of explaining covert behavior, Skinner recognized that the exclusion of such behavior

would result in “certain embarrassing gaps in our account [of human behavior]” (Skinner,

p. 434).

Skinner (1957) described covert behavior as behavior that is similar to overt behavior but

on a “smaller scale.” Skinner related covert behavior to behavior that may be under the control

of “covert speech.” Skinner inferred that covert behavior/speech occurs within and separate

from observable events and provided examples including: solving a mathematical problem and

then emitting the final answer overtly, a public speaker repeatedly presenting speech with the

same sequence and content, and the ability to compose and self-edit sentences. He hypothesized

that behavior becomes covert when it is strengthened and results in a decrease in the need for

vocal emission. Conditions in which we are more likely to engage in overt speech with

ourselves, or “talking to ourselves” are when solving a challenging problem (e.g. completing a

multi-step math problem, sorting or counting a large sum of money, or putting together a piece of

furniture), when competing with distracting stimuli (e.g. being hurried to go somewhere and

having to check to be sure you have everything that you need to take with you), or as a form of

audience control based upon the environment (e.g. someone who lives alone gradually begins to

talk to his/her self aloud).

Skinner (1957) rationalized that operant behavior often begins in a structure that impacts

the environment and has the potential to be reinforced and, therefore, presented the research

question: “Why should a response become covert at all?” His reply was that covert behavior “has

20
practical value” and reinforcement value (p. 436). However, Skinner also posed the belief that

although variables determine whether a response will be covert or overt, some covert events have

no special value. Instead, Skinner made the case for investigating “thinking with behaving,”

which as a covert behavior is regarded as a special property (p. 438-439).

Speaker as His Own Listener. According to his Verbal Behavior Theory, Skinner

identified “thinking” as the unobservable behavior of a speaker who also becomes a listener.

Skinner rejected Piaget’s belief that thought is the same as speech, as this notion disregarded the

discrepancy between overt and covert behavior, or behavior beneath the skin. Instead, Skinner

defined “thinking with behaving” as speaker as his own listener (1957). This complex behavior

can be overt or covert and is automatically reinforcing because the immediate impact affects the

“behaver” who takes on the role of both the listener and the speaker. Skinner referred to the

exchange between both roles within oneself as a “simple soliloquy” (p. 439). He described the

automatic reinforcement accessed from speaker as his own listener by comparing the

reinforcement contingences to a musician who composes his own music and contacts

reinforcement by listening, an artist who paints and receives reinforcement from the visual result

of his work, or, a writer who is reinforced by reading his own work (Skinner, 1957, p. 439).

Skinner concluded that “thought is simply behavior-verbal or nonverbal, covert, or overt”

(Skinner, 1957, p. 449). His theory was rooted in the notion that for a complete understanding of

verbal behavior, “separate but interlocking accounts of the behaviors of both speaker and

listener” should be identified and explained (Skinner, 1957, p. 34). Skinner believed covert

speech should be studied from the perspective of the science of verbal behavior with the same

degree of rigor as the study of language.

21
 Textual Responding. “A familiar type of verbal stimulus which controls verbal behavior

is a text” (Skinner, 1957, p. 65). When young children are learning to read, verbal operants are

under the control of visual stimuli, often pictures or letters (other examples of visual stimuli

include: written text, hieroglyphs, Braille etc.). A reader is defined as a speaker who is under the

control of text (Skinner, p. 65). Skinner identified that reading is a broad term that refers to

several processes occurring simultaneously, and defined behavior in response to visual stimuli as

“textual behavior.” Initially, textual behavior is typically reinforced in an academic setting, in

the same manner as echoic behavior. Pre-readers may receive access to reinforcement for

echoing textual behavior modeled by teachers and caregivers (e.g. “Say, B, Buh”, “This says, C-

A-T”). An individual is motivated to engage in textual behavior when it provides automatic

reinforcement. Textual behavior is automatically reinforcing when an individual is independently

motivated to engage in reading. In the case of silent reading, textual behavior is self-stimulating,

on a covert level, in that it is not observable by others. As described in Vygotsky’s theory of

inner speech, in the case that responding to text is challenging, a fluent reader may access

reinforcement by reading aloud (1978, p. 66). The relationship between textual responding and

conditioned reinforcement will be presented in more detail in the Reading and Conditioned

Reinforcement section to follow.

Verbal Behavior Developmental Theory (VBDT)

Skinner’s (1957) application of behavior analysis to the study of child development

identified stages of verbal behavior: a) listener, b) speaker, c) speaker as his own listener, d)

reader, and d) writer. The initial stages of the verbal behavior were expanded by the VBDT

literature to include verbal milestones that impact independent functioning: a) pre-listener status,

b) speaker listener exchanges with others, c) speaker-as-own-listener status, d) writer as own

22
reader/self editor, and e) verbal mediation for problem solving (Geer & Keohane, 2005). Within

these stages, various ‘junctures,’ or critical stages in development have been identified. The

term behavior developmental cusp in the verbal behavior literature is associated with such

junctures, or, milestones in development among infants, children, and pre-adolescents (Rosales-

Ruiz & Baer, 1997). According to the VBDT literature, a behavior developmental cusp is an

emergent behavior that allows an individual to learn new operants that he/she was unable to

before. The acquisition of developmental cusps allows children to come into contact with new

environmental contingencies, that often results in learning at an accelerated pace. Capabilities

are subcategories of cusps, which allow individuals to learn in new ways (Greer, 2008; Greer &

Du, in press; Greer & Ross, 2008; Greer & Speckman, 2009; Keohane & Greer, 2005). Based on

the VBDT research, “the presence of prerequisite and co-requisite behavioral developmental

cusps makes it possible for children to make contact with the instructional benefits of

environmental experiences” (Greer, Pistoljevic, Cahill, & Du, 2011).

VBDT and Reader Status. Several studies have empirically identified cusps and

capabilities that are prerequisites to developing a comprehensive reading repertoire. Cusps in the

VBDT literature that may be prerequisites to reader status include: a) conditioned reinforcement

for voices (Greer et al., 2011; Maffei-Lewis, 2011), b) basic listener literacy

(Greer, Chavez-Brown, Stolfi & Rivera-Valdes, 2005), c) conditioned reinforcement for

observing 2-dimensional stimuli (Pereira-Delgado, Greer, Speckman & Goswami, 2008),

d) conditioned reinforcement for observing books (Tsai & Greer, 2006; Singer-Dudek, Oblak &

Greer, 2011), e) conditioned reinforcement for visual stimuli and speech sounds (Longano &

Greer, 2013), f) conditioned seeing (Shanman, 2013), g) Naming as a capability for incidental

23
language acquisition from text (Helou-Care, 2008), and h) textual responding at 80 words per

minute (Helou-Care, 2008).

Reader Status and Speaker As Own Listener. Reading requires an extension of one’s

listener repertoire, in which the speaker is his/her own listener. Reader status is defined as an

“advanced speaker-as-own-listener repertoire”, which requires the joining of speaker/listener

relationships under the control of print stimuli or pictures (Greer & Keohane, 2005, p. 40).

Therefore, it can be argued, that the speaker-as-own-listener capability is required to develop a

fluent repertoire as a reader. Applied research in the VBDT literature has identified the cusps

and capabilities that are associated with acquiring speaker-as-own-listener across academic and

social repertoires (Greer & Ross, 2008). Specific capabilities associated with speaker as-own-

listener stage of development have been identified in the literature: a) emission of functional

spontaneous talk (Donley & Greer, 1993), b) emission of speaker-as-own-listener conversational

exchanges during fantasy play (Lodhi & Greer, 1989), c) Naming, or the incidental acquisition of

language (Greer & Longano, 2010), and d) being governed by algorithms (Greer & Keohane,

2005, 2006).

Verbal Behavior Developmental Cusps and Capabilities. A body of research in the

VBDT literature has identified experimental procedures to test for the presence or absence of

behavior developmental cusps and capabilities. More importantly, new interventions, defined as

protocols, are research-based procedures presented in the VBDT literature as a method for

teaching or inducing missing cusps and capabilities. The induction of new cusps and capabilities

results in the development and/or expansion of academic and social repertoires, providing

learners with the necessary prerequisite skills to advance ‘levels’ within the verbal behavior

24
development stages (Greer & Keohane, 2005; Greer & Ross, 2008; Greer & Speckman, 2009;

Keohane, Luke, & Greer, 2008; Skinner, 1957).

Protocols proven to be effective at inducing the cusps and capabilities associated with the

reading repertoire are: a) the listener emersion protocol to induce basic listener literacy (Greer,

Chavez-Brown, Nirgudkar, Stolfi, & Rivera-Valdes, 2005), b) conditioned reinforcement for

voices (Greer et al., 2011), c) conditioned reinforcement for 2-D Stimuli (Greer & Han, in press),

d) conditioned reinforcement for observing or looking at books (Tsai & Greer, 2006; Singer-

Dudek et al., 2011), e) auditory matching to induce advanced listener literacy and speaker-as-

own-listener cusps (Choi, 2012), and most recently, e) auditory matching of component speech

sounds to induce phonemic blending (Lyons, 2014). The capabilities that have been identified as

directly associated with the verbal milestone of speaker-as-own-listener are: a) basic naming

from the speaker perspective, b) observational naming from the speaker perspective, c) verbal

governance of own speaker responses, or say do correspondence, and d) conversational units in

self-talk (Greer & Keohane, 2005; Greer & Ross, 2008).

Empirical Research on Speaker As Own Listener

Skinner defined speaker as his own listener as a verbal episode beneath the skin

(1957, p. 34). Horne and Lowe (1996) targeted speaker-as-own-listener as the catalyst for an

individual being considered truly verbal. The Verbal Behavior Development Theory identified

speaker as-own-listener as an advanced capability that allows an individual to achieve significant

independence through the ability to acquire language incidentally, engage in complex social

play, and advance in reader/writer/self-editor status (Greer & Keohane, 2005).

A conglomerate of theoretical works and applied research has investigated and validated

the role of the listener in verbal behavior (Hayes, Barnes-Holmes, & Roche, 2001; Greer et al.,

25
2005; Greer & Longano, 2010; Skinner, 1957). A body of research from the Verbal Behavior

Development literature has identified evidence-based protocols to join the listener and the

speaker repertoires (Fiorile & Greer, 2007; Gilic & Greer, 2009, 2011; Greer, Stolfi &

Pistoljovic, 2007).

The first applied study in the VBDT research investigating the speaker-as-own-listener

capability was conducted with five-year-old children engaged in play. During the study, the

verbal behavior of four participants was measured in two toy play conditions:

a) anthropomrphic play with dolls, figurines, and stuffed animals, and b) non-anthropomorphic

activities with puzzles, children’s storybooks, and coloring books. Lodhi and Greer (1989)

systematically measured verbal episodes within individual five-year-old children during

instances of social behavior. The measurement of the speaker-as-own-listener capability was

assessed during verbal episodes. Data were collected on conversational units, operationally

defined as an interlocking individual exchange that was reinforced by both the listener and

speaker roles. The participants were found to engage in overt verbal episodes of self-talk, during

which they rotated between the listener and the speaker roles while engaged in independent

solitary play; primarily during the anthropomorphic play condition.

Several applied studies have investigated the speaker-as-own-listener capability in

relation to problem solving (Broto, 2014; Keohane and Greer, 2005; Marsico, 1998). The

speaker-as-own-listener capability was investigated in the context of textual stimulus control

with middle school students who were taught to solve math problems using written algorithms to

criterion (Marsico, 1998). The results of the study demonstrated that participants acquired the

ability to learn novel math operations from printed directions. Greer and Keohane (2005)

attributed the acquisition of verbal control of print stimuli among the students to “speaker-as-

26
own-listener types of learn units” (p. 39). Broto (2014) taught second grade students to write

algorithms for solving math word problems using a functional and structural writing protocol and

peer-yoked contingency. A written algorithm was considered functional if it resulted in a peer

reader’s ability to solve a math word problem solely using written directions. The results of the

study demonstrated the acquisition of functional writing for participants and an increase in

functional writing for peer readers who did not receive direct instruction in functional writing,

but learned from the contingencies that resulted from their role as a reader. Keohane and Greer

(2005) taught teachers to analyze student learning using an algorithm comprised of a series of

questions. The results of the study validated that the application of a verbally governed algorithm

resulted in student mastery of a higher number of learning objectives compared to baseline

conditions. All of the aforementioned studies suggest, “complex verbal problem-solving tasks

involve the joining of the listener and speaker repertoires within one’s own skin” (Greer &

Speckman, 2009, p.457).

VBDT Protocols Related to Reader Status and Speaker-as-own-listener Capabilities.

Choi (2012) tested the effects of an advanced auditory match-to-sample (MTS) protocol on the

acquisition of advanced listener literacy, Naming, and cusps associated with the speaker-as-own-

listener capability. Across two experiments, three participants acquired both the listener and

speaker components of Naming as a result of the protocol. Additionally, two out of the three

participants in the second experiment advanced their speaker-as-own-listener repertoire with

increases in self-talk and say-do correspondence following the intervention.

Helou-Care (2008) investigated reading comprehension among academically delayed

middle school students who lacked the Naming capability but had fluent textual responding rates.

This suggested the participants’ inability to incidentally acquire language resulted in poor

27
reading comprehension. After inducing the Naming capability in participants, the results

demonstrated an increase in comprehension responses based upon story content and contrived

words assessed with a novel story passage.

Lyons (2014) modified the computer and iPad© based auditory matching procedure

designed by Choi (2012) to teach kindergarten students to match component speech sounds to

words. As a result of the intervention, all of the participants acquired phonemic blending which

resulted accurate textual responding. In a second study, Lyons measured the results of the

auditory matching for component speech sounds on spelling responses. The mastery of the

auditory matching intervention resulted in collateral effects for spelling for all participants.

Lyons proposed that the research findings may have identified phonemic blending as a verbal

developmental cusp associated with the speaker-as-own-listener repertoire.

The studies presented affirm that the speaker-as-own-listener capability and associated

cusps can be systemically measured (Lodhi & Greer, 1989). Additionally, the speaker-as-own-

listener capability has pre-and co-requisite cusps that are essential for development and

expansion of the repertoire (i.e. basic and advanced listener literacy, self talk etc.). Research-

based protocols have been identified that can induce missing prerequisite skills for children who

are pre-readers or have a limited reading repertoire. The VBDT literature has given specific

attention to investigating the reader status and the role of speaker-as-own-listener in reading,

specifically to advance and remediate the reading skills of children using a verbal behavior

approach. However, within the VBDT literature, limited research has been conducted to date to

measure the speaker as-own-listener capability in relation to reading comprehension, and

investigate the effects of a protocol to induce speaker-as-own-listener cusps associated with

silent reading and comprehension.

28
Reading and Conditioned Reinforcement

According to Skinner, “the world of literature shows special reinforcing characteristics”

(1957, p. 396). Social reinforcers are learned and in some cases may need to be taught within the

contingencies of social situations (Greer & Du, in press). Reading is a social activity that offers

reinforcing properties for individuals in both group and individual conditions. A developing

reader contacts access to reinforcement while acquiring the cusps and capabilities associated

with the reading repertoire that may result in conditioned reinforcement for reading.

Initially, textual behavior is reinforced in educational conditions. In the beginning years

of reading instruction, a reader who is learning to textually respond has countless opportunities

to access reinforcement for textual responding. For example, a developing reader receives access

to reinforcement for textual behavior occasioned by the presence of print stimuli and an

instructor-presented echoic for the stimuli presented (e.g. the letter “A” or the word “Dog”).

Textual responding paired with reinforcement can aid in the acquisition of fluent textual

responding, or reading at a pre-determined rate criterion. The joining of the speaker and the

listener “beneath the skin” is a critical stage, which is both developed and maintained by

conditioned reinforcement, reinforcing environmental contingencies, and motivating conditions

(Greer & Du, in press; Greer & Longano, 2010).

According to Skinner (1957) reading provides “unlimited contact with the environments

of other men” (p. 433). Skinner proposed that textual behavior is “reinforced because it helps in

the acquisition of other types of verbal operants” (p. 67). Textual behavior that is conditioned as

a reinforcer may result in a reader engaging in reading independent of educational reinforcement,

or reinforcement obtained through direct contingencies within instruction. A reader with the

speaker-as-own-listener capability is likely to engage in reading for enjoyment, which can result

29
in the acquisition of new academic and social repertoires. Consider the possibilities that reading

for “enjoyment” may result in discovering new research developments that can impact

educational practice, learning to prepare a new dish from a cooking recipe, or advancing fluency

in a second language by reading text in a non-native language.

A reader is described as receiving automatic reinforcement when reading “interesting”

text, which results in the likelihood that the reader will continue to engage in the behavior

associated with reinforcement (Skinner, 1957). A reader engages in verbal episodes when

interacting with text. Based upon Skinner’s philosophy, “verbal fantasy, whether overt or covert,

is automatically reinforcing to the speaker as listener” (p. 439). In the case of reading, the

speaker is engaged in covert speaker-as-own-listener exchanges and is reinforced by what he/she

is hearing.

Verbal behavior that is less likely to be punished is covert behavior in which the speaker

is his own listener. According to Skinner (1957) “when a speaker serves as his own audience, he

is relatively free of the threat of punishment,” because “extensive private speech remains free of

external aversive consequences” (p. 394-395). In the case of silent reading, Skinner proposed

that the “self-stimulation” that results from textual behavior occurs on a covert level that is

unobservable by others. Textual behavior, like silent reading, is present in advanced readers.

The ability to develop and maintain behavior beneath the skin as a speaker and listener can be

attributed to Skinner’s overarching belief that “when appropriate behavior has been established,

its consequences work through similar processes to keep it in force” (1957, p. 1).

Skinner theorized that expert readers transition from covert to overt reading when

encountering difficulty. He believed that reading aloud might function to allow a fluent reader

accesses to reinforcement or self-stimulation in the presence of competing stimuli or complex

30
text (1957, p. 66, 169). Skinner described verbal behavior associated with thinking as a range of

behaviors including “loud talking, quiet talking, whispering, muttering under one’s breath, and

subaudible speech with detectable muscular action” (1957, p. 438). This range of behavior

describes both observable behavior in the transition from overt to covert reading that develops as

readers acquire the speaker-as-own-listener repertoire; and the range of behaviors that fluent

readers may engage in when encountering difficult text or problem solving.

Reading and Audience Control

Typically, verbal behavior occurs in the presence of a listener. Overt verbal behavior that

involves two or more persons requires a listener. Thus, a speaker is more likely to engage in

verbal exchanges in the presence of a listener(s). The lack of a listener, or removal of the

presence of a listener may alter the behavior of a speaker by punishing vocal verbal behavior.

Skinner (1957) provided the example of a speaker engaging in conversation on the phone and

stopping when it is discovered that the call was disconnected, only to continue when the presence

of the listener returned. He proposed that the listener “stimulates the speaker prior to the

emission of verbal behavior,” and in this role Skinner defined the listener as the “audience”

(p. 172).

Verbal exchanges are shaped by the response of the “audience” which functions as a

discriminative stimulus that may reinforce verbal behavior and control speaker behavior. The

presence of an audience creates a condition for the emission of mands, tacts, echoics,

intraverbals, and textual behavior. On the contrary, the presence of an audience can also punish

verbal behavior; in this case, the audience is defined as a “negative audience” (Skinner, p. 178).

Therefore, verbal behavior may be reinforced or punished in the specific environment. A library

or church setting may function as a negative audience, punishing conversational exchanges or

31
reading aloud, conversely, a book club may promote reading aloud for an audience and

conversational exchanges (Skinner, p.181).

