Home Search Collections Journals About Contact us My IOPscience

Review on micro molding of thermoplastic polymers

This article has been downloaded from IOPscience. Please scroll down to see the full text article.

2004 J. Micromech. Microeng. 14 R1

(http://iopscience.iop.org/0960-1317/14/3/R01)

View the table of contents for this issue, or go to the journal homepage for more

Download details:
IP Address: 35.8.11.2
The article was downloaded on 14/05/2013 at 13:52

Please note that terms and conditions apply.

INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS PUBLISHING JOURNAL OF MICROMECHANICS AND MICROENGINEERING
J. Micromech. Microeng. 14 (2004) R1–R14 PII: S0960-1317(04)68657-8

TOPICAL REVIEW

Review on micro molding of

thermoplastic polymers
M Heckele and W K Schomburg1
Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, Institut für Mikrostrukturtechnik Postfach 3640,
D-76021 Karlsruhe, Germany

Received 21 August 2003

Published 17 December 2003
Online at stacks.iop.org/JMM/14/R1 (DOI: 10.1088/0960-1317/14/3/R01)

Abstract
Molding of micro components from thermoplastic polymers has become a
routinely used industrial production process. This paper describes both the
more than 30-year-old history and the present state of development and
applications. Hot embossing, injection molding, reaction injection molding,
injection compression molding, thermoforming, and various types of tool
fabrication are introduced and their advantages and drawbacks are
discussed. In addition, design considerations, process limitations, and
commercially available micro molding machines are presented.

1. Introduction
Micro molding of thermoplastic polymers is one of the
most promising fabrication techniques for non-electronic
micro devices. Fabrication costs of molded micro parts are
hardly affected by the complexity of the design. Once a
mold insert has been made, several thousand parts can be
molded with little effort. The cost of the raw material in
most cases is negligibly low, because only small material
quantities are required for micro components. Therefore, parts
fabricated by micro molding, even from high-end materials,
are suitable for applications requiring low-cost and disposable
components.
Moreover, thermoplastic materials are a very large
material class, which allows one to find a suitable polymer
for nearly every application (see table 1). There are
polymers which are stable at temperatures as high as
250 ◦ C (e.g., polyetheretherketone, PEEK) and others
which resist aggressive chemicals such as alkaline solutions,
acids, and solvents (e.g., perfluoralkoxy, PFA). Polymers
are electrical and thermal insulators, but when filled with
appropriate powders they can be used as electrical conductors,
heat sinks, and even magnets. Molded micro structures can
be either soft and elastic such as polyoxymethylene (POM)