The Speaker As His Own Audience. In the case of speaker as own listener, the listener

may be considered to always have a presence within the same skin. This can be observed when

individuals talk aloud to themselves. Verbal behavior “controlled by the self as an audience may

show progressive changes” (Skinner, 1957, p. 180). Control maintained by an individual in the

context of an audience can be defined as “audience control.” Individuals have audience control

when they are able to make discriminations between audiences and environments and alter their

verbal behavior based upon the contingencies of such discriminative stimuli. Skinner described

an example of a writer engaging in diary writing as an individual exerting audience control over

himself that results in access to automatic reinforcement which may result in the increasing the

occurrence of the behavior and the emergence of repertories (1957). This reference can be

compared to a reader who engages in covert reading. A reader engages in advanced self-talk by

rotating between “covert speaker and listener roles” in which he or she takes on the role of the

audience (Greer and Speckman, 2009). A “silent” reader is likely exercising audience control

and receiving automatic reinforcement by functioning as his/her own audience or listener. Silent

reading, or sustained reading for pleasure may be shaped by both the presence and/or lack of an

audience.

A more recent body of work within the VBDT literature has investigated the impact of

audience control on social behavior (Han, 2014; Sterkin, 2012). Sterkin conducted two

experiments designed to investigate the role of the audience. In one experiment, Sterkin tested

the effects of a Social Listener Reinforcement protocol (SLR) on the audience control of social

verbal operants emitted by nursery school students with developmental delays. The results of the

32
study demonstrated that participants increased in verbal exchanges with peers and vocal

responses during group instruction. The intervention improved the social verbal repertoire of

students and put them into more direct contact with their peers and the natural learning

opportunities within the environment. In a separate experiment, Sterkin identified a discrepancy

in the emission of stereotypy among students with disabilities based upon their environment.

Probe data collection indicated that participants engaged in higher frequencies of stereotypy in

self-contained classroom settings, in comparison to time spent in general education classroom

settings. The results of both experiments validate the role of the audience in shaping verbal

behavior.

The participants who were selected to investigate silent reading in the study to follow

lacked audience control when reading and engaged in overt reading behavior that was atypical of

their peers. Prior reading instruction in kindergarten through second grade and the natural

contingences of the learning environment in third grade, did not function to shape the covert

reading behavior of the participants. This socially significant academic deficit warranted an

intervention to investigate silent reading. The basis of the experimental study was rooted in

examining instructional practice related to developing covert reading abilities and the role of the

classroom environment and peers as an audience for shaping reading behavior.

Skinner’s Verbal Behavior Theory and Vygotsky’s Developmental Theory

Similarities are identified between Vygotsky’s theories of thought and language and

verbal behavior theory from B.F. Skinner. Connecting these theories provides an opportunity to

unite research among psychologists and behavior analysts and investigate the complexities of

human development (Burkholder & Pelaez, 2000).

33
 Vygotsky believed that the function of egocentric speech was to modify the behavior of

the speaker. Egocentric speech was Vygotsky’s perception of “self-talking combined with inner

speech, but an external form” (Burkholder & Pelaez, 2000). It was Vygotsky’s position that

inner speech was acquired in the same form as vocal speech, through experiences within the

external environment. He believed that children developed egocentric speech as they gained

more experiences and learned to respond to external prompts and cues to problem solve, self-

guide and self-direct (Prior & Wellington, 2001; Vygotsky, 1986).

This theory aligned with Skinner’s original concept of the speaker as his own listener, in

which the speaker can function as his or her own listener (1957). Skinner (1957) described this

as an individual functioning as both a listener and speaker within the same skin. The ability to

engage in verbal behavior on a covert level is a complex and advanced verbal developmental

milestone. The ability to read and self-edit text is an example of an individual engaging in this

exchange of roles using the speaker-as-own-listener capability (Greer and Keohane, 2005).

Both philosophies share the same perspective on the acquisition of language and

thought, or covert speech. According to both theorists, private events are shaped by the

individual’s external environment (Burkholder & Pelaez, 2000). The connections across

behavioral theory and developmental psychology offer opportunities for collaborative research

that investigates current topics in child development and education from both perspectives. The

role of covert speech in reading comprehension can be examined from both theories.

Prevalence of Silent Reading in Schools

The integration of silent reading in America’s classrooms began in the 1960’s and has

remained a prevalent component of reading instruction in current educational practice.

Associated with the adoption of differentiated instruction, silent reading has been incorporated

34
into reading instruction, as a method to address the individualized reading needs of students.

Reading programs over the past four decades have emphasized silent reading through a variety of

classroom practices related to literacy instruction. Many classrooms offer a specific time in the

school day for students to engage in independent silent reading, an individualized reading

program in which students independently read books on their instructional reading level, silent

reading tasks in preparation for a small or large group literacy activity, or access to books as a

free time or leisure activity (Goodin & Pearson, 2010).

Sustained Silent Reading (SSR) and Drop Everything and Read (DEAR) are among the

most common concepts of sustained independent reading time that have been integrated into

daily practice in schools across the country (Adams, 1990). In addition to adopting the Common

Core Standards for Language Arts, many schools have also integrated benchmark goals at each

grade level for the amount of time students should be engaged in silent reading at each grade

level (Morris School District Developmental Continuums, 2012). Given the prevalence of the

practice of silent reading in daily reading instruction, it is important to identify students who lack

the ability to read silently and comprehend text. Studying advanced readers who possess the

ability to engage in silent reading and independent advance their reading repertoire provides

insight into how to directly teach essential skills for readers who do not acquire covert reading

abilities through common instructional practice and/or the natural contingencies of the learning

environment.

Empirical Research on Oral and Silent Reading

A growing body of research has investigated silent reading theoretically and with applied

research. Researchers agree that the transition from oral to silent reading is important to

understand as it promotes increased independence in reading. Silent reading is prevalent in

35
reading tasks for children inside and outside of the classroom, and thus has implications for

reading instruction. Applied research in the area of silent reading can influence theoretical

perspectives on reading development and identify evidence-based practices for teaching the

complex skills that result in skilled reading abilities (Abramson & Goldinger, 1997; Holmes &

Allison, 1985; Freedland et al., 2000; Kragler, 1995; Price, Meisinger, Louwerse & D’Mello,

2012; Miller & Smith, 1990; Prior et al., 2011; Wagner, 2011).

A collection of research has investigated reading comprehension in conjunction with oral

and silent reading. Researchers have explored the common differences in beginning readers,

fluent readers, and readers who perform below grade level. The need to identify evidence-based

practices and teaching strategies to teach skills to aid in fluent reading repertoires has been

presented throughout the literature on reading development and reading instruction.

Prior and Wellington (2001) conducted an empirical study with 73 participants based

upon the Vygotskian concept of inner speech. They assessed the reading comprehension of

participants after reading oral and silent reading passages. Prior and Wellington suggested that

there may be a transitional stage in reading development, when reading transitions from oral to

silent reading. They speculated that readers demonstrate greater comprehension in the form of

reading that they are most likely to engage in and or have the most control over. Therefore, they

hypothesized that beginning readers have superior comprehension when reading orally in

comparison to advanced readers who are more likely to best comprehend text when reading

silently. The goal of the research reported herein was to more closely examine the

developmental transition to silent reading.

The researchers presented previous findings and noted that previous studies lacked an

age or developmental comparison with attention given to reading competency within a single

36
study. To account for this, the experimenters included participants ranging from second through

fourth grade. Prior to participation in the study, the teachers rated the reading competency of

each student. Reading competency was rated using a 7-point scale, in which a 1 represented

“very poor reader for grade level” and 7 represented “very good reader for grade level.”

The researchers hypothesized that participants in second and third grade would better

comprehend text when reading orally. In contrast, they expected fourth grade participants to

demonstrate greater comprehension when reading silently. The results of the study indicated that

scores in comprehension did not differ between the two reading modes for the second grade

participants. Conversely, the third and fourth grade students had higher comprehension scores in

the oral reading mode. Prior and Wellington challenged future studies to describe internalized or

covert reading and identify when silent reading emerges as the advantageous mode for reading

comprehension. Additionally, the researchers proposed that presenting factors that are related to

the transition to successful silent reading would provide an increased understanding of this

critical stage within reading development.

Prior and colleagues (2011) tested comprehension after oral and silent reading conditions

among 173 children enrolled in first through seventh grade. The study was based upon the

Vygotskian theory of inner speech development. The researchers attempted to identify if there

was a superior mode of comprehension regardless of independent reading level. The results of

the study identified oral reading as the superior mode for comprehension for students in first

through fifth grade. Sixth grade students did not differ in comprehension in either reading

condition. Silent reading was correlated as the superior mode of reading for comprehension

among seventh grade participants.

37
 Freedland and colleagues (2000) tested the effectiveness of a repeated reading

intervention on silent reading comprehension among secondary school students diagnosed with a

learning disability in reading. The three participants (ages 12, 13, and 16) in the study were

presented with 400-word reading passages on a fourth grade reading level. In the control

condition, participants were presented with a passage and an experimenter timed their silent

reading before presenting comprehension questions. In the repeated reading condition,

participants were instructed to read the passage presented aloud two times before responding to

comprehension questions. Data were collected on responses to explicit and inferential

comprehension questions and comprehension fluency (the total number of correct responses

divided by the total time in seconds to read the passage). The results of the study indicated that

repeated readings did not increase silent reading speed but improved performance on explicit

questions.

Holmes and Alison (1985) conducted a study with forty-eight fifth grade students to

measure which of four modes of reading were superior in promoting reading comprehension

among readers with various levels of reading ability. The four modes included: a) oral reading to

an audience, b) oral reading to oneself, c) silent reading, and d) silent reading while listening.

The results indicated that most participants had similar levels of comprehension when reading

orally to an audience or reading aloud to themselves. The more advanced readers in the study

performed better in silent reading tasks, while participants with reading difficulty had better

comprehension in the condition in which they read text orally to an audience, compared to the

independent silent reading condition. The results of the study indicate that elementary students

identified as having reading difficulties may need to be directly taught to read silently as a

superior mode of comprehension.

38
 Currently, the Florida Center for Reading Research (FCRR) located at Florida State

University is conducting research on the relationship between oral and silent reading, and

reading comprehension. Young-Suk Kim has acquired a 1.6 million dollar grant to conduct a

longitudinal study (from 2012 to 2015) that will monitor the reading development of 400

students from Florida’s public school system from first through third grade. Using eye tracking

technology and computerized software, the goal of the research is learn more about the transition

from oral to fluent silent reading. Kim attributes limited applied research in the area of silent

reading to the difficulty of measuring the behavior. Acknowledging the identification of students

who have difficulty “crossing the bridge” from oral to silent reading, Kim seeks to expand upon

the research on silent reading that may result in new instructional practices. Information is not

yet published on the experimental control for the study accounting for participant’s reading

abilities prior to the onset of the study, or the range of social and educational experiences related

to reading that participants will be exposed to throughout the duration of the study which may

impact outcomes.

The studies presented all identify the need for empirical research on silent reading, most

specifically to identify research-based practices for teaching silent reading with accurate

comprehension. Many of the limitations of the aforementioned students include the lack of

systematic identification of the reading abilities of the participants (e.g. grade level equivalent

reading level, oral reading fluency). Much of the silent reading research has been conducted

using group designs that limit the ability test an intervention to address deficits in silent reading.

Additionally, many applied experiments using a group design analysis are limited to one

particular age group. There is a need for more empirical research that exercises experimental

controls while attempting to identify strategies for teaching students with specific skill deficits.

39
Moreover, applied research with fluent readers or various age groups may provide key

information in reading development. Much of the research on silent reading is conducted with

children, particularly elementary-age students. As Prior and Wellington (2011) suggested there

is a need for applied research with readers at various ages and stages of development to gain an

increased understanding of how the complex skill of reading progresses throughout one’s

lifespan. Prerequisite skills for reading readiness begin in social contexts with caretakers, are

directly taught through a variety of methods of instruction, and are shaped throughout a history

of academic and social experiences.

An increased understanding of reading development has educational implications for

educators, practitioners, and families to promote reading development and when necessary

remediate reading difficulty. A fluent reading repertoire is directly linked to academic success,

increased independence as a learner, and essentially, the ability to expand academic and social

repertoires independently.

40
Rationale and Educational Significance

The Verbal Behavior Developmental Theory defines reading as an “advanced speaker-as-

own-listener repertoire” in that the reader must hear what is read. Reading requires both

textual responding and comprehension that includes listening to what is read as a speaker.

Comprehension is evident by the ability to see a printed word, say it, and match responses to

text, or in its simplest form, a picture. Reading is comprised of complex speaker and listener

relationships under the discriminative control of print stimuli (e.g. letters, sight words),

actions, and 2-dimensional pictures (Sidman, 1994; Greer & Keohane, 2005; Greer & Ross,

2008).

The speaker-as-own-listener repertoire makes complex verbal behavior possible and is a

capability that is considered unique to the human species (Barnes-Holmes, Barnes-Holmes,

& Cullinan 2001; Lodhi & Greer 1989, Horne & Lowe, 1996). The listener component in

reading is essential. A reader who is truly verbal must utilize the speaker-as-own listener

capability to comprehend text. A reader is a speaker who is under the control of text

(Skinner, 1957).

The examination of the speaker-as-own listener capability should be explored to

determine the role of the capability in children developing advanced reading repertoires.

Many conceptual papers have presented a developmental sequence for the stages that result

in fluent reading. Several applied experiments have compared differences in comprehension

when reading aloud or silently. However, there have been no applied experiments that have

tested a tactic to assess and teach silent reading with comprehension to advance reading

abilities and improve comprehension through covert reading.

41
 Current instructional practices in reading often require students to engage in sustained

silent reading (McCracken, 1971). Additionally, students are often taught and assessed in

reading through silent reading tasks. Interventions for inducing the capability of speaker-as-

own-listener as it relates to reading should be further investigated as a method for providing

developing readers with cusps and capabilities that are essential to acquiring and expanding

advanced academic and social repertoires. The purpose of the current research was to

measure the effects of teaching silent covert reading on comprehension. The ability to read

silently and comprehend text may be a critical component of the speaker-as-own listener

capability as it relates to reading repertoires. The research questions upon which both studies

were designed to investigate are 1) Is there a difference in reading comprehension when

fluent elementary readers read aloud or silently? 2) Is there a difference in reading

comprehension when fluent adult readers comprehend read aloud or silently? 3) Is there a

relationship between reading silently and comprehension? 4) Can silent reading with

comprehension be taught? 5) What is the effect of teaching silent reading on comprehension

for children who can comprehend text only when reading aloud?

42
 Chapter II

Overview of Experiments

I conducted two experiments designed to examine the development of reading

capabilities, in particular, the speaker-as-own-listener capability. In Experiment I, 60

participants, identified as fluent readers, were tested on their ability to read text quickly and

accurately respond to reading comprehension questions in two conditions: (a) reading aloud or

(b) reading silently. Experiment I was an experimental comparison of age groups, which utilized

a group design to identify potential differences in reading comprehension in varying reading

conditions. The findings of Experiment I influenced the research goals of Experiment II.

In Experiment II, six third grade participants were selected for the study because they

could not read silently and respond accurately to comprehension questions. A treatment package

designed to teach participants to read silently was implemented using a delayed non-concurrent

multiple probe design across participants. During intervention sessions, a procedure in which

participants rotated between reading silently and listening to vocal recordings of stories was

introduced. For all intervention sessions, a peer-yoked contingency was implemented. This

study sought to determine the utility of this procedure on teaching participants to read silently

and comprehend text with criterion level responding.

Participants

In Experiment I, 60 participants were recruited for participation. All participants were

fluent readers. Of the 60 participants, 30 participants were fourth or fifth grade students

recruited from one public elementary school all of whom performed on or above grade level in

the area of reading. The remaining 30 participants were adults matriculating in Masters degree

programs. All adult participants were recruited from graduate programs at a major university.

43
In Experiment II, six third grade students were recruited for participation from the one public

elementary school. All participants were eight or nine years old at the onset of the study and

performed between one and two grade levels below their respective grade level in reading. All of

the participants from Experiment I and II were recruited from the same elementary school. The

participants in Experiment I were recruited from a total of ten fourth and fifth grade general

education classrooms. The participants in Experiment II were recruited from the same third

grade classroom.

44
 Chapter II

Experiment I

Method

Participants

A total of 60 participants were recruited for Experiment I. All participants were recruited

as fluent readers. Adult participants were considered fluent readers because they were all

recruited from graduate programs at a major university. The elementary-aged participants who

were recruited for participation all read and comprehended text on or above their equivalent

grade level according to school assessments and statewide proficiency assessments.

Adult Participant Selection. All participants were recruited from a graduate program in

order to address the requirement that all participants had fluent reading repertoires. Participants

were recruited from graduate programs within a college associated with an accredited university.

Prior to conducting the study, the experimenter attended graduate classes to recruit participants.

The experimenter presented research goals and Institutional Review Board approved consent

forms to provide opportunities for students to volunteer for participation in the study. A total of

90 participants were recruited. From this participant pool, 30 participants were randomly

selected for full participation.

Data were collected on 30 adult readers. Of the 30 participants, 23 were female and 7

were male. All of the participants were matriculating in a Masters Degree Program at the time

that the study was conducted. However, 17 participants were enrolled in their first year of a

Masters program, while, 13 of the participants were in their second year of a Master’s Program

and anticipating graduation from their respective program of study at the conclusion of the

academic school year, at the time that the study was conducted. All participants in the study

45
reported that they had not taken or prepared for a Graduate Management Admissions Test,

GMAT® exam, in efforts to ensure that they did not have an instructional history with the

materials that would be used to assess reading comprehension in the study. Refer to Appendix 1

for the description of the adult participants.

Elementary-aged Participant Selection. The elementary-aged participants were all

recruited from one public elementary school. All elementary-aged participants were

matriculating in 4th or 5th grade at the onset of the study.

Prior to recruiting participants for full participation in the study, the experimenter

obtained student profiles from the building administrator of the school from which participants

were recruited. The student profiles provided the experimenter with the statewide assessment

scores and grade level equivalent reading level for all students matriculating in fourth and fifth

grade. The statewide assessments were scored using numeric ranges within the overall possible

score and were grouped into three categories: 1) Advanced Proficient, 2) Proficient, and 3) Not

Proficient. Test scores were reported on performance from the academic year prior. All fourth

and fifth grade students had scores across these three categories for Mathematics and Language

Arts Literacy. Fifth grade students were also assessed in science in Fourth Grade and had a score

reported in that academic content area. All potential participants had a documented score for the

Developmental Reading Assessment, DRA (2005), which was administered to all students

matriculating in grades K-8 as a school district adopted assessment.

All participants recruited for full participation in the study performed at a level of

Proficient or Advanced Proficient on the statewide assessments in the areas of Language Arts

Literacy, Mathematics, and Science (Science scores were only reported for fifth grade students).

Additionally, recruited participants performed on or above grade level on the Developmental

46
Reading Assessment, DRA, with a score of 40 or 50, which is the range for a fourth or fifth grade

reading level. According to the oral reading fluency component of the DRA, all students

recruited for participation read a rate of 120-150 words per minute on or above their when

presented with grade level text (fourth or fifth grade text).

Using the student profile data, the experimenter identified 48 fourth grade students and

40 fifth grade students who met criteria for participation in the study. The parents or guardians

of potential participants received a recruitment letter based on the participant meeting criteria for

participation in the study. All participants were selected at random for full participation from the

larger participant pool of students who consented to join the study, with an equal selection from

each grade level.

Data were collected on 30 elementary-aged participants. Among the elementary-aged

participants, 23 of the students were female and 7 of the students were male. 15 of the students

were selected from fourth grade, and 15 were selected from fifth grade. Refer to Appendix 2 for

a description of the elementary-aged participants.

47
Setting

Experiment I was conducted across two settings. For the graduate student participants,

the study was conducted in a reserved study room in a university library. A total of 4 study

rooms were used throughout the study as a result of scheduling availability. The dimensions of

the study rooms varied slightly. Typically, the study rooms were 10ft x 20ft All study rooms

featured a circular or square conference table with two office chairs, a dry erase board affixed to

one of the four walls, and an entry door with clear glass windows allowing visibility inside and

outside of the study room. During the study, the experimenter and the participant sat across from

each other approximately 3ft away from each other. The experimenter had visibility of the

participant’s reading materials as a result of the close proximity.

For the elementary-aged participants, the study took place in the participant’s public

school. All sessions were conducted in either a hallway alcove on the same floor as the

participant’s classroom or the school computer lab. The alcove measured approximately 10ft x

20ft. The alcove had a circular table with two child-sized chairs and a dry erase board hanging

on one of the three walls adjacent to the table. The school computer lab was located in close

proximity to participants’ classroom approximately 15 ft in distance. The computer lab was

equipped with 15-inch I-Mac© computers with individual keyboards and mice. Two Dell®

computers were set up near the entrance of the computer lab for teacher use. A large rectangular

table beside the doorway entry was placed along the wall with two printers. Above this table

was a large bulletin board with the computer lab schedule and notices for teachers. The iMac©

computers sat on long rectangular tables against three of the four walls. In front of each

computer station was a child-sized chair. A laptop on a mobile technology cart and a projector

approximately 80 in. in size were also placed in the corner of the computer lab. Four rectangular

48
tables arranged together to create one large rectangular table sat in the middle of the room with

8-10 folding chairs. The researcher sat at the rectangular table adjacent to the participant to

ensure visibility of the participant’s reading materials.

Materials

For all experimental sessions the researcher used a MacBook Air© laptop to video-record

experimental sessions; a Taylor® timer, to record the length of time that it took participants to

read the text presented; an iPhone© with the Voice Memo© application, to record participants’

vocal reading; two copies of the printed reading materials, one of which was presented to the

participant and the other that was used by the experimenter to collect data; a script that the

researcher used to ensure that the directions were explained consistently to all participants, a

participant survey, data collection sheet, calculator, and two pens. The individualized reading

materials, scripts, and survey questions varied between the two participant age groups.

Graduate Student Materials. Graduate student participants were assessed using two

printed reading passages, each of which was accompanied by 6 corresponding selection-based

(multiple choice) questions. All reading passages were based on non-fiction topics and were

between 350 and 450 words in length.

The graduate student participant reading materials were taken from sample Graduate

Management Admissions Test, GMAT, exams (Educational Testing Service, 1953; Graduate

Management Admission Council, 2012). The GMAT is required for entrance into many

graduate management programs. The exam is a computer-adapted test, which alters the

difficulty level of test questions based upon the test taker’s responses. The assessment analyzes

analytical, quantitative, writing, verbal, and reading skills in standard English. More than 5,000

graduate programs across 1,500 universities in over 100 countries use the GMAT exam as

49
criteria for admission into graduate programs. The creators of the exam, The Graduate

Management Admission Council (GMAC) perform validity studies to verify the statistical

correlation between scores on the exam and academic success in business school programs

(Owens & Talento-Miller, 2006).

Test preparation materials from the verbal section of the GMAT exam were used to

assess reading comprehension. Reading comprehension passages typically vary in length and are

accompanied by “interpretive, applied, and inferential questions” that measure the following

reading skills: a) understanding of words and statements in reading passages, b) logical

relationships between significant concepts in the reading passage, c) the ability to draw

inferences from facts and statements in the reading passages, d) understanding of quantitative

concepts presented in verbal content, e) understanding of author’s point of view and proposed

arguments (Graduate Management Admissions Council, 2009; Manhattan GMAT, 2012).

The GMAT exam was selected as an assessment measure for this study because all

graduate school participants were recruited from programs unrelated to business management

programs. All participants were recruited from graduate programs that may have required the

participant to take the Graduate Record Examination, GRE (Educational Testing Service, 1949,

2011) instead of the GMAT exam for admission. In order to ensure that participants did have

exposure to the experimental materials, as a part of the recruitment process, participants were

asked if they had ever prepared for or taken a GMAT exam. See Figure 1 for a sample of a

GMAT exam reading comprehension passage.

50
Figure 1. Sample of GMAT reading comprehension passage with multiple choice
comprehension questions. Please note that participants were provided with the reading passage
on a separate sheet of paper from the comprehension questions. Participants were not permitted
to reference the passage when responding to comprehension questions.

51
Elementary-aged Participant Materials. The reading materials provided to the elementary-

aged participants were selected from sample state assessments taken from a non-neighboring

state from where the participants were matriculating. The reading passages were non-fiction and

were between 350 and 450 words in length.

As a part of the recruitment process, participants were asked if they resided in any states

outside of their current state of residence, to help ensure that participants did not have exposure

to the reading material. This information was also confirmed using student records. Additionally,

the reading material samples were shared with the classroom teachers of the recruited

participants to confirm that participants had not utilized the materials as part of their instruction

or test preparation materials. The reading passages presented to the participants were matched to

their matriculating grade level (i.e. fourth grade students received fourth grade level reading

passages while fifth grade students received fifth grade reading passages). All reading passages

were accompanied by 6 selection-based (multiple choice) comprehension questions. For some

passages pictures were removed as well as written directions. Pictures were removed to maintain

consistency between the reading passage formats presented to both children and adults. The

experimenter also sought to remove additional features of the passage that may have had an

effect on comprehension. Written directions were removed, to avoid conflicting information

from the vocal directions that were provided by the experimenter. Refer to Figure 2 for a sample

of the reading passages presented to fifth grade participants.

Reading Passages. Two reading passages with accompanying comprehension questions

were selected for each age group. The reading passages were counterbalanced and rotated across

reading conditions for the adult age group the within each student age groups to experimentally

control for potential differences in text difficulty across the reading conditions and participants.

52
Figure 2. Sample of a fourth grade reading passage presented separately from
reading comprehension questions. Please note that in some of the selected passages, pictures and
additional written text were included prior to the start of the passage. For the purposes of
keeping the presentation of the reading passages consistent across elementary-aged participants
and adult participants, pictures, introductory information about the passage, and written
directions were edited out of the document. The top of this passage was edited to remove
extraneous information.

53
Procedure

The experimental procedures were consistent across both participant groups (adults and

elementary-aged participants). The experimenter sat directly across from the participant to be in

clear view of the participant and his/her reading materials. For some sessions a laptop was

positioned across from the participant for video-recording purposes. Sessions were video-

recorded for the purposes of conducting Interobserver Agreement and recording were discarded

after agreement was calculated. When participants were recorded, the visual display on the

screen was off, so that they could not observe themselves on camera. Prior to beginning, the

experimenter read a script to participants explaining the purpose of the study and providing an

opportunity to address any questions. The scripts varied between groups to address the

developmental difference in age groups. Refer to Figure 3 and Figure 4 for the scripts. After

reading the script, the experimenter presented survey questions. Participants were asked to

respond vocally and in written form to the survey questions, which were also presented vocally

by the experimenter and in print on a 3 ½ X 5 cm index card. The survey questions varied based

upon the age group of the participant and were designed to address the possibility of the

participant’s exposure to the assessment materials. Adult participants were asked if they had ever

studied for or reviewed materials for the Graduate Management Admissions Test exam.

Elementary aged participants were asked if they had ever lived outside of the state of New Jersey

and if so, to identify where.

In preparation to begin the assessment, the experimenter was equipped with two copies of

the reading passages, an iPhone© with the Voice Memo© application, Taylor Timer®,

calculator, an experimenter-prepared data sheet, and two pens. Prior to reading, the participants

were presented with a printed reading passage and a timer with the following vocal direction:

54
“Please read the passage insert reading condition (aloud or silently). I will be timing your

reading. I will also be recording your reading. You will be given comprehension questions after

reading. The reading passage will be removed, so please do your best to recall the information.

Please let me know when you are ready to begin and we will both start our timers. Please let me

know when you have finished reading by stating, ‘Finished or Done’ and stopping your timer.”

This information was repeated for both reading conditions.

When the participant informed the experimenter that he/she was ready to begin, the

experimenter started the Voice Memo© application on the iPhone© and collected data specific

to the reading condition. For the sessions that were vide-recorded the experimenter also started

recording the reading session on the laptop that was used. For the read aloud conditions, data

were collected on the individual textual responses of participants. For the silent reading

conditions, data were collected on the participants’ emission of covert or overt reading behavior.

Participants were provided with the details of the reading conditions within the informed consent

process. All participants consented to having their reading directly observed, recorded, and

timed.

At the conclusion of the participant’s reading, both timers were stopped. The time was

recorded and noted on the experiment’s copy of the reading passage. The timers were used for

all sessions, although for some sessions the audio or video recordings also kept record of the

reader’s duration of time spent reading the passage. The timer also functioned to provide

feedback for the participant so that he/she would be directly aware of their reading speed. After

noting the duration of time the participant read, the experimenter informed the participant that

he/she would have a specific amount of time to respond to the written comprehension questions

based on the passage using the following vocal direction: “You will now have fifteen minutes to

55
begin the reading comprehension questions based upon the passage that you have just read. I will

be collecting the reading passage before you begin the questions.” Participants were provided

with up to fifteen minutes for the reading comprehension section comprised of six questions

based upon the GMAT pacing recommendations that test takers take between 1.5-2.0 minutes for

responding to questions (Manhattan GMAT, 2012, p. 51). The same time interval of 15 minutes

was the prescribed amount of time provided for the Language Arts test preparation materials that

were selected for the elementary-aged participants.

The reading passage was removed to ensure that the participant did not have access to the

reading passage while answering reading comprehension questions. The experimenter then

provided the participant with the printed multiple-choice comprehension questions and a pen.

The experimenter then started the count down timer so that the participant would have a visual

display of the duration of time that he/she was provided for completing the comprehension

questions.

While the participant completed comprehension questions, the experimenter reviewed the

data collected on oral reading to calculate the participant’s reading rates. The experimenter noted

if the participant had 2 or fewer errors, not including self-corrections, during the read aloud

condition. This measure, combined with reading rate, confirmed if the participant read the

passage fluently. Data were collected and calculated upon the number of correct and incorrect

words read per minute in the read aloud condition. In the silent reading condition, data were

collected on the total time in seconds that it took for the participant to read the passage since it

was not possible to monitor reading errors. Reading rate was calculated by dividing the number

of words read by the total time in seconds and then multiplying the quotient by the number 60.

During the silent reading condition, the experimenter also noted if the participant engaged in any

56
overt reading behavior while reading the passage. In this experiment, overt reading was defined

as the participant engaging in reading aloud for any portion of the reading passage.

When the participant completed the comprehension questions or the time provided

expired, the experimenter collected the selection comprehension questions and thanked the

participant for his/her time and participation in the study. The permanent products for each

participant were stapled together and filed in a portable file organizer that stored participant data.

57
Figure 3. The script read to graduate student participants prior to beginning the experimental
procedures. Graduate students were directly recruited and had already consented to participation
at the time that the script was presented. Please note the following change in the script; the
reading comprehension questions were only presented in written form. The experimenter did not
present any comprehension questions vocally.

58
Figure 4. The script read by the experimenter to fourth and fifth grade participants explaining the
purpose of the research and requesting individual consent. At the time that the script was
presented, parental guardians provided consent prior to the experimenter meeting directly with
students. Students were also asked to consent to full participation in the study. Please note, the
following correction in the script, comprehension questions were only presented in written form
to participants.

59
Response Definition and Data Collection

Data were collected on three target behaviors across all 60 participants. Data were

collected on: a) reading rate (number of words read per minute), b) the covert or overt reading

behavior observed by the experimenter during silent reading conditions, and c) responses to

selection (multiple choice) comprehension questions based upon non-fiction reading passages.

Reading Rate. All participants were presented with printed reading passages and given

specific directions about how the passages should be read. Data collection varied depending

upon the reading condition: a) aloud or b) silent. In both conditions, the participants were timed.

Using the duration of time recorded, the data collected on errors while reading, and a calculator,

the experimenter calculated reading rate for each participant in both conditions.

In the read aloud condition, participants were asked to read the passage and questions

aloud quickly and clearly so that the researcher could follow along and collect data on reading

accuracy. While the participant read, the experimenter collected data on miscues. Errors were

noted if the participated mispronounced, reversed, or omitted words. If a participant self-

corrected within two s of his/her initial response, an error was not recorded. A minus (-) was

recorded above incorrect textual responses to denote errors. A plus, (+) was recorded at the end

of a sentence if there were no errors emitted by the participant. Following this reading condition,

using the data collected, the experimenter calculated the participant’s reading rate as the total

number of correct number of words read per minute. Data were collected on the participants’

individual textual responses to determine the participant’s reading fluency for the read aloud

passage, but these measures were not used in the statistical analysis. Participants were

considered to have reading fluency for the passage if he/she read the passage at a minimum rate

of 100-150 words per minute with 2 or fewer errors.

60
 In the second condition, participants were asked to read the passage and all questions

silently. The experimenter timed the duration that it took for the participant to read the passage.

During the silent reading condition, data were not collected on reading accuracy. As a result of

the participant reading silently, the experimenter was not able to collect the observable and

measurable data needed to calculate the participant’s reading rate of correct and incorrect words

read per minute. Additionally, the experimenter directly observed the participant while reading

and made note of any instances of overt reading. Data were collected using whole interval

recording across ten s intervals. If a participant read covertly, without textually responding aloud,

tracking print stimuli with fingers, or emitting non-vocal oral motor movements while reading

for the total duration of the interval a plus (+) was recorded. If a participant did not read

covertly, including reading aloud, tracking print stimuli with fingers, or emitting non-vocal

mouth movements for the total duration of the interval a minus (-) was recorded. All of the

participants engaged solely in covert reading passages presented during the silent reading

opportunity. There were no recorded instances of a participant reading aloud during the silent

reading condition.

For the purposes of the statistical analysis across all participants, the reading rate of total

words read per minute was reported as the measure for both silent reading and reading aloud.

This reading rate was reported in this manner despite data collection on reading accuracy and

errors, to maintain consistency in the way data were reported across both conditions for the

repeated measures ANOVA.

Comprehension Questions. All participants were presented with multiple choice

comprehension questions without access to the reading passage. In both conditions, the

participants responded to comprehension questions by filling in the corresponding open circle for

61
their selected response. Participants were provided with pens and asked to initial beside any

responses that they changed their answers to. Completing questions in pen ensured that selected

responses were more clearly visible.

Photocopies of all responses to comprehension questions were made before scoring to

allow the experimenter to provide the permanent product to second scorer to calculate Interscorer

agreement. The participant responses to comprehension questions were scored using an answer

key of correct responses. A correct response was recorded as a plus (+) and an incorrect

response was recorded as a minus (-). The experimenter and second scorer totaled the number of

correct responses out of the total number of questions using the data collected. A total of 6

questions were presented for each reading passage across both reading conditions. Responses to

comprehension questions were reported as the number correct out of six total questions (e.g.

4/6).

For each participant, data were collected on reading rate, calculated as the number of

words read per minute for the reading passages across both conditions, and the number of correct

responses to the comprehension questions presented for two passages. After reviewing the

permanent products, all data were recorded into an excel spreadsheet and stored on the

experimenter’s computer.

Design

The design of the study was a 2 X 2 factorial design with repeated measures on reading

conditions across two age groups. The results of the study were analyzed using a repeated

measures ANOVA within the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software. A

repeated measures ANOVA is used to analyze designs or models where each observational unit

or subject is observed across all levels across one or more experimental factors. The repeated

62
measure allows the exact same or similar outcomes to be measured on each subject, across

varying conditions. The measurement of the dependent variables may be repeated under the

different conditions using this form of ANOVA. When a repeated factor is present in an

experimental model, a repeated measures ANOVA is identified as the appropriate choice of

analysis (Judd, McClelland, & Ryan, 2009).

In this experiment, the dependent variables of reading fluency and comprehension were

measured repeatedly across the conditions. The silent and aloud reading conditions were the

within-subject factors for the experiment. The dependent variables were also measured

independently on the two age groups, children and adults. The individual exposure to the

different reading conditions between each group, is described as the between-subject factors.

Data were analyzed within and between participants across reading conditions, to make

comparisons of fluent readers.

Interscorer Agreement

An independent scorer used permanent products, audio, and video recordings to

calculated Interscorer Agreement, ISA. Two independent scorers were used to calculate ISA.

The scorers were trained in the principles of Applied Behavior Analysis and had completed the

certification course on Research with Human Participants prior to providing ISA for the data

collected. The lead experimenter modeled the data collection system in training sessions prior to

the scorers providing ISA for the experiment. The scorers were required to meet criterion of

100% accuracy on a contrived data collection scenario using a sample audio recording and a

sample of responses to comprehension questions. Additionally, scorers were required to

calculate reading rate with 100% accuracy for five sample word problem scenarios.

63
 To conduct ISA, scorers were provided with a recorded audio or video clip of a

participant reading a passage, a copy of the reading passage, a timer, pen, a copy of participant

responses to comprehension question responses, and an answer key. A total of 16 Participants

were selected at random from each age group (elementary-aged or graduate students). The

experimenter randomly selected 8 students from fourth grade and 8 students from fifth grade to

provide an equal balance in ISA conducted across participants and reading passages. ISA was

calculated for the selected participant for all experimental phases of the study. Participants who

were selected for ISA had a second scorer calculate their reading rate for both reading conditions

and the number of correct responses to comprehension questions for both reading passages.

Reading Rate. Scorers calculated the reading rate for participants by dividing the total

number of words in the passage by the total time it took for participants to read the passage in

seconds and multiplying the quotient by the number 60. The audio and video recording software

used provided a running timer of the duration of each participant’s reading. The scorer was

provided with an individual Taylor® timer to track the duration of time spent reading,

independent of the audio or video file. The second scorer recorded the total reading time on an

experimenter-prepared data sheet and separately calculated the participant’s reading rate using a

provided formula.

Comprehension Questions. Permanent products and answer keys were used to calculate

ISA for the comprehension questions completed by participants. Scorers marked the responses

to the comprehension questions with plus (+) for a correct response and a minus (-) for an

incorrect response based upon the answer key provided. The correct responses were totaled and

presented in a score of correct responses over the total number of questions (e.g. 5/6, or five

64
correct responses out of six total questions). Scores for comprehension questions were also

recorded on an experimenter-prepared data sheet.

ISA was calculated by dividing the number of agreements into the total number of trial

by trial agreements plus disagreements and multiplying the quotient by 100% to compute a

percentage of agreement. ISA was conducted for 53% of the elementary–aged participants and

53% of the graduate student participants. A total of 32 participants received ISA for all

experimental phases, 16 participants from each age group. The mean agreement for ISA was

100% for comprehension questions scored using permanent products and an answer key and

100% for reading rate for all 32 participants. Refer to Tables 1 and 2 to identify the specific

participants that were selected for ISA.

65
Table 1

The Percentage of Mean Agreement for ISA Calculated for Graduate Student Participants

across Reading Conditions and Reading Comprehension Responses with a Description of the

Materials that were Provided for Scoring

Participant Reading Video/Audio Silent Video/Audio Comprehension Permanent

Aloud Reading Questions Products
2 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
5 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
6 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
8 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
9 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
10 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
13 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
14 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
15 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
17 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
20 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
22 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
24 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
25 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
28 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
29 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes

66
Table 2

The Percentage of Mean Agreement for ISA Calculated for Elementary-aged Participants across

Reading Conditions and Reading Comprehension Responses with a Description of the Format

that Participant Responses were Provided in for Scoring

Participant Reading Video/Audio Silent Video/Audio Comprehension Permanent

Aloud Reading Questions Products
31 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
34 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
35 100% Video 100% Video 100% Yes
39 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
41 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
43 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
44 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
45 100% Video 100% Video 100% Yes
46 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
48 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
49 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
50 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
55 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
56 100% Video 100% Video 100% Yes
59 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes
60 100% Audio 100% Audio 100% Yes

67
Results

The dependent variables of reading fluency and reading comprehension were analyzed in

a group design using repeated measures ANOVA. Reading fluency was calculated as the

number of words read per minute and reading comprehension was measured as the number of

correct and incorrect responses to six selection (multiple choice) comprehension questions. The

data collected across both dependent variables were analyzed within and between subjects.

Tables 3 shows the descriptive statistics for the two dependent variables between conditions for

both groups of participants.

Table 3

Descriptive Statistics for Dependent Variables Between Conditions for Children and Adults in

the Sample

Condition Age Mean Std. N

Deviation
Fluency Aloud Child 181.03 30.772 30
Adult 262.33 63.995 30
Total 221.68 64.489 60
Silent Child 210.37 44.326 30
Adult 561.37 131.446 30
Total 385.87 201.942 60
Total Child 195.70 40.619 30
Adult 411.85 182.318 60
Total 303.78 170.519 120
Comprehension Aloud Child 5.00 .983 30
Adult 3.97 1.129 30
Total 4.48 1.172 60
Silent Child 5.33 .711 30
Adult 4.13 .937 30
Total 4.73 1.023 60
Total Child 5.17 .867 60
Adult 4.05 1.032 60
Total 4.61 1.102 120

68
 Comprehension. The repeated measures ANOVA was used to analyze the within

subject effects across the two reading conditions. The within subject test for comprehension was

not significant, F (1,58) = 2.63, p = 0.11. Overall, participants did not differ in comprehension

when reading aloud or silently.

The between subject test revealed that there was a significant effect of age,

F (1, 58) = 34.07, P <.001 (𝜂! = .37). Eta squared is the measure of an effect size used in an

ANOVA. In this analysis, the effect size is considered large based upon the following scale for

eta square values  (. 02) = small, (.12) = medium, and  (.26) = large (Judd et al., 2009).

The analysis indicated that children had higher comprehension scores (M=5.17, SE=.12) than

adult participants (M=4.05, SE=.12). The interaction between participant age and reading

condition was also tested. The results indicated that there was not a significant interaction effect,

F (1, 58= .29, P=.59).

Table 4

ANOVA results for fluency measures

Type III Df Mean Square F Sig.

Sum of
Squares
808685.008 1 808685.008 130.004 .000
Condition 808685.008 1.000 808685.008 130.004 .000
545535.675 1 545535.675 87.700 .000
Condition 545535.675 1.000 545535.675 87.700 .000
* Age
360786.817 58 6220.462 87.700 .000
Error 360786.817 58.000 6220.462
(Condition)
Computed using alpha=.05

69
 Reading Fluency. There was a significant difference in the means of reading fluency

across the two reading conditions, F (1, 58)=130.00, P<.001. The Eta squared value of

(𝜂! = .69) indicates a large effect. The results show that in silent reading conditions both

children and adults read at a faster rate, (Children M=210.367, SE=14.266; Adults M=561.367,

SE=14.266) when compared to aloud reading conditions (Children M=181.033, SE=14.266;

Adults M=262.333, SE=14.226). Furthermore, the between-subjects test indicated that adults

read at a faster rate than children across both reading conditions, (M=411.85, SE=182.318),

compared to children (M=195.70, SE=40.619). Table 4 represents the ANOVA results for

fluency measures. Figures 5-10 represent results across age groups and reading conditions.

70
Figure 5. Estimated Marginal Means for Comprehension Scores for both Reading Conditions
between Age Groups

71
Figure 6. This bar graphs shows the total number of child and adult participants who scored
between scores 1-6 on comprehension questions following the aloud reading condition. Children
are designated as Age Group 1, while adults are represented as Age Group 2.

72
Figure 7. This bar graphs shows the total number of child and adult participants who scored
between scores 1-6 on comprehension questions following the silent reading condition. Children
are designated as Age Group 1, while adults are represented as Age Group 2

73
Figure 8. The total number of Elementary aged participants that scored values 1-6 on
comprehension scores across both reading conditions is displayed in this bar graph. Condition 1
is reading aloud, while Condition 2, represents the silent reading condition. Children performed
better on reading comprehension in the silent reading condition.

74
Figure 9. The total number of adult participants that scored values 1-6 as comprehension scores
across both reading conditions is displayed in this bar graph. Condition 1 is reading aloud, while
Condition 2, represents the silent reading condition. The adult sample is arranged in a normal
distribution across both conditions.

75
Figure 10. Estimated Marginal Means of Fluency for Children and Adults Across Both Reading
Conditions

76
 Discussion of Experiment I and Rationale for Experiment II

The results of Experiment I identified that fluent readers have consistent comprehension

in both silent and aloud reading conditions. Additionally, the results of the study suggest that as

reading skills continue to develop into adulthood, fluent readers may improve reading speed and

accuracy while maintaining comprehension abilities. This expansion of one’s reading repertoire

may result in a fluent reader’s ability to efficiently understand and gather information from text.

Essentially, fluent readers can obtain information from text despite the way in which they contact

the material (reading aloud or silently). As reading skills advance, fluent readers time can

potentially acquire more information in a less amount of time due to their reading speed. The

development of this advanced reading skill can significantly impact academic performance and a

student’s rate of learning across levels of education.

The results of Experiment I identified a relationship between silent reading and

comprehension. The participants in the study demonstrated evidence of the speaker-as-own-

listener capability and the benefits of the capability in advancing a reading repertoire. Based

upon the findings of Experiment I, the following research questions surrounding comprehension

and reading were raised: If reading silently with comprehension is an advanced reading

capability, can silent reading with comprehension be taught? If so, what is the effect of teaching

silent reading on comprehension for children who can comprehend text only when reading

aloud?

77
 Chapter III

Experiment II

Experiment II investigated the effects of a treatment package on reading comprehension

using a delayed non-concurrent multiple probe design. The treatment package consisted of

alternating reading conditions and the use of a peer-yoked contingency. The intervention was

designed to teach silent reading with comprehension and potentially induce the speaker-as-own

listener capability when reading silently (Greer & Keohane, 2005; Greer and Ross, 2008; Greer

& Speckman, 2009; Skinner, 1957).

Method

Participants

All of the participants from Experiment II were recruited from the same elementary

school as the participants in Experiment I. The school was a publicly funded, Title I school,

located approximately 40 miles outside a major metropolitan area. A Title 1 school is provided

with additional funding to allow the school to address the educational needs of students

identified as living in impoverished communities, with at least 40% of the school population

identified as families living in poverty. As a result of the reauthorization of the Elementary and

Secondary Education Act (1965) in 1994, additional funding is designated to allow schools to

provide comprehensive supports to ensure that all students achieve academic proficiency.

The school from which participants were selected served students between 3rd and 5th

grade ranging in age from eight to eleven years old, with and without disabilities. The school

also served children diagnosed with various disabilities from surrounding area school districts.

The classroom from which the participants were recruited implemented the CABAS®

Accelerated Independent Learner (AIL) model of education. The AIL model is a learner-driven

78
approach to education in which instruction is individualized and students are assessed for both

established and missing verbal cusps and capabilities that are essential to academic success in a

general education setting. Within the AIL model, scientific procedures are applied to all aspects

of teaching and learning for students, classroom teachers, and staff.

Throughout the academic day students are taught in small groups across all major subject

areas (e.g. math and reading). Students are grouped based upon academic ability and identified

cusps and capabilities in repertoire. The academic groups are fluid and students may transition

in and out of academic groupings across subjects as their academic repertoires expand or as

missing prerequisite skills are identified and mastered. Research-based teaching tactics, data

collection systems, and data analysis protocols are implemented to ensure students are receiving

effective instruction with an emphasis on mastery learning, enabling students to progress along a

curriculum at an accelerated pace. Common teaching tactics implemented include choral

responding, learn units, multiple exemplar instruction, personalized system of instruction, public

posting, and peer-yoked contingencies.

Participant Selection Criteria. Based upon the Verbal Behavior Development Theory

(Greer & Keohane, 2005; Greer & Ross, 2004, 2008) participants in the study were required to

have reader/writer status and have the following cusps and capabilities in repertoire prior to

being considered for participation in the study: a) book stimuli function as conditioned

reinforcement for observing (observing books are a conditioned reinforcer), b) textually respond

at 80 words per minute, and c) listening to a story is reinforced by one’s own speaker responding

(Greer & Ross, 2008; Greer & Keohane, 2005).

Participant Screening for Participation. Six third grade students were selected for

participation in this study. Participants were recruited for participation in this study if they lacked

79
the ability to read silently and did not achieve criterion-level reading comprehension when

reading silently. All participants in the study were assessed for reader cusps and capabilities that

were deemed necessary prerequisite skills prior to being considered for full participation in the

study. The experimenter and a second observer assessed all participants independently using a

variety of assessment materials and data collection procedures to determine if participants were

eligible for entering the intervention.

Pre and postintervention data were collected using the Developmental Reading

Assessment, Qualitative Reading Inventory, the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy

Skills, and the Read Naturally Curriculum (a pre-test was collected using the intervention

materials). An overview of the materials used to assess the prerequisite skills for participation in

the intervention and the method in which data were collected during these assessments is

outlined.

Pre-intervention Assessments-Determining Grade Level Equivalent Reading Level.

The DRA-2 was the adopted reading assessment of the school district from which all

participants were selected. The DRA-2 was conducted a minimum of three times per academic

school year among students matriculating in the school district from Kindergarten through Grade

5. For the purposes of this experiment, the DRA-2 was used to determine if participants met the

criteria for participation in the study. Using the data collected for district-wide Benchmark

testing, the reading level of each participant was determined. The reading level of each student

was also needed to select individualized reading passages, which were used during intervention

sessions.

It is important to note that the DRA-2 was not used as a post-intervention measure in this

experiment. The experimenter avoided exposing participants to the assessment outside of the use

80
specified by the school district to ensure that potential improvements in score were not related to

increased exposure to the assessment and materials. Therefore, the Qualitative Reading

Inventory (2010) was selected as a companion to the Developmental Reading Assessment (2005)

to assess participant reading levels prior to and following intervention. Participants were

assessed using these materials prior to beginning intervention within the experimental delay.

Details on the Qualitative Reading Inventory (2010) materials and procedures will be provided in

the subsequent section of the paper.

Textually Responding at a Predetermined Rate. In order to be selected for participation in

the study, all of the participants were required to have a fluent textual responding repertoire,

reading at a rate of 90 correct words per minute (cwpm), with no more than two errors for text at

their grade level equivalent reading level. Participants were required to read at a predetermined

rate as a prerequisite for participation in the study to better ensure that their difficulties with

silent reading and comprehension were not a result of lack of a fluent textual response repertoire.

Participants who did not meet criteria for textual responding received fluency-based instruction

to increase their textual response rates to the predetermined rate criterion of at least 90 cwpm

prior to entering the study. Fluency-based instruction in the areas of reading, math, and writing

(transcription) was a component of classroom instructional practices within the CABAS®AIL

model of instruction.

Listener and Reader Comprehension. In addition to textual response rates, all participants

were assessed for listener comprehension. After listening to a pre-recorded story, the

comprehension of participants was assessed with selection and production comprehension

questions both vocally and in written format. Additionally, when provided with the opportunity

to independently read a second passage correlated with their grade level equivalent reading level,

81
all participants were unable to read the passage silently. However, after reading the passage

aloud they all achieved criterion on comprehension questions. All participants engaged in overt

reading behaviors including reading aloud, whispering while textually responding, visually

tracking print stimuli with their finger, and or emitting oral motor movements while textually

responding.

Based upon the probes conducted to assess prerequisite skills for inclusion in the study,

all participants lacked the ability to read silently. However, all participants textually responded

at a rate of at least 90 correct words per minute when reading aloud, demonstrated listener

comprehension, and reader comprehension when reading aloud. This suggested that participants

lacked the speaker-as-own-listener capability beneath the skin and were candidates for full

participation in the study.

Parental consent was obtained for each of the participants prior to the onset of the study.

Please refer to Table 4 for individual participant demographic information. Figures 11 and 12

provide a visual of the Verbal Developmental Pyramids for Pre-Reader capabilities and

Reader/Writer capabilities from which the relevant behavioral cusps and capabilities were

selected. Table 5 provides the grade level equivalent reading level, reading fluency rates, and

Developmental Reading Assessment (DRA) scores for each participant. Figure 13 shows the

correlation charts that were used to align the participant DRA scores with a grade level

equivalent reading level of each participant. Figure 14 presents the correlation chart that was

used to select reading passages for the participant based upon DRA scores.

82
Table 5

Description of Participants by Age, Gender, Diagnosis, Qualification for Free and Reduced

Lunch, and Qualifying Services for Academic Support

Participant Age Gender Race Diagnosis Qualification for Qualifying

Free and Services
Reduced Lunch
1 8 Male White Speech and No N/A
Language
Impairment

2 8 Female White Autism No N/A

Spectrum
Disorder

3 8 Male African- Post Traumatic Yes Basic Skills

American Stress Disorder

4 8 Male African- Neurotypical Yes Basic Skills

American

5 8 Female Hispanic Neurotypical No English

Language
Learner

6 9 Female White Autism No N/A

Spectrum
Disorder

83
Figure 11. The Verbal Behavior Development Pyramid of Pre-Reader Capabilities was used to
identify the cusps and capabilities related to reader status and the speaker-as-own-listener
capability that participants had in repertoire prior to the onset of the study (Greer & Ross, 2008).

84
Figure 12. The Verbal Behavior Development Pyramid of Reader/Writer Capabilities was used
to identify the cusps and capabilities related to reader status and the speaker-as-own-listener
capability that participants had in repertoire prior to the onset of the study (Greer & Ross, 2008).

85
Table 6

Description of the Participants by Developmental Reading Assessment Scores, Textual Response

Rates (presented in correct words per minute (cwpm) with no more than 2 errors emitted for

passage), and Grade Level Equivalent Reading Level at the Onset of the Study

Participant DRA Score Textual Response Textual Grade Level Equivalent

Rate In September Response Reading Level Prior to
for Grade Level Rate for Full Participation in
Equivalent Reading Grade Level Study (All Participants
Passage Equivalent were Matriculating in
Reading 3rd grade)
Passage
1 24 108 120 Grade 2 (Middle)

2 12 90 100 Grade 1 (Middle)

3 16 50 90 Grade 1 (End)

4 18 47 90 Grade 2 (Beginning)

5 28 70 130 Grade 2 (End)

6 10 75 100 Grade 1 (Middle)

86
Figure 13. The correlation chart that was used to identify the grade level equivalent reading level
for participants based upon the DRA scores. Participant’s DRA scores ranged between 10 and
28, which included the grade level equivalent of the middle of first grade up to the end of second
grade.

87
Figure 14. The correlation chart that was used to select reading passages for participants.
Participant’s DRA scores ranged between 10 and 28, which included reading passages F-V
(Retrieved from http://www.sos.wa.gov/_assets/library/libraries/firsttuesdays/ReadingChart.pdf).

88
Setting

The study was conducted in the participants’ third grade classroom and in an alcove

adjacent to the classroom. The classroom was comprised of 19 students with and without

Individualized Education Plans, 1 teacher, and 2 teaching assistants all trained in the teachings of

applied behavior analysis (www.cabasschools.org). The classroom environment was comprised

of 22 student desks and chairs, 2 square tables for small group instruction, and two teacher desks.

Student desks were arranged in groups of 4-5 desks to facilitate small group instruction and peer

collaboration. The classroom was equipped with 6 computer workstations, a laptop, projector,

and screen for the incorporation of technology in instruction. The classroom walls were lined

with education-based bulletin boards designed to emphasize terms and concepts presented across

subjects, public posting of student’s progression on academic skills, and behavior management

materials for increasing desired behaviors (e.g. classwide game board). A classroom library and

‘leisure area’ featured books categorized according to genre, academic games and puzzles, I-

Pads with educational games, and preferred activities (e.g. art supplies) which students gained

access to through the classwide behavior management system designed as a token economy. The

class token economy was a three tier system in which students earned “points” throughout the

school day for target behaviors associated with learning and performance behaviors.

All intervention sessions and two probe conditions that required observation of students

in a small group setting were conducted in the classroom. Intervention sessions were conducted

at a small group table approximately with four child-sized chairs or a cluster of six student desks

arranged in a rectangular fashion in which students sat facing each other. Both of these locations

in the classroom were used daily for small group instruction.

89
 Both pre and post probe sessions that assessed students individually were conducted in

the alcove adjacent to the classroom. The alcove featured a square table with two student-sized

chairs and a large window. See Appendix 3 for pictures of the classroom environment relevant to

the study.

Materials

Several assessment and curricular materials were utilized for pre- and post-assessment,

intervention sessions, and data collection. A description of the components of each set of

materials is provided as it relates to the experimental sequence. For each of the materials the

experimenter prepared three copies; one for the student to read from and record responses, and

the remaining two for the experimenter and second observer to collect data on student responses

and record Interobserver and Interscorer Agreement. Additional materials used in conjunction

with the assessment and curricular materials included a Taylor® digital timer to collect the data

needed to calculate oral reading fluency, a writing utensil, and experimenter-prepared data

sheets.

Description of Assessment Materials. The Developmental Reading Inventory (DRA) is

a reading assessment that evaluates three main components of reading: 1) reading engagement 2)

oral reading fluency, and 3) comprehension. Completion of the assessment identifies the

independent reading level, or the reading level for which the test taker is expected to perform

independently without potential frustration or lack of ability to comprehend the text presented

due to an inability to textually respond, or decode the text. The assessment is structured to assist

educators with formulating academic groups of students with similar reading abilities and skill

deficits to target in instruction. The assessment can also be utilized for documenting student

progress in reading/language arts.

90
 The DRA-2 is organized in two elementary-level assessment packages (K-3rd grade and

4th-8th grade). The assessment packages contained one benchmark assessment book, or teacher’s

guide, three sets of stories at each level presented in a book format, a spiral bound book for

reproducible copies of each of the scoring sheets that accompany each story, a word analysis

assessment book, a laminated card outlining assessment procedures, a training DVD, a clipboard

with a timing calculator that can be used to calculate oral reading fluency, and a file organizer

with hanging folders where materials for each set of stories can be stored. The experimenter

utilized all of the materials with the exception of the word analysis assessment book to

administer the DRA-2. The word analysis materials are primarily used to provide additional

teaching related to decoding. Refer to Appendix 4 for an image of the DRA materials kit.

Figures 15 and 16 provide a sample of the assessor’s scoring sheet that is used when conducting

the DRA.

91
Figure 15. Sample of the DRA scoring sheets that was used for data collection on reading
engagement, oral reading flunecy, and reading comprehension respones. The assessor conducts
a running record to determine oral reading fluency.

92
Figure 16. A reading scale is used to score responses to comprehension questions. The sample
shown is level 34, which is equivalent to the target reading level at the middle of third grade.

93
 Qualitative Reading Inventory. The Qualitative Reading Inventory 5th Edition, QRI-5

(2010) is a standardized instrument that can be individually administered. The inventory is

comprised of a spiral bound assessment book composed of narrative and expository passages

categorized by grade level ranging from pre-kindergarten to high school, word lists to assess

textual responses or decoding, and explicit and implicit comprehension questions. The

assessment is designed to assess listening, oral and silent reading abilities. The QRI-5 was

administered prior to and following intervention to evaluate the effect of the intervention on

participant reading levels, oral reading fluency, and the ability to read silently. Appendix 5

features the QRI spiral bound assessment book. A sample of the QRI scoring sheets is shown in

Figure 17.

94
Figure 17. Sample of the QRI Assessment scoring page that is used to conduct a running record
to determine oral reading fluency. Test takers are asked to recall information about the passage,
which can be recorded by the assessor using the checklist provided. Different from, the DRA
assessment open-ended comprehension questions are presented vocally, and assessors record all
student responses. Scores are reported based upon accuracy of responses to explicit, implicit,
and inferential questions.

95
 Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills. The Dynamic Indicators of Basic

Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) (1997) were designed as a cost effective Curriculum Based

Measurement, CBM, for assessing the early literacy skills of students ranging from kindergarten

through sixth grade (Deno & Mirkin, 1977). The DIBELS materials are accompanied with a set

of procedures and measures for assessing the following components related to literacy instruction

and development: 1) alphabetic principle, 2) phonemic awareness, 3) vocabulary, 4) accuracy

and fluency, and 5) reading comprehension. Research has been conducted on the use of DIBELS

materials and procedures on progress monitoring of literacy development with the use of

formative assessment for elementary-aged students (Kaminski & Good, 1996). The University

of Oregon provides a free web-based data system from which student assessment materials can

be electronically downloaded for use in instructional settings.

The materials used from this assessment were scoring booklets and student materials for

both benchmark testing and progress monitoring for students matriculating in grades one through

four. Although all participants in the study were matriculating in the third grade, their grade

level equivalent reading levels were used to select assessment materials that were individualized

to their respective reading levels. Figures 18 and 19 provide a sample of the scoring sheets that

are used to measure oral reading fluency and recall of information presented in the reading

passage.

96
Figure 18. DIBELS Oral Reading Fluency scoring sheet sample. A running record is conducted
and timed to determine oral reading speed. For the purposes of this study, the DIBELS procedure
of conducting one-minute timings was altered to conduct an open-ended timing of participant’s
oral reading speed that would be consistent with pre-and postintervention data collection. Using
the reading duration and number of correct and incorrect words read, the assessor calculated the
participant’s oral reading fluency rate of correct and incorrect words read per minute.

97
Figure 19. The second component of the DIBELS Oral Reading Fluency Assessment requires the
assessor to scribe the participant’s vocal recall of the story. Although the experimenter noted all
of the participants’ comprehension retell responses this portion of the assessment was not
included in the experimental data collection.

98
 Intervention Materials - Read Naturally. Read Naturally Masters Edition, ME (1991),

is an intervention curriculum designed to develop phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency,

vocabulary, and comprehension through the use of teacher modeling, repeated readings, and

progress monitoring. The Read Naturally ME is comprised of reproducible copies of each of the

stories and corresponding comprehension questions from levels 1.0-4.0, which corresponds with

1st through 4th grade reading levels. At each reading level there are 25 non-fiction expository

reading passages. The reading passages were paired with a CD-based voice recording. The

recording reviewed key words, passage related definitions and the text from the story. Within

this curriculum, students are encouraged to read along with the audio recording initially and then

practice reading the story independently to a predetermined goal rate. Student graphs are

provided for students and teachers to graph oral reading fluency following each repeated reading.

During intervention sessions, a MacBook® laptop with a CD drive and over-ear headphones

were used to present the audio component of the curriculum. Appendix 10 features a picture of

the materials used to implement the read naturally intervention phases. Figure 20 features

sample reading passages from the Read Naturally Curriculum.

For some of the assessments, the use of the materials was modified. A detailed

description of the method in which data were collected using each of these instruments will be

described in the dependent variable section to follow.

99
 Figure 20. Sample of the Read Naturally Curriculum passages that were used during
intervention sessions. During intervention sessions, participants rotated between opportunities to
silently read passages and listen to/ follow along with the passages using an audio recording of
the passage. All passages were presented with comprehension questions that included selection
(multiple choice) and production (essay format) responses.

100
Dependent Variables and Data Collection Procedures

There were four dependent variables in Experiment II. The dependent variables

included: a) grade level equivalent reading level, b) oral reading fluency (the number of correct

and incorrect words read per minute for grade level text), c) the number of 30 s intervals during

which participants read silently across three reading conditions, and d) the presence of the

speaker-as-own-listener capability, measured by responses to selection and production

comprehension questions following covert reading.

Grade level Equivalent Reading Level. Data were collected before and after the reading

intervention using the Qualitative Reading Inventory-5, QRI (2010). The assessment is designed

to assess the listening, oral, and silent reading abilities of students. The QRI was used to

determine to grade level equivalent reading level of participants prior to beginning intervention

and following completion of the intervention. The experimental design included a delay across

participants to ensure that the most current reading level was identified for each participant prior

to their participation in the study.

Prior to intervention, the QRI was conducted individually with each participant. Data

were collected in the alcove immediately adjacent to the classroom described in the setting. Pre-

intervention data collection was conducted outside of the classroom setting to ensure that

participant’s responses were audible to the experimenter and second observer. During the QRI

assessment, the participant sat beside the experimenter and across from a second observer at a

square table with three student-sized chairs. Participants were familiar with this experimental

setting, as the same location was used to conduct district-mandated benchmarks in reading using

the Developmental Reading Assessment, DRA.

101
 Participants were familiar with procedures for conducting reading assessments and were

told by the experimenter that they would be reading to identify their reading level. As a result of

the classwide approach to progress monitoring, participants were aware of their reading levels

according to the score reporting system for the DRA (Level 4-50). However, they were not

aware of the grade level equivalent for their reading level (e.g. Level 38 is equivalent to third

grade reading level).

The QRI assessment was administered across four components and data were collected

on both participant responses throughout the assessment and on the fidelity of assessment

procedures. The four components of the assessment included: a) pre-reading questions, b) oral

reading, c) story recall/retell, and d) comprehension questions.

The reading assessment began by presenting the participant with a word list comprised of

20 words on letter-sized paper. Participants were asked to textually respond to the words. The

experimenter covered the text with a piece of laminated paper and uncovered one word at a time.

Both the experimenter and a second observer collected data on student responses to each word.

A plus (+) was recorded for a correct response emitted and a minus (-) was recorded for an

incorrect response, lack of a response, or a response that was not emitted within three s of the

presentation of the printed text. The total number of words read accurately was totaled. The

word list score was used to determine the grade level passage that would be presented to assess

oral reading and comprehension for participants. Based upon the participants’ word list scores,

reading passages were selected for each participant. Expository passages were selected for each

participant within the options of Expository or Narrative reading passages. Expository passages

were selected to align with intervention materials, which exclusively featured non-fiction reading

passages.

102
 A reading passage assessment was presented to each participant on an 8 ½ X 11 in. size

sheet of paper. For some of the QRI reading passages, pictures are included. For the purposes of

this study, comprehension was assessed from text and pictures were edited from the sample

passage provided to participants. Both the experimenter and second observer had a copy of the

assessment to record data on participant responses. All reading passages were reproduced

directly from the QRI manual. The experimenter began by vocally presenting the pre-reading

questions associated with the reading passage (vocally presenting pre-reading questions was the

standard procedure for this assessment). The questions were presented to the participants orally

and the experimenter recorded their vocal responses in written form. The questions presented

assessed the participant’s instructional history with the topic of the reading passage and

associated vocabulary. After completion of the pre-reading questions, the participant was asked

to read the passage presented aloud. The participant was informed that his/her reading would be

timed and that he/she should read quickly and clearly.

A timer was started at the onset of the participant reading and data were collected on the

participant’s textual responding. A check mark (✓) was placed at the end of the sentence if the

participant textually responded to each word accurately. A minus (-) was placed above each

word that the participant textually responded to inaccurately or had more than three s of latency

in responding. A running record of anecdotal notes was taken to denote if the participant omitted

a word, which was later counted as an error, self-corrected a word within two s, reversed words

or phrases, inserted words, or substituted words. A self-correction within two s was the only

response that was not counted as an error. Upon completion of reading, the experimenter

stopped the timer and totaled the number of correct words and incorrect words. The number of

correct or incorrect words was divided by the duration of reading time in seconds and then

103
multiplied by 60 to calculate the participants’ number of correct or incorrect words read per

minute. Both the experimenter and second observer calculated the participant’s reading rate for

the number of correct and incorrect words read per minute.

The last two components of the reading assessment addressed reading comprehension.

Participants were asked to retell the story with as many details as possible. The experimenter

recorded a check mark (✓) for each story detail that the participant emitted. The total number of

details recalled was recorded. Lastly, the experimenter vocally presented explicit and implicit

comprehension questions. Each participant had a corresponding worksheet with the questions

printed. The responses emitted by each participant were recorded on the reproducible copies by

both the experimenter and second observer. Using the QRI scoring guide, a one-point value was

assigned to each correct comprehension question. Using the final score, determined by oral

reading fluency, story retell and response to comprehension questions, a grade level equivalent

reading level was determined. If the initial passage presented was not successful in identifying

the participant’s reading level, additional passages were presented until an independent reading

level was identified.

Silent Reading Probes. Data were collected on the silent reading of each participant

pre and postintervention. Data were collected during classwide opportunities for sustained silent

reading, SSR (McCracken, 1971). SSR was scheduled as a component of daily reading

instruction in the classroom from which the participants were selected. SSR was adopted by the

school district as a component of Balanced Literacy Approach to reading instruction (Calkins,

2014). The participants in the study were expected to engage in silent reading daily, and grade

level expectations for silent reading were designed and monitored using the school district’s

developmental continuum. Refer to Figure 21 for the silent reading expectations across grade

104
levels. The data for silent reading probes were collected on experimenter-prepared data sheets.

The data sheets noted the intervals for which data were recorded on silent reading behaviors.

The experimenter and a second observer collected data on silent reading behavior over a five min

period using 30 s whole interval recording. There were 10 intervals recorded for each

participant. If a participant read covertly, without textually responding aloud, tracking print

stimuli with fingers, or emitting non-vocal oral motor movements while reading for the total

duration of the interval a plus (+) was recorded. If a participant did not read covertly, including

reading aloud, tracking print stimuli with fingers, or emitting non-vocal mouth movements for

the total duration of the interval a minus (-) was recorded.

Silent reading probes were conducted under two conditions: a) Classwide Silent Reading

and b) Individualized Language Arts assignments. The probes were conducted during the

Language Arts Literacy period within the academic schedule of the classroom. Participants sat

in their assigned “reading groups” in a small group comprised of six student desks arranged to

face each other in a cluster. In one condition, participants were provided with a collection of

self-selected books in a “book buddy” (a plastic storage bag designed for keeping reading

materials) and were asked to participate in silent reading. Data were collected while all students

in the classroom engaged in silent reading.

In the other condition, participants were provided with reading materials from their

individualized Language Arts written assignments. Data were collected on the presence or

absence of silent reading using the same whole interval recording procedures when participants

were given a reading passage and comprehension questions within their individualized work,

which was differentiated based upon their reading level. Individualized Language Arts

105
assignments were comprised of a reading passage and a variety of language, grammar, and

comprehension questions associated with the reading passage.

Both conditions were conducted classwide with data collected on only one target

participant at a time. In both conditions all participants had been exposed to the probe condition

routines as daily classroom practice during language arts literacy instruction. The experimenter

collected data on the number of intervals participants read silently using whole interval

recording. For some sessions, participants were video-recorded using a darkened screen to avoid

participant awareness of video recording. Participants were not aware that their reading

behaviors were being observed and recorded in either condition.

106
 EARLY DEVELOPING
____ Retells beginning, middle & end of a text from
memory
____ Uses semantics (context) as cue
____ Uses syntax (grammatical structure) as cue
____ Identifies basic genres
____ Reads with fluency and automatic word
recognition
____ Continues to make meaningful predictions based
on text connections and or prior knowledge
____ Identifies own reading strategies and sets goals
with guidance
____ Identifies main idea or events of text
√ Skills and strategies observed
____ Selects “Just Right” books independently
____ Relies on print more than illustrations
____ Engages in “book talk” during reading listening
experience
____ Uses word structure when encountering unknown
words (roots, prefix, suffix, word part)
____ Increases sight vocabulary
____ Reads and follows directions with guidance
____ Engages in uninterrupted, silent reading for 20
minutes
____ Identifies end features of words to assist with
reading
____ Connects books to own experiences
____ Discusses character traits and motives with
guidance
Instructional Level Grades 2-3
Figure 21. Excerpts from the K-5 Reading Continuum created by the school district, from which
participants were selected, to monitor progress in reading development. Beginning in Grade 1
students were expected to engage in sustained silent reading for five minutes, which increased in
grades 2 and 3 to 20 minutes of uninterrupted silent reading. By grade 5, students are expected to
engage in silent reading for pleasure for up to 40 minutes during academic periods designated for
reading instruction.
107
FLUENT
____ Reads with understanding complex children’s
literature, and young adult literature of all genres
____ Use context clues or knowledge of phonics,
syllabication, prefixes, and suffixes to decode new words
____ Applies spelling patterns and word meaning to aid
in decoding and comprehension
____ Uses increasingly complex vocabulary in
conversation and in writing
____ Independently follows written and oral multi-step
directions
____ Reads challenging material for pleasure
independently for 30-40 minutes
____ Adjust reading speed appropriately for different
purposes
____ Reads aloud fluently with proper phrasing,
inflection and intonation
____ Perseveres through complex reading tasks
____ Gathers, analyzes and uses information from
charts, tables, graphs, maps, and other references
____ Makes inferences using textual information and
provides supporting evidence
____ Begins to evaluate, interpret, and analyzes reading
content critically
____ Use cause and effect and sequence of events to gain
meaning
____ Recognizes and interprets literary devices in text
(e.g. simile, metaphor, personification, alliteration.)
____ Recognize persuasive, historical and cultural biases
and different points of view used to influence readers
____ Generates in-depth responses and sustains small
group literature discussions
____ Generates in-depth written responses by using
reasons and examples to support conclusions/opinions
Instructional Level Grades 5 and up
 Pre and Postintervention Probe Using Read Naturally Intervention Curriculum. In

addition to the silent reading probes, a pre-intervention probe was taken on both silent reading

and responses to selection and production comprehension questions using the intervention

curriculum. The pre-intervention probe was conducted with each participant prior to beginning

the intervention, following the QRI assessment. Participants sat individually with both the

experimenter and a second observer at a small group table in the classroom. While the probes

were conducted, the students in the classroom were engaged in language arts literacy-related

assignments.

Each participant was presented with a reading passage and comprehension questions

from the Read Naturally (1991) curriculum. The passage presented aligned with the grade level

equivalent reading level of each participant, which was identified using the DRA and QRI

assessments. The experimenter asked the participant to read the passage presented silently and

inform the experimenter when he/she was finished. The participants were also informed that the

experimenter would be timing their reading and that they would be asked questions about their

reading. While the participant read, the experimenter collected data on the number of intervals

read silently using the same criteria that was used the evaluate silent reading during the

classwide silent reading probes. After reading the passage, the experimenter calculated the

number of words read per min. The reading passage was then removed from the participant and

selection and production comprehension questions were presented. The experimenter read each

question to the participant and the participant responded vocally and independently selected or

produced in written form his/her responses. The experimenter also recorded participant

responses on a separate copy of the worksheet. The reading passages used as a pre- and post-test

108
measure. The passages selected were not used for intervention sessions and the same passages

were re-presented after completion of the treatment package intervention.

Data Collection

Grade Level Equivalent Reading Level. Data were collected in two ways during the

QRI assessment. During the oral reading component of the assessment, the experimenter timed

the duration that it took for the participant to complete reading the passage of text. Using the

data collected on accurate textual responding and miscues, the experimenter calculated the total

number of words read correctly and incorrectly. The rate of correct and incorrect words read per

minute was calculated by totaling the number the number of correct or incorrect words read,

dividing the number by the total time read in seconds, and multiplying the quotient by 60.

For the pre-reading questions and selection and production comprehension questions,

data were collected on a copy of the reproducible worksheet presented to the participant. A plus

(+) was recorded for a correct response and a minus (-) was recorded for an incorrect response.

The total number of correct and incorrect responses were totaled and converted into a percentage

that was recorded on a table of participant scores.

Silent Reading Probes. Silent reading probes were conducted under varying two

conditions: 1) classwide sustained silent reading and 2) individualized reading work, with the

same data collection procedures. The experimenter and a second observer collected data on the

number of whole intervals that the participant read silently. Using a Motivator® timer, that

automatically reset after 30 second intervals, a plus (+) was recorded if the participant read

silently according to the criteria previously specified. A minus (-) was recorded if the participant

engaged in overt reading.

109
 Pre and Postintervention Measure Using Read Naturally Intervention Curriculum.

Data collection for the pre-intervention baseline was similar to data collection for the QRI

assessment. Data were collected on oral reading by calculating the participants’ reading rate

with the aforementioned formula. Since participants were asked to read silently, the oral reading

rate was calculated as the number of words read per minute. Data were also collected using a

plus (+) or minus (-) for correct or incorrect responses to selection and production

comprehension questions.

Design

The design for Experiment II was a delayed non-concurrent multiple probe design across

participants. In this experiment, the design tested the functionality of the treatment package

intervention by producing behavior change across a variety of subjects with similar academic

repertoires and the same missing prerequisite reading skills (Horner & Baer, 1978). A delayed

non-concurrent probe design was utilized to control for the effects of participant maturation and

history with the assessment materials.

The participants in the study were matched in pairs across three dyads. At the onset of

the study, the experimenter utilized the data collected on the dependent variables in the study, the

school district’s benchmark testing, and data collected on student learning to assign the students

to matched pairs.

According to the experimental design, pre-intervention probes were conducted for

Participant A and B, followed by intervention for both participants as a matched pair. After

Participants A and B completed intervention, post-intervention probes were conducted for both

participants. When the post-intervention data collected demonstrated increased scores for the

110
dependent variables, pre-intervention probes were conducted for Participants C and D, followed

by intervention. The experimental sequence was repeated for Participant E and Participant F.

Independent Variable: Silent Reading Treatment Package - Alternating Reading

Conditions and Peer-Yoked Contingency

The independent variable in Experiment II was a treatment package consisting of two

reading conditions a) alternating between reading silently and b) listening to audio-recorded

stories in an effort to join the listener and speaker components of reading defined as the speaker-

as-own-listener capability (Greer & Ross, 2008; Greer & Speckman, 2009; Keohane & Greer,

2005; Skinner, 1957).

The reading intervention was implemented with a yoked contingency between matched

pairs. Several studies have shown a functional relationship between the implementation of a

peer-yoked contingency and the acquisition of cusps/capabilities (Stolfi, 2005; Davies-Lackey,

2005; Rothstein & Gautreaux, 2007). The yoked contingency was selected as a teaching tactic

within the treatment package to create a potential motivating condition utilizing a social

contingency between peers. The participants in the study all had an instructional history with the

yoked contingency game board as it was utilized in the classroom as a teaching tactic for

learning, the induction of missing cusps and capabilities, and on a limited basis for performance

behaviors. During the intervention sessions, the participants played a game against the

experimenter using a yoked contingency game board. Appendix 12 features a picture of the

yoked contingency game board that was used for intervention sessions for the three matched

pairs.

In preparation for intervention, participants were placed in matched pairs based upon

their reading repertoires, cusps, and capabilities. Pairs were also arranged so that one participant

111
in the pair had a higher reading level and or reading rate than his/her matched pair, to help

arrange motivating contingencies within the peer-yoked game. The participants reading levels

and reading rates were identified by pre-intervention assessment outlined, routine classroom data

collection on reading cusps and capabilities (e.g. reading fluency instruction), and standardized

assessments adopted by the school district from which all participants were selected. The

reading materials selected for each student for intervention sessions were based upon their grade

level equivalent independent reading level and varied for participants within the matched pair.

Although participants were placed in matched pairs, all intervention sessions were

conducted with one participant and the experimenter using individualized reading passages. The

participants did not participate in intervention sessions with their matched pair because of the

individualization of the reading materials. Matched pairs were created based upon the

participant’s reading repertoires and peer contingencies. The experimenter matched participants

1 and 2 and participants 5 and 6 based upon the motivating operation that was created as a result

of participants being placed on the “same team.”

It is important to note that the intervention replaced daily fluency-based instruction in

reading for all participants. Data collected during the intervention sessions provided the

participants and experimenter with feedback on the participants’ reading rate. Additional fluency

based instruction was not conducted to avoid confounding the results of the intervention on post-

intervention reading fluency measurement. See Table 6 for an overview of the matched pairs.

112
Table 6

Overview of the Matched Pairs of Participants including Reading Rate and DRA Reading Level

Participant Reading Level Reading Rate Matched Pair Reading Reading Rate
Level
1 24 120 CWPM 2 12 100 CWPM
3 16 90 CWPM 4 18 90 CWPM
5 28 130 CWPM 6 10 100 CWPM
Procedure

Independent Variable: Silent Reading Treatment Package. Prior to intervention, the

experimenter met with the participants in a group and explained that the participants would be

using a new reading program. All participants, with the exception Participant 5, were selected

from the same group designed for homogenous small group reading instruction. The

experimenter explained that the reading program was an audio reading program and would allow

the participants to practice their reading along with a recorded story.

The experimenter informed participants that they would be paired with a partner and

could work as a team towards a desired reward using a game board. Prior to intervention

sessions, the experimenter sat alongside each participant in the setting in which experimental

sessions were conducted and provided a demonstration of how the audio based reading program

would be utilized with a laptop and headphones. The experimenter also shared a sample of the

reading worksheet that accompanied each story. The sample audio story and worksheet used for

the demonstration was not used for any of the participants as teaching material during the

intervention due to participant exposure. See Figure 22 for the experimenter script that was

utilized when introducing the experiment and materials to participants.

113
 Script for Students

I would like to talk to you about a reading program.

In this reading program (show student reading binder with reading materials/worksheets) we will be
using new materials during reading. We will be using a CD player and a headset to listen to stories (show
student CD player, CD library of recorded stories and headset).

You will be listening to stories on tape and answering questions about the stories. (show the section of the
accompanying worksheet with the questions)

I want to show you what the stories sound like through the headset. Would you like to listen?
(Play “Mammals” story for student to hear)

I have another piece of equipment I want to show you. This is a tape recorder (show equipment). Usually,
when you read with me I listen to you very carefully and while you read and I take notes.

Now when you read to me, I will be still be listening very carefully but I will also be recording your voice
while you read. I will be recording your voice using this voice recorder (show student equipment
again). You will have a chance to listen to yourself read using this recorder and headphones.

Listen to this recording of me reading a story.

(Share researcher’s recording)

Would you like to practice recording your voice and hear what it sounds like?
(Allow student to practice recording their voice using the tape recorder)

When we use this reading program we will be working on reading or listening to stories and
understanding the story.

I would like to try this reading program with you because it might help me to understand ways to teach
reading.

Thank you letting me talk with you about this reading program.

Do you have any questions that I can answer? Remember, you can ask me questions about this reading
program at anytime.

It is up to you to decide if you would like to use this reading program. Would you like to use this reading
program?

If you decide that you do not want to do this program at any time you can let me know and I will give you
another assignment.

114
Figure 22. The script presented to participants used to explain and model the Read Naturally
Curriculum after parental consent was obtained.

During the intervention, the participant sat with the experimenter and a second observer

at a small group instruction table. The experimenter sat directly next to the participant, while the

second and in some sessions third observer(s) sat across from the student. In front of the

participant was a laptop with an inserted CD of audio-based reading passages, a set of

headphones, a worksheet from the Read Naturally Curriculum, and a writing instrument. Beside

the student was a yoked contingency game board with game pieces. Both the experimenter and

second observer had a clipboard, copy of the reading worksheet given to the participant, a

worksheet used for data collection, and a writing instrument.

Prior to the intervention, the experimenter met with participants in their matched pairs

and explained and modeled for students examples of reading silently as well as non-exemplars of

silent reading. Participants were expected to read the text without engaging in overt reading

behavior. The experimenter explained that participants should not follow along with the text by

scanning it with their fingers, “mouthing” or engaging in oral motor movements while textually

responding to the text, or reading aloud.

At the onset of intervention sessions, participants were presented with a printed non-

fiction reading passage on 8 ½ X 11 in. computer paper. The reading passages selected for each

participant were individualized to their reading ability and thus varied across participants and

within some matched pairs. During intervention sessions, participants alternated between two

reading conditions: a) following along with a printed passage while listening to an audio-story

and b) an opportunity to read a passage covertly. In one condition, participants listened to an

audio story and were instructed to silently follow along with the printed text of the story. In the

other condition, participants were presented with printed text of a story and instructed to read the

115
text silently without the accompaniment of the audio-recorded story. In both conditions,

participants were asked to read the text covertly, given the antecedent, “Please read silently.”

Participants alternated reading conditions and reading sessions with their peers; however, both

participants in the matched pair were presented with the same reading condition for the purposes

of the peer-yoked contingency (e.g. Participant A reads passage 23 silently without audio-

recording, followed by Participant B reads passage 12 silently without audio-recording).

Following either condition, participants responded to explicit selection and production questions

both vocally and in written form to assess reading comprehension.

During the independent silent reading condition, the peer-yoked contingency was

implemented using a yoked contingency game board. The peer-yoked contingency was not

implemented during the audio-based reading condition. Participant responses were consequated

in matched pairs. After each participant in the pair completed his/her reading sessions, the

experimenter met with the pair to share the ‘status’ of progression on the game board (e.g.

“Participant A met criterion, Participant B if you read the passage silently and answer the

questions correctly, your team move up on the game board”). After the second participant in the

pair completed his/her reading session, the experimenter met with the matched pair, so that they

could both observe the consequence of their game piece progressing on the game board.

For the peer-yoked contingency, progression on the game board was contingent upon

both students in the pair silently reading the text and meeting the pre-determined criterion level

for responses to selection and production comprehension questions. If both students read the text

covertly (based upon observation and data collection) for 100% of the 10 s reading intervals

(intervals varied for each participant and session based upon the participant’s reading rate) and

responded to comprehension questions with 80% correct responding they moved up a space on

116
the game board. If one or both of the students did not read silently for the duration of the story

or meet criterion on the comprehension questions presented, the experimenter progressed on the

game board. When the matched pair advanced five spaces on the game board before the

experimenter did they received a predetermined self-selected reinforcer. Within the matched

pairs, participants selected rewards including: playing a board game with a peer, obtaining access

to the classroom iPad© for educational applications, having the opportunity to have a special

lunch in the classroom with a peer, and selecting a book to purchase from the classwide online

book order.

Once both participants achieved criterion on silent reading and criterion level responses

to comprehension questions, the intervention was complete and post-intervention data were

collected. Criterion for mastery of the Read Naturally intervention was set at two consecutive

sessions of 100% covert reading and 80% or higher accuracy for response to comprehension

questions. Participants remained in match pairs throughout the intervention. If one participant in

the pair achieved criterion prior to the other, both participants continued to remain in

intervention sessions. Participants remained in pairs to experimentally control for the number of

learning opportunities presented to each participant within the intervention phases and to

maintain the establishing operation of the yoked contingency throughout the intervention.

Following completion of the intervention, post-intervention probe data were collected

across all of the dependent variables.

Interobserver and Interscorer Agreement

A second observer conducted interobserver and interscorer agreement for both the

experimental and probe data collection sessions. A total of three persons provided interobserver

or interscorer agreement throughout the experiment. All of the additional observers and scorers

117
were trained in the principles of Applied Behavior Analysis and had completed the certification

course on Research with Human Participants prior to the onset of the study. Prior to beginning

data collection, a PowerPoint overview session of the experiment, direct training, and assessment

was conducted with each additional data collector. During the training, the experimenter

provided an operational definition of overt and covert (silent) reading behavior and modeled

non-exemplars of covert reading (e.g. oral motor movements). The experimenter reviewed the

experimental materials and differentiated data collection procedures that would be utilized

during the experiment. Lastly, the experimenter reviewed the procedures for calculating reading

rate using a prescribed formula. All of the scorers assisted with routine data collection on

student learning in the classroom and had mastered calculating reading rate. Each independent

observer was expected to meet criterion with 100% accuracy on a quiz comprised of 10 selection

response (multiple choice) questions on the experimental phases, materials, and data collection

procedures. The quiz could be recycled, or retaken, up to two additional times to achieve

mastery, prior to assisting with data collection and agreement for the study. All second

observers/scorers met criterion on the quiz. During the experiment, the role of the second

observer/scorer varied depending upon the data that were being collected.

Interobserver Agreement. Interobserver agreement (IOA) was conducted for the silent

reading probe sessions, during which data were collected on the overt and covert reading

behavior of participants individually using whole interval recording. Silent reading probe

sessions were conducted prior to and following intervention and during the reading intervention

sessions. Interobserver agreement was conducted with the physical presence of a second

observer. Due to the range in behaviors that could be observed (e.g. whispering, subtle oral

motor movements), the experimenter predetermined that these sessions should be directly

118
observed instead of using video or audio recordings. While the participants’ reading behaviors

were simultaneously observed, each observer separately recorded his/her observations. Data

were compared upon completion of the pre or postintervention probe or intervention session.

Interscorer Agreement. Interscorer agreement (ISA) was conduced for the following

dependent variables: a) grade-level equivalent reading level, b) reading fluency, and c) responses

to selection and production comprehension questions. Interscorer agreement was conduced

during the components of experimental sessions in which data were collected on reading fluency

and responses to comprehension questions during reading assessments prior to and after reading

intervention sessions. A second observer collected data based upon direct observation and

permanent products. Permanent products were used to conduct interscorer agreement on

participant responses to comprehension questions following intervention sessions. During the

sessions, when ISA or IOA were conducted, data were collected separately and compared

following the session. Interobserver and interscorer agreement was calculated by dividing the

number of agreements into the total number of agreements plus disagreements and multiplying

the quotient by the number 100 (Cooper et al., 2007).

Tables 6 shows the interobserver agreement conducted for each participant during pre-

and post-intervention silent reading probe sessions. Table 7 provides interscorer agreement for

each participant for intervention sessions.

Procedural Fidelity. The dependent variable of ‘grade-level equivalent reading level’

required the experimenter to conduct reading assessments with participants pre and

postintervention. To ensure that the assessments were administered consistently across

participants, procedural fidelity was measured using the Teacher Performance Rate and

Accuracy Scale (TPRA) (Ross, Singer-Dudek, & Greer, 2005). The TPRA is an integral

119
component of teacher training and evaluation that provides systematic feedback on both teacher

and student behavior within the CABAS® model of instruction. The TPRA can be utilized to

evaluate teacher instruction, identify teaching tactics to alter the teacher’s delivery of instruction

or student responding, and improve the rate of learning for students. The results of a TPRA

provide an instructor with data collection on the clarity and accuracy of antecedents delivered,

student responses or behaviors emitted, and the response of the instructor to the student’s

behavior from a second observer. For the purposes of this experiment, the TPRA was used as a

tool to ensure that procedural fidelity was measured for components of the reading assessments

that were conducted.

Table 8

The Percentage of Experimental Silent Reading Probe Sessions during which Interobserver

Agreement was conducted, the Mean Agreement, and Rage of Agreement for Participants

Participant 1 2 3 4 5 6
Percentage of 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
Sessions
Mean Agreement 100% 100% 100% 98% 98% 100%
Range of Agreement 100% 100% 100% 96-100% 97-100% 100%

Table 9

The Percentage of Intervention Sessions during which Interscorer Agreement was

Conducted, the Mean Agreement, and Range of Agreement for Participants

Participant 1 2 3 4 5 6
Percentage of 100% 100% 100% 100% 85% 85%
Sessions
Mean Agreement 98% 98% 100% 92% 96% 100%
Range of Agreement 94%- 92%- 100% 89%- 82%- 100%
100% 100% 100% 100%

120
 RESULTS

All participants in Experiment II acquired silent reading with comprehension as a

result of the silent reading treatment package comprised of alternating reading conditions and a

peer-yoked contingency. All six participants in the study mastered the intervention by achieving

between 80-100% accuracy on comprehension questions after reading a passage silently without

engaging in overt reading behaviors (e.g. reading aloud, reading in a whisper tone, engaging in

oral motor movements while reading, or visually tracking print stimuli with fingers or a writing

instrument) for 100% of the duration of reading. Post-intervention data collection indicated that

participants generalized silent reading with comprehension across two reading conditions: a)

Classwide silent reading and b) individualized Language Arts assignments comprised of reading

passages and comprehension activities.

Data collection demonstrated that all participants engaged in significantly higher numbers

of reading intervals in which they engaged in covert reading with evidence of comprehension.

The data collected for each participant across experimental probe and intervention sessions are

presented in the matched participant pairs across Figures 23-38. Post-intervention data

collection demonstrated that Participants 1,4, 5, 6 improved in their respective reading levels.

Pre-and postintervention data collected on grade level equivalent reading level and reading

fluency rates are presented in Table 8. Participants 2, 3, 4, 5,6 improved their reading rate. Table

9 provides an overview of the reading rate goal per grade level identified by the QRI assessment

(Leslie & Caldwell, 2011). All of the participants in the study exceeded the rates for their

respective grade level equivalent reading levels based upon the QRI Assessment standards.

121
 Intervals of Covert Reading During Classwide SSR

PRE POST
Number of 30 Second Intervals in a Five-Minute Sample of Covert Reading

10  
9  
9  
8  
8  
7  
6  
5  
Participant 1
4  
3   0   0  
2  
1  
0  
1   2   3   4  

10  
9   9  
9  
8  
7  
6  
5  
4   Participant 2
3   0   0  
2  
1  
0  
1   2   3   4  
Sessions

Figure 24. The number of 30 second intervals; using whole-interval recording, that Participants 1
and 2 (matched pair) engaged in covert (silent) reading pre-and postintervention during
classwide sustained silent reading, SSR.

122
 Intervals of Covert Reading During Language Arts Assignments

PRE POST
10  
10  
9  
9  
8  
Number of 30 Second Intervals in a Five-Minute Sample of Covert Reading

7  
6  
5  
4   Participant 1
3  
0   0  
2  
1  
0  
1   2   3   4  

10  
9  
9  
8  
8  
7  
6  
5  
Participant 2
4  
3   0   0  
2  
1  
0  
1   2   Sessions 3   4  

Figure 25. The number of 30 second intervals; using whole-interval recording, that Participants 1
and 2 (matched pair) engaged in covert (silent) reading pre-and postintervention during
individualized language arts assignments.

123
 Responses During Pre and Postintervention Sessions

PRE POST
Participant 1
100  
90  
80  
70  
60   Intervals Read Covertly
Series1  
50   Series2  
Comprehension Questions
40  
30  
Percentage of Correct Responses

20  
10  
0  
1   2   3   4   5   6  

Responses During Yoked Contingency Reading Intervention

100  
90  
80  
70  
60  
Intervals Read Covertly
Series1  
50  
Series2  
Comprehension Questions
40  
30  
20  
10  
0  
1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9   10   11   12   13   14  
Sessions

Figure 26. Graph 1: percentage of intervals read covertly and percentage of correct responses to
comprehension questions during pre-and postintervention baselines measures conduced with the
Read Naturally Curriculum. Graph 2: Percentage of intervals read covertly and correct responses
to comprehension questions during the yoked contingency reading intervention sessions.

124
 Responses During Pre and Postintervention Sessions

PRE POST
100   Participant 2
90  
80  
70  
60   Series1  
Intervals Read Covertly
50  
Series2  
Comprehension Questions
40  
30  
Percentage of Correct Responses

20  
10  
0  
1   2   3   4   5   6  

Responses During Yoked Contingency Reading Intervention

100  
90  
80  
70  
60   Intervals Read Covertly
Series1  
50  
Comprehension Questions
Series2  
40  
30  
20  
10  
0  
1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9   10   11   12   13   14  
Sessions

Figure 27. Graph 1: percentage of intervals read covertly and percentage of correct responses to
comprehension questions during pre-and postintervention baselines measures conduced with the
Read Naturally Curriculum. Graph 2: Percentage of intervals read covertly and correct responses
to comprehension questions during the yoked contingency reading intervention sessions.

125
 Intervals of Covert Reading During Classwide SSR

PRE POST
10  
9  
Number of 30 Second Intervals in a Five-Minute Sample of Covert Reading

9  
8  
8  
7  
6  
Participant 3
5  
4  
3  
2  
2  
1  
1  
0  
1   2   3   4  

10  
9   9  
9  
8  
7  
6  
5  
4   Participant 4
3   3  
3  
2  
1  
0  
1   2   3   4  

Sessions

Figure 28. The number of 30 second intervals; using whole-interval recording, that Participants 3
and 4 (matched pair) engaged in covert (silent) reading pre-and postintervention during
classwide sustained silent reading, SSR.
126
 Intervals of Covert Reading During Language Arts Assignments
PRE POST 10  
10  
9  
9  

8  
Number of 30 Second Intervals in a Five-Minute Sample of Covert Reading

7  

6  

5   Participant 3

4  

3   0   0  
2  

1  

0  
1   2   3   4  

10   10  
10  
9  
8  
7  
6  
5   Participant 4
4  
3  
0   0  
2  
1  
0  
1   2   3   4  
Sessions

Figure 29. The number of 30 second intervals; using whole-interval recording, that Participants 3
and 4 (matched pair) engaged in covert (silent) reading pre-and postintervention during
individualized language arts assignments.

127
 Responses During Pre and Postintervention Sessions
PRE POST Participant 3
100  
90  
80  
70  
60   Intervals Read Covertly
Series1  
50   Series2  
Comprehension Questions
Percentage of Correct Responses

40  
30  
20  
10  
0  
1   2   3   4   5   6  

Responses During Yoked Contingency Reading Intervention

100  
90  
80  
70  
60  
Series1  
Intervals Read Covertly
50  
Series2  
40   Comprehension Questions
30  
20  
10  
0  
1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9   10  
Sessions

Figure 30. Graph 1: percentage of intervals read covertly and percentage of correct responses to
comprehension questions during pre-and postintervention baselines measures conduced with the
Read Naturally Curriculum. Graph 2: Percentage of intervals read covertly and correct responses
to comprehension questions during the yoked contingency reading intervention sessions.

128
 Responses During Pre and Postintervention Sessions

PRE POST
100  
Participant 4
90  
80  
70  
60   Intervals
Series1   Read Covertly
50  
Series2  
Comprehension Questions
40  
30  
Percentage of Correct Responses

20  
10  
0  
1   2   3   4   5   6  

Responses During Yoked Contingency Reading Intervention

100  
90  
80  
70  
60   Intervals Read Covertly
Series1  
50  
Comprehension Questions
Series2  
40  
30  
20  
10  
0  
1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9   10  
Sessions

Figure 31. Graph 1: percentage of intervals read covertly and percentage of correct responses to
comprehension questions during pre-and postintervention baselines measures conduced with the
Read Naturally Curriculum. Graph 2: Percentage of intervals read covertly and correct responses
to comprehension questions during the yoked contingency reading intervention sessions.

129
 Intervals of Covert Reading During Classwide SSR

PRE POST
10   10  
Number of 30 Second Intervals in a Five-Minute Sample of Covert Reading

10  
9  
8  
7   Participant 5
6  
5  
4  
3  
2  
1   1  
1  
0  
1   2   3   4  

10  
9  
8  
7  
6  
5  
5   Participant 6
4  
4  
3   0   0  

2  
1  
0  
1   2   3   4  
Sessions
Figure 32. The number of 30 second intervals; using whole-interval recording, that Participants 5
and 6 (matched pair) engaged in covert (silent) reading pre-and postintervention during
classwide sustained silent reading, SSR.

130
 Intervals of Covert Reading During Language Arts Assignments

PRE 10   POST 10  
10  

9  
Number of 30 Second Intervals in a Five-Minute Sample of Covert Reading

8  

7  

6  

5   Participant 5
4  

3  
0   0  
2  

1  

0  
1   2   3   4  

10  
9  
9  
8  
8  

7  

6  

5  
Participant 6

4  

3  
0   0  
2  

1  

0  
1   2   3   4  
Sessions

Figure 33. The number of 30 second intervals; using whole-interval recording, that Participants 5
and 6 (matched pair) engaged in covert (silent) reading pre-and postintervention during
individualized language arts assignments.

131
 Responses During Pre and Postintervention Sessions

PRE POST Participant 5

100  
90  
80  
70  
60   Intervals Read Covertly
Series1  
50   Series2  
Comprehension Questions
40  
Percentage of Correct Responses

30  
20  
10  
0  
1   2   3   4   5   6  

Responses During Yoked Contingency Reading Intervention

100  
90  
80  
70  
60  
Intervals Read Covertly
Series1  
50  
Series2  
Comprehension Questions
40  
30  
20  
10  
0  
1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9   10   11   12   13   14   15   16  
Sessions

Figure 34. Graph 1: percentage of intervals read covertly and percentage of correct responses to
comprehension questions during pre-and postintervention baselines measures conduced with the
Read Naturally Curriculum. Graph 2: Percentage of intervals read covertly and correct responses
to comprehension questions during the yoked contingency reading intervention sessions.

132
 Responses During Pre and Postintervention Sessions
PRE POST Participant 6
100  
90  
80  
70  
60   Intervals Read Covertly
Series1  
50   Comprehension Questions
Series2  
40  
30  
Percentage of Correct Responses

20  
10  
0  
1   2   3   4   5   6  

Responses During Yoked Contingency Reading Intervention

100  
90  
80  
70  
60   Intervals Read Covertly
Series1  
50  
Comprehension Questions
Series2  
40  
30  
20  
10  
0  
1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9   10   11   12   13   14   15   16  
Sessions

Figure 35. Graph 1: percentage of intervals read covertly and percentage of correct responses to
comprehension questions during pre-and postintervention baselines measures conduced with the
Read Naturally Curriculum. Graph 2: Percentage of intervals read covertly and correct responses
to comprehension questions during the yoked contingency reading intervention sessions.

133
 Responses During Yoked Contingency Reading Intervention

Participant 1
100  
90  
80  
70  
60   Intervals Read Covertly
Series1  
50  
Series2  
Comprehension Questions
40  
30  
Percentage of Correct Responses

20  
10  
0  
1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9   10   11   12   13   14  
Sessions

Responses During Yoked Contingency Reading Intervention

Participant 2
100  
90  
80  
70  
60   Intervals Read Covertly
Series1  
50  
Comprehension Questions
Series2  
40  
30  
20  
10  
0  
1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9   10   11   12   13   14  
Sessions

Figure 36. Reading intervention graphs for Participants 1 and 2.

134
 Responses During Yoked Contingency Reading Intervention

Participant 3
100  
90  
80  
70  
60   Intervals Read Covertly
Series1  
50  
Comprehension Questions
Series2  
40  
Percentage of Correct Responses

30  
20  
10  
0  
1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9   10  

Participant 4
100  
90  
80  
70  
Intervals Read Covertly
Series1  
60  
50   Series2  
Comprehension Questions
40  
30  
20  
10  
0  
1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9   10  
Sessions

Figure 37. Reading intervention graphs for Participants 3 and 4.

135
 Responses During Yoked Contingency Reading Intervention

Participant 5
100  
90  
80  
70  
60   Intervals Read Covertly
Series1  
50  
Series2  
Comprehension Questions
40  
30  
Percentage of Correct Responses

20  
10  
0  
1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9   10   11   12   13   14   15   16  
Sessions

Participant 6

100  
90  
80  
70  
Intervals
Series1   Read Covertly
60  
50   Series2  
Comprehension Questions
40  
30  
20  
10  
0  
1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9   10   11   12   13   14   15   16  
Sessions

Figure 38. Reading intervention graphs for Participants 5 and 6.

136
Table 10

Description of the Dependent Variables of Grade Level Equivalent Reading Level and Reading

Fluency Rate Presented in Correct Words per Minute (CWPM) for Grade Level Equivalent Text

with Two or Less Errors for Participants Pre-and Postintervention

Participant QRI Score Reading Rate QRI Score Reading Rate

Pre-Intervention Pre-Intervention Post-Intervention Post-Intervention
1 Second 120 Third 120
2 Primer 100 Primer 115
3 First 90 First 120
4 Second 90 Third 100
5 Second 130 Third 150
6 Primer 100 Second 110

Table 11

Ranges of Oral Reading Rate and Correct Word Read Per Minute Standards for Students

Reading at Instructional Level Referenced by the Qualitative Reading Inventory

(Leslie & Caldwell, 2011)

Level Words Per Minute WPM Correct Words Per Minute

Pre-Primer-P 23-59 13-55
Pre-Primer-NP 22-64 11-59
Primer 28-66 10-52
First 37-77 20-68
Second 43-89 19-77
Third 56-104 53-101
Fourth 57-115 54-112
Fifth 65-121 62-118

137
 Chapter IV

GENERAL DISCUSSION

Experimental Findings

Experiment I Findings. Experiment I was a non-intervention experimental comparison

of age groups designed to investigate reading capabilities with a multi-age sample of fluent

readers. The findings indicated that readers who have developed a fluent reading repertoire in the

areas of reading fluency and comprehension have consistent reading abilities despite the reading

condition or topography. An analysis of the elementary-aged participants identified consistent

reading rates and comprehension scores in both the silent and aloud reading conditions. This is

an advanced capability that may be considered an essential component of a fluent reading

repertoire. Children in the primary years of education begin to develop reading readiness skills.

In the elementary years children engage with text orally and silently and are expected to decode

and comprehend in either reading condition. Elementary-aged students as early as third grade are

expected to acquire fluent reading repertoires in order to acquire concepts and skills across

subject areas. Students without the ability to read and comprehend text orally and silently may

be at risk for academic failure and below grade level performance.

Reading development continues throughout your academic career. The fluent adult

readers in the study demonstrated that reading fluency may improve with age, instruction, and

conditioned reinforcement for reading. The adult readers in the study read on average, two times

faster than the elementary participants in both reading conditions. Consistent with previous

studies, Experiment I correlated improvements in reading speed and accuracy with increased age

and reading instruction. However, the most significant finding from this study was that the adult

readers demonstrated more efficient reading in the silent reading condition. The graduate

138
students who participated in the study were able to read two times faster rate in the silent reading

condition with consistent comprehension when compared to the read aloud condition. The

identification of this difference in reading speed and comprehension when reading silently results

in increased understanding of reading development milestones. The ability to read text silently

and comprehend may be an essential phase of development that is a prerequisite to acquiring a

fluent reading repertoire. Based upon the findings of Experiment I, readers who can read and

comprehend text covertly may be more likely to read and comprehend text at a faster rate.

Improvements in reading speed and comprehension may result in increased academic

independence and faster rates of learning.

Although the age range of participants varied significantly, all of the participants in the

study were matriculating students at the time that the study was conducted. Therefore, it can be

assumed that all of the participants had an instructional history with reading and exposure to

reading activities and tasks on a routine basis. The elementary-aged participants in the study

were identified as the highest performing readers within their grade level based upon teacher

assessments and standardized test scores. The adult readers were identified as fluent readers

because they were matriculating in graduate level coursework. The sample population studied

provided insight into the reading capabilities of a range of fluent readers. An increased

understanding of reading development and the reading capabilities of fluent readers can inform

reading instruction, assessment and teaching practices. The outcomes of this study resulted in

new research questions concerning developing readers and students who perform below grade

level in reading and comprehension as a result of an inability to read text as efficiently as the

fluent readers in Experiment I.

139
 Experiment II Findings. Experiment II was conducted with a group of students all

identified as lacking the ability to engage in silent covert reading with comprehension. The

treatment package was designed to test a procedure to teach silent covert reading with

comprehension among this distinct population. The participants in the study all performed below

grade level in the area of reading/language arts at the onset of the study. Based upon the Verbal

Behavior Developmental Theory, the identification of missing prerequisite cusps and capabilities

is essential for remediating academic delays and learning difficulties. Given the findings of

Experiment I, the experimenter identified that the ability to read silently and covertly with

comprehension was an essential reading capability. According to the verbal behavior literature

the capability to engage in silent covert reading and simultaneously comprehend text ‘beneath

the skin’ was defined as the speaker-as-own-listener capability (Skinner, 1957; Greer &

Keohane, 2005). The experimenter speculated that the lack of the speaker-as-own-listener

capability might have been a missing component skill that resulted in below grade level

performance and prevented the participants from acquiring a fluent reading repertoire. The

outcomes of Experiment II validated the effectiveness of the procedure at inducing the speaker-

as-own-listener capability for silent covert reading.

Social Implication for Experiment II Findings. The outcomes of Experiment II also have

social implications. The participants in Experiment II had academic delays and identified delays

in their social development. All of the participants had a form of disability, whether neurological,

developmental, or experiential that at times negatively impacted their social behavior and for

some participants presented challenges for conversation and social interaction with peers. The

experimenter speculated that there might be a relationship between the participants’ lack of the

speaker-as-own-listener capability, which was identified in relation to reading, and the

140
participants’ social behavior. If the participants lacked the ability to “read” text covertly and

demonstrate comprehension, perhaps, this missing capability, explained the inability of

participants to “read,” comprehend, and independently navigate social situations, even when

peers modeled appropriate desirable behavior. Evidence of this is provided by the fact that the

participants lacked audience control and consistently engaged in overt reading during silent

reading periods in their classroom while the majority of their peer group read covertly. The

speaker-as-own-listener capability is used often by both children and adults when engaging in a

wide range of behaviors (e.g. play, conversation, and problem solving). We are likely having

“conversations” with ourselves daily using the speaker-as-own-listener capability. This

advanced “invisible” skill that occurs ‘beneath the skin’ allows us to acquire information, learn

new skills and concepts, engage in relevant conversation, problem solve, and make seemingly

automatic decisions. Therefore, the presence or absence of the speaker-as-own-listener capability

is likely to impact academic performance, learning, use of language, and social skills.

Essentially, the ability for us as individuals to be “verbal” and have a socially appropriate effect

on our environment may be largely attributed to the speaker-as-own-listener capability.

Educational Significance

The educational literature has a body of research dedicated to reading development and

instruction. However a limited sample of applied research presenting evidence-based procedures

for systematically teaching silent reading with comprehension has been identified. The

outcomes of Experiment II are significant by expanding upon evidence-based procedures for

teaching reading skills that are essential for academic success. The findings of this study resulted

in the identification of intervention to teach silent reading with comprehension-an essential

component of acquiring a fluent reading repertoire. This intervention can be used to remediate

141
students who are performing below grade level in reading and unlikely to develop the ability to

read text for education, functional needs, or pleasure efficiently. Additionally, the study

combines theories from the educational, psychological, and verbal behavior literature to address

an under- researched topic in reading instruction and practice.

Limitations

Experiment I Limitations. There are identified limitations in both experiments. In

Experiment I, the number of questions may have been a limitation in the results of the analysis.

The participants were presented with six questions following both reading conditions (a total of

12 opportunities to assess comprehension). Perhaps the results of the analysis would have

differed if the participants were provided with more opportunities to respond. Another limitation

to consider is the effect that the observer may have had on the performance of the readers. The

elementary-aged participants in the study may have had an advantage due to the nature of their

level of education. The elementary-aged participants had a more recent instructional history for

reading aloud and having their reading skills assessed. Therefore, it may have been less likely

that their reading fluency or comprehension was negatively impacted by the presence of the

observer while they engaged with the text. For example, all of the fourth and fifth grade

participants had benchmark assessments throughout the school year when they were expected to

sit with an instructor, read aloud, and respond to comprehension questions while being assessed

for reading fluency and text comprehension. Conversely, it is assumed that the graduate student

participants had not had a reading assessment in this format as frequently or recently in their

instructional history when compared to the elementary-aged participants. It is speculated that the

reading experiences of the adult participants were more likely to have been solitary and without

142
direct observation. As a result, the presence of an observer may have negatively impacted the

reading fluency and comprehension performance of adults and therefore is a potential limitation.

Experiment II Limitations. The participants in Experiment II were third grade students

at the time when the study was conducted. In addition to the reading intervention using the

audio-based Read Naturally Curriculum, the participants continued to receive instruction in

reading and language arts using the district-adopted curriculum, a Balanced Literacy Approach

to Instruction (Fountas & Pinnell, 2001). Although the intervention took the place of reading

fluency instruction and differed from the routines, materials, and teaching procedures of

Balanced Literacy and the Reader’s Workshop method of instruction, it is possible that the

combination of reading instruction and the treatment package had an effect on the participant

outcomes. To account for this potential limitation within the learning environment and

participant maturation, the experimenter selected a non-concurrent multiple probe design across

participants and implemented an experimental delay across matched pairs for the intervention.

A peer-yoked contingency was a component of the treatment package in Experiment II.

Peer-yoked contingencies have proven to be effective tactics for teaching and inducing

cusps/capabilities (Stolfi, 2005; and Davies-Lackey, 2005; Rothstein & Gautreaux, 2007).

However, in prior studies the peer-yoked contingency has typically involved participants

engaging with a peer and the game board while seated together and simultaneously engaged in

an intervention session. In this experiment, the procedure for use of the peer-yoked contingency

was modified. The changes in the implementation of the peer-yoked contingency and the use of

the game board after participants completed individual interaction sessions may have been a

limitation. The reinforcement that the participants contacted from arrangement of the peer

contingency could have been altered as a result of this procedural change. It is difficult to

143
determine is this tatic was effective and positively impacted the rate of learning of participant

pairs by creating an motivating operation.

One additional potential limitation for Experiment II was the exposure to the probe

condition for all participants. The dependent variable of the number of intervals of silent covert

reading was measured pre-and postintervention. However, a period of time for students to

engage in silent covert reading during a silent reading period was a routine practice associated

with the school curriculum for reading and language arts instruction. Therefore, the participants

were exposed to the probe condition throughout the study. The repeated exposure to the probe

condition is a notable limitation. However, it is also important to note that all of the participants

in the study had been exposed to this reading condition and reading routine beginning in

kindergarten and throughout first and second grade. Additionally, the study began after the

students had been enrolled in third grade for four months and had therefore been exposed to the

probe condition for an extended period of time without identified changes in their silent covert

reading prior to that start of the pre-intervention data collection. Lastly, the experimental delay

and non-concurrent intervention controlled for this potential confound in the study.

Limitation of Experiments I and II. The reading materials in both Experiment I and

Experiment II were designed to utilize non-fiction reading material. The experimenter selected

non-fiction material to promote the opportunity for the participants in both experiments to

acquire new information related to “grade level/age appropriate” concepts. However, a

limitation associated with materials is the possibility that participants might have had an

instructional history with the topic that they were reading, which may have had an effect on

responses to comprehension questions. In Experiment I, the sample size and counterbalancing of

the materials and reading condition decreased the significance of this limitation. In Experiment

144
II, it is more likely that the participants may have benefited from an instructional history with the

topic of their individualized reading passage and therefore may have met criterion on a particular

passage because of their history with the topic and not necessarily because they read the text

covertly. However, based upon the range of 12-15 sessions that were conducted before the

participants’ met criterion and the requirement that participants engage in silent reading for

100% of the reading intervals, this was not likely a significant contribution to their performance.

Suggestions for Future Research

Replication. The research presented in both studies lends itself to ongoing research on

reading development. A primary suggestion for future research would be to replicate both

experiments and address some of the presented limitations in the selection of the materials and

implementation of the procedures. If replicated, Experiment I should provide participants with a

minimum of ten comprehension questions to obtain a larger sample of participant responses for

analysis. Additionally, the experimenter should consider utilizing narrative (non-fiction) reading

passages. The use of a narrative passage is more likely to yield an accurate measure of

comprehension without having to account for the instructional history of participants. Lastly, for

Experiment I, it would be beneficial to replicate the procedures with the use of video technology

to allow participants to be video-recorded while reading the passages and answering

comprehension questions without the presence of an observer. This procedural change would

account for the possibility that the observer may have negatively impacted performance.

A replication of Experiment II should consider revising the procedures for use of the

yoked-contingency and game board. Perhaps arranging the intervention sessions so that both

participants would simultaneously engage in the alternating reading procedures may have an

impact on the reinforcement value of the peer-yoked contingency. Additionally, intervention

145
sessions could be arranged with a confederate peer who could consequate the target participants’

reading during the silent reading condition. For example, a confederate peer could correct or

punish a participant’s reading by stating, “Shhh, you are reading out loud.” These changes

associated with the peer-yoked contingency might shape the target behavior more quickly and

thus could result in a more efficient procedure for inducing the speaker-as-own-listener

capability.

Speaker as Own Listener. One of the primary goals of Experiment I was to investigate

reading development across a range of fluent readers. Few studies have compared reading

capabilities with children and adults using similar experimental controls and comparable

assessment materials that allow for comparison. Future research investigating the speaker-as-

own-listener capability should replicate the procedures in Experiment I with sequential grade

levels beginning with kindergarten participants and spanning the grade level up to third grade to

potentially identify more information on the developmental sequence of reading. Furthermore, a

study across grade levels may result in the identification of when (e.g. grade level and age)

readers transition from overt to covert silent reading with comprehension and acquire the

speaker-as-own-listener capability for silent reading.

Further research on the speaker-as-own listener capability is needed to gain increased

understanding of this complex verbal developmental milestone. Suggestions for a future study

also include an experiment that investigates the effects of the induction of the speaker-as-own-

listener cusp for an academic task (e.g. silent covert reading with comprehension or silent covert

problem solving for math word problems) on the use of the speaker-as-own-listener capability in

social situations (e.g. responding to contrived social situation with peers on the playground,

answering “what would you do?” questions describing social situations that require empathy, or

146
number of conversational units emitted during a group discussion). An investigation of the

possible relationship between speaker-as-own-listener for academic skills and social skills may

provide insight into verbal development and result in the expansion of the verbal behavior

development pyramid of reader and writer cusps and capabilities.

147
 REFERENCES

Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read. Thinking and Learning about Print. Cambridge,

Massachusetts: MIT Press.

Alexander, P. A. (2003). Profiling the developing reader: The interplay of knowledge, interest,

and strategic processing. In C.M. Fairbanks, J. Worthy, B. Maloch, J.V. Hoffman, &

D.L. Schallert, The Fifty-first Yearbook of the National Reading Conference (pp. 47-65).

Oak Creek, WI: National Reading Conference.

Anderson, R. C., Hiebert, E. H., Scott, J. A., & Wilkinson, I. A. (1985). Becoming a nation of

readers: The report of the commission on reading. Washington, DC: The National

Institute of Education, U.S. Department of Education.

Ambramson, M., & Goldinger, S. D. (1997). What the reader’s eye tells the mind’s ear:

Silent reading activates inner speech. Perception & Psychophysics, 59(7),

1059-1068.

Baddeley, A. D., & Lewis, V. J. (1981). Inner active processes in reading: The inner voice, the

inner ear and the inner eye, In Interactive Processes in Reading, Lesgold, A.M. &

Perfetti, C.A., 107-129.

Barnes-Holmes, D., & Barnes-Holmes, Y., & Cullinan, V. (2000). Relational frame theory and

skinner’s verbal behavior: A possible synthesis. The Behavior Analyst, 23(1), 69-84.

Baron, N.S. (2001). Commas and canaries: The role of punctuation in speech and writing.

Language Sciences, 23(1), 15-67.

Bond, T., & Tryphon, A. (1998). Piaget’s legacy as reflected in The handbook of child

Psychology.

148
Broto, J., & Greer, R. D. (2014). The effects of functional writing contingencies on second

graders’ writing and responding accurately to mathematical algorithms. Behavioral

Development Bulletin, 19(1), 7-19.

Burkholder, E. O., & Pelaez, M. (2000). A behavioral interpretation of vygotsky’s theory

of thought, language and culture. Behavior Development Bulletin, 9, 7-9.

Butler, S. R., Marsh H. W., Sheppard M. J., & Sheppard, J. L. (1985). Seven year longitudinal

study of the early prediction of reading achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology,

77(3), 349-361.

Choi, J. (2012). Effects of mastery of auditory match to-sample instruction on the echoics,

emergence of advanced listener literacy, and speaker-as-own-listenercusps by elementary

school students with ASD and ADHD. (Doctoral Dissertation). Available from ProQuest

Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3489932).

Coltheart, M. (1979). When can children learn to read—and when should they be taught?

In T.G. Waller & G.E. Mackinnon, Reading research: Advances in theory and practice,

1, 1-30. New York: Academic Press.

Cole, L. (1938). The improvement of reading. New York: Farrar and Rinehart.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis. Columbus,

OH: Merrill Publishing Company.

Cunningham, P. (1978). “Mumble reading” for beginning readers. The Reading Teacher,

31(4), 409-411.

Denton, C. A., Barth, A. E., Fletcher, J. M., Wexler, J., Vaughn, S., Cirino, P. T., Romain, M., &

Francis, D. J. (2011). The relations among oral and silent reading and comprehension in

middle school: Implications for identification and instruction of students with reading

difficulties. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15(2), 109-135.

149
Donley, C. R., & Greer, R. D. (1993). Setting events controlling social verbal exchanges

between students with developmental delays. Journal of Behavioral Education, 3(4),

387-401.

Enrich, J. F. (2006). Vygotskyan inner speech and the reading process. Australian Journal of

Educational and Developmental Psychology, 6, 12-25.

Faaborg-Anderson, K., & Edfeldt, A. W. (1958). Electromyography of intrinsic and extrinsic

laryngeal muscles during silent speech correlate with reading activity. Acta

Otolaryngology, 49, 478-482.

Fiorile, C. A., & Greer, R. D. (2007). The induction of naming in children with no prior tact

responses as a function of multiple exemplar histories of instruction. The Analysis of

Verbal Behavior, 23, 71-87.

Freedland, J. T., Skinner, C. H., Jackson, B., McDaniel, C. E., & Smith, S. (2000).

Measuring and increasing silent reading comprehension rates: Empirically

validating a repeated reading intervention. Psychology in the Schools, 37,

415-429.

Germane, C. E., & Germane, E. G. (1922). Silent reading. Chicago, IL: Row, Peterson

and Company.

Gilic, L., & Greer, R. D. (2011). Establishing naming in typically developing two-year-old

Children as a function of multiple exemplar speaker and listener experiences. The

Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 27(1), 157-177.

Goodin, S. M., & Pearson, P. D. (2010). Silent reading pedagogy: A historical perspective. Paper

Presented at the IRA Preconvention Institute: Chicago, IL.

150
Greer, R. D. (2008). The ontogenetic selection of verbal capabilities: Contributions of

skinner’s verbal behavior theory to a more comprehensive understanding of language.

International Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy, 8(3), 363-386. A

special issue commemorating the fiftieth anniversary of the publication of B.F. Skinner’s

1957 Verbal Behavior.

Greer, R. D., Chavez-Brown, M., Nirgudkar, A. S., Stolfi, L., & Rivera-Valdes, C. (2005).

Acquisition of fluent listener responses and the educational advancement of young

children with autism and severe language delays. European Journal of Behavior,

Analysis, 6(2), 88-126.

Greer, R. D., & Du, L. (in press). Identification and establishment of reinforcers that make the

development of complex social language possible. Proceedings of the Brazilian

conference on Autism.

Greer, R.D., & Han, H.S. (in press). Establishment of conditioned reinforcement for visual

observing and the emergence of generalized visual identity matching and preference for

books with three kindergarteners with ASD

Greer, R. D., & Keohane, D. D. (2005). The evolution of verbal behavior in young children.

Behavioral Development Bulletin, 1, 31-48.

Greer, R. D., & Longano, J. (2010). A rose by naming: How we may learn to do it. The Analysis

of Verbal Behavior, 26(1), 73-106.

Greer, R. D., Pistoljevic, N., Cahill, C., & Du, L. (2011). Effects of conditioning voices as

reinforcers for listener responses on rate of learning, awareness, and preferences

for listening to stories in preschoolers with autism. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior,

27(1), 103-124.

151
Greer, R. D., & Ross, D. E. (2008). Verbal behavior analysis: Inducing and expanding

complex communication in children with severe language delays. Boston, MA: Allyn &

Bacon.

Greer, R. D., & Speckman, J. (2009). The integration of speaker and listener responses: A theory

of verbal development. Psychological Record, 59, 449-488.

Greer, R. D., Stolfi, L., & Pistoljevic, N. (2007). Emergence of naming in preschoolers: A

Comparison of multiple and single exemplar instruction. European Journal of Behavior

Analysis, 8(2), 109-131.

Hale, A. D., Hawkins, R. O., Sheeley, W., Reynolds, J. R., Jenkins, S., Schmitt, A. R., &

Martin, D.A. (2011). An investigation of silent versus aloud reading

comprehension of elementary students using maze assessment procedures.

Psychology in the Schools, 48(1).

Hale, A. D., Skinner, C. H., Williams, J., Hawkins, R., Neddenriep, C. E., & Diezer, J.

(2007). Comparing comprehension following silent and aloud reading across

elementary and secondary: implications for curriculum-based measurement. The

Behavior Analyst Today, 8, 9-22.

Han, H. S. (2014). Effects of Elimination of Stereotypy on the Emission of Socially

Appropriate Verbal Interactions for Students with Autism who have Audience

Control.(Doctoral dissertation).

Hart, B., & Risely, T. R. Meaningful differences in the everyday experience of young American

children. (1995). Baltimore: MD. Paul H. Brookes Publishing.

152
Hayes, S. C., Barnes-Holmes, D., & Roche, B. (2001). Relational frame theory: A post

Skinnerian account of human language and cognition. New York, NY: Kluwer

Academic.

Heatherly, A. L. (1974). Applying piaget’s theory to reading instruction. Center for Early

Development and Education. Washington, DC: Children’s Bureau. Paper presented at

the Annual Convention of the Association for Childhood Education International.

Helou-Care, Y. J. (2008). The effects of the acquisition of naming on reading comprehension

with academically delayed middle school students diagnosed with behavior disorders.

(Doctoral Dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database.

(UMI No.)

Hernandez, D. (2011). Double jeopardy: How third-grade reading skills and poverty influence

high school graduation. Baltimore, MD: The Annie E. Casey Foundation.

Hiebert, E. H., & Reutzel, D. R. (2010). Revisiting silent reading: New directions for teachers

and researchers. Newark, DE: International Reading Association

Holmes, B. C., & Allison, R. W. (1985). The effect of four modes of reading on children’s

comprehension. Reading Research and Instruction, 25(1), 9-20.

Horne, P. J., & Lowe, C. F. (1996). On the origins of naming and other symbolic behavior.

Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 68, 271-296.

Huey, E. (1968). The psychology and pedagogy of reading. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Juel, C., & Holmes, B. (1981). Oral and silent reading of sentences. Reading Research

Quarterly, 16, 545-568.

Juel, C., Griffith, P. L., & Gough, P. B. (1986). Acquisition of literacy: A longitudinal study

of children in first and second grade. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 243-255.

153
Juel, C. (1988). Learning to read and write: A longitudinal study of 54 children from first

through fourth grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(4), 437-447.

Kaminski, R., & Good, R. (1996). Toward a technology for assessing basic early literacy

skills. School Psychology Review, 25(2), 215-227.

Keohane, D. D., & Greer, R. D. (2005). Teachers use of a verbally governed algorithm and

student learning. Journal of Behavioral and Consultation Therapy, 1(3), 249-259.

Keohane, D. D., Luke, N., & Greer, R. D. (2008). The things we care to see: The effects of the

rotated protocol immersion on the emergence of early observing responses. Journal of

Early and Intensive Behavioral Interventions, 5(1), 23-39.

Kern, M. L., & Friedman H. S. (2008). Early educational milestones as predictors of lifelong

academic achievement, midlife adjustment, and longevity. Journal of Applied

Developmental Psychology, 30(4), 419-430.

Kirkland, E. R. (1978). A Piagetian interpretation of beginning reading instruction. Reading

Teacher, 31(5), 497-503.

Kragler, S. (1995). The transition from oral to silent reading. Reading Psychology: An

International Quarterly, 16, 395-408.

Kragler, S. (1996). Mumbling into silent reading. Childhood Education, 72, 206-209.

Kragler, S. & Martin, L. (2012). Learning to read in first grade: Developing effective

programs in urban schools. The Educational Forum, 76(2), 248-258

Lodhi, S., & Greer R. D. (1989). The speaker as listener. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of

Behavior, 51, 353-360.

154
Longano, J., & Greer, R. D. (2006). The effects of a stimulus-stimulus pairing procedure on the

Acquisition of conditioned reinforcement for observing and manipulating stimuli by

young children with autism. Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Interventions, 3(1),

135-150.

Lyons, L. (2014). The effects of the mastery of auditory matching of component speech sounds

to words on the rate and accuracy of textual and spelling responses. (Doctoral

Dissertation).

Maffei-Lewis, J. (2011). The effects of the acquisition of conditioned reinforcement for adult

faces and/or voices on the rate of learning and attention to the presence of adults for

children with autism spectrum disorder. (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest

Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No.)

Marsico, M. J. (1998). Textual stimulus control of independent math performance and

generalization to reading. (Doctoral Dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations

and Theses database. (UMI No.)

McCracken, R. A. (1971). Initiating Sustained Silent Reading. Journal of Reading, 14, 521-524,

582-583.

Miller, S. D., & Smith, D. E. (1990). Relations among oral reading, silent reading and listening

comprehension of students at differing competency levels. Reading Research an

Instruction, 29, 73-84.

National Assessment of Adult Literacy (2003). The Health Literacy of America’s Adults.

(NCES 2006-483). Washington, DC: Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for

Education Statistics.

155
National Center for Education Statistics. (2013). The Nation’s Report Card, A First Look:

Mathematics and Reading. (NCES 2014-451). Washington, DC: Institute of Education

Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.

National Governor’s Association (2008). Common Core State Standards. Washington, DC:

Center for Best Practices.

National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-based Assessment of

the Scientific Literature on Reading and its Implications for Reading Instruction.

Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.

Ong, W. (2002). Orality and literacy: The technologizing of the word. New York: Routledge,

Taylor and Francis Group.

O’Cummings, M., Bardack, S., & Gonsoulin, S. (2010). Issue Brief: The Importance of Literacy

for Youth Involved in the Juvenile Justice System. Washington, DC: National Evaluation

and Technical Assistance Center for the Education of Children and Youth Who Are

Neglected, Delinquent, or At Risk (NDTAC). Online at http://www.neglected-

delinquent.org/nd/docs/literacy_brief_20100120.pdf.

Pereira-Delgado, J. A., Greer, R.D., Speckman, J., & Goswami, A. (2009). Effects of

conditioning reinforcement for print stimuli on match-to-sample responding in

preschoolers. The Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Applied Behavior

Analysis, 3(2), 199-216.

Piaget, J. (1973). Main Trends in Psychology. London: George Allen & Unwin.

Price, K. W., Meisinger, E .B., D’Mello, S., & Louwerse, M. M. (2012). Silent reading

Fluency using underlining: Evidence for an alternative method of assessment.

Psychology in the Schools, 49, 606-618.

156
Prior, S. M., & Welling, K. (2001). “Read in your head”: A vygotskian analysis of the

transition from oral to silent reading. Reading Psychology, 22(1), 1-15.

Prior, S. M., Fenwick, K. D., Saunders, K. S., Ouellette, R., O’Quinn, C., Harvey, S.

(2011). Comprehension after oral and silent reading: Does grade level matter?

Literacy Research and Instruction, 50, 183-194.

RAND Reading Study Group. (2002). Reading for Understanding: Toward a Research and

Development Program in Reading Comprehension. Santa Monica, CA: Office of

Education Research and Improvement.

Roberts, K. P. (1976). Piaget’s theory of conservation and reading readiness. The Reading

Teacher, 30(3), 246-250.

Rosales-Ruiz, J., & Baer, D. M. (1997). Behavioral cusps: A developmental and pragmatic

concept for behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 533-544.

Ross, D.E., Singer-Dudek, J., & Greer, R.D. (2005). The teacher performance rate and accuracy

Scale (TPRA): Training as evaluation. Education and Training in Developmental

Disabilties, 40(4), 411-423.

Ruddell, R., & Uranu, N. (1994). Reading as a meaning-construction process: The reader, the

text, and the teacher. In R. Ruddell, M. Rudddell, & H. Singer, Theoretical Models and

Processes of Reading. Newark: International Reading Association.

Saenger, P. (1982). Silent reading: Its impact on late medieval script and society. Viator,

13, 367-414.

Saenger, P. (1997). Space between words: The origins of silent reading. Stanford, CA:

Stanford University Press.

157
Shanman, D. (2013). The relation between components of naming and conditioned seeing.

(Doctoral Dissertation).

Sidman, M. (1994). Equivalence relations and behavior: A research story. Fulton, CA:

Authors Cooperative.

Singer-Dudek, J., Oblak, M., & Greer, R. D. (2011). Establishing books as conditioned

reinforcers for preschool children as a function of an observational intervention.

Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 44(3), 421-434.

Singer, D. G., & Revenson, T. A. (1997). A piaget primer: How a child thinks. Madison,

Connecticut: International Universities Press Inc.

Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Sokolov, A. N. (1972). Inner speech and thought. New York: Plenum.

Sterkin, V. L. (2012). The effects of the social listener reinforcement protocol on the audience

control of stereotypy and social operants for students with developmental delays.

(Doctoral Dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database.

(UMI No.)

Stone, C. R. (1922). Silent and oral reading. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Tsai, H., & Greer, R. D. (2006). Conditioned preference for books and faster acquisition of
textual responses by preschool children. Journal of Early and Intensive Behavioral

Interventions, 3(1), 35-60.

Vais, G. (2012). The house of books: The metamorphosis of the library space (Middle

Ages). Philobiblon: Transylvanian Journal of Multidisciplinary Research in

Humanities, 17, 50-63.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

158
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Wagner, R. K. (2011). Relations among oral reading fluency, silent reading fluency, and

reading comprehension: A latent variable study of first grade readers. Scientific Study of

Reading, 15(4), 338-362.

Wright, G., Sherman, R., & Jones, T. B. (2004). Are silent reading behaviors of first graders

really silent? The Reading Teacher, 57, 546-553

159
 APPENDIX

Appendix 1

Description of Participants by Gender, Race, Grade Level, Standardized Test Scores for

Language Arts, Math, and Science (for 5th Grade Participants), DRA Score, Reading Rate, and

Grade Level Equivalent Reading Level. Note. Standardized Test Scores are Reported as

P=Proficient, AP=Advanced Proficient

Participant Gender Race Grade Language Math Science DRA Score 120-150 WPM Reading
Level Arts Level
31-MB F White 4th P AP N/A 50 Yes 5th Grade
32-RC M White 4th P P N/A 40 Yes 4th Grade
33-JL M White 4th P AP N/A 40 Yes 4th Grade
34-PS F White 4th P P N/A 50 Yes 5th Grade
35-CW M White 4th P P N/A 50 Yes 5th Grade
36-CG F White 4th P AP N/A 40 Yes 4th Grade
37-MG M White 4th P AP N/A 50 Yes 5th Grade
38-EO F Asian 4th P AP N/A 40 Yes 4th Grade
39-SB F Hispanic 4th P P N/A 50 Yes 5th Grade
40-BF F Hispanic 4th P AP N/A 40 Yes 4th Grade
41-TO F White 4th P AP N/A 40 Yes 4th Grade
42-AR F Hispanic 4th P P N/A 40 Yes 4th Grade
43-RS F White 4th P P N/A 40 Yes 4th Grade
44-MS F White 4th P AP N/A 40 Yes 4th Grade
45-GB F White 4th AP AP N/A 50 Yes 5th Grade
46-EB F White 5th P AP AP 50 Yes 5th Grade
47-LR F White 5th P P AP 50 Yes 5th Grade
48-TS F White 5th P P AP 50 Yes 5th Grade
49-KB M White 5th P AP P 50 Yes 5th Grade
50-SB F White 5th P P AP 50 Yes 5th Grade
51-LB F White 5th AP AP AP 50 Yes 5th Grade
52-FC F White 5th P AP AP 50 Yes 5th Grade
53-NG M White 5th P AP AP 50 Yes 5th Grade
54-CH F White 5th P AP AP 50 Yes 5th Grade
55-LH F White 5th P AP P 50 Yes 5th Grade
56-CM M White 5th P AP AP 50 Yes 5th Grade
57-GM F White 5th P AP AP 50 Yes 5th Grade
58-CF F White 5th P AP P 50 Yes 5th Grade
59-KS F Hispanic 5th P P P 50 Yes 5th Grade
60-EV F White 5th P AP AP 50 Yes 5th Grade

160
Appendix 2

Description of Adult Participants by Gender, Graduate Level, and Responses to Survey

Questions Regarding Exposure to GMAT Materials

Participant Gender Graduate Level GMAT Exposure

1 F Masters Student-Year 2 N
2 F Masters Student-Year 2 N
3 M Masters Student-Year 2 N
4 F Masters Student-Year 1 N
5 F Masters Student-Year 2 N
6 F Masters Student-Year 1 N
7 F Masters Student-Year 2 N
8 F Masters Student-Year 1 N
9 F Masters Student-Year 1 N
10 F Masters Student-Year 1 N
11 M Masters Student-Year 1 N
12 F Masters Student-Year 1 N
13 F Masters Student-Year 2 N
14 M Masters Student-Year 1 N
15 M Masters Student-Year 2 N
16 F Masters Student-Year 1 N
17 F Masters Student-Year 1 N
18 M Masters Student-Year 2 N
19 F Masters Student-Year 1 N
20 F Masters Student-Year 1 N
21 F Masters Student-Year 1 N
22 M Masters Student-Year 2 N
23 F Masters Student-Year 1 N
24 F Masters Student-Year 1 N
25 F Masters Student-Year 2 N
26 F Masters Student-Year 2 N
27 F Masters Student-Year 2 N
28 M Masters Student-Year 2 N
29 F Masters Student-Year 1 N
30 F Masters Student-Year 1 N

161
Appendix 3

Setting for Experiment II-Classroom Leveled Library and Silent Reading Corner

(Reader’s Dugout), Classroom Bulletin Board used for Progress Monitoring of Fluency-

Based Instruction (Player Statistics), Yoked Contingency Game Boards (Shooting for Success)

162
Appendix 4

Assessment Materials Used in Experiment II-DRA

163
Appendix 5

Assessment Materials Used in Experiment II-QRI

164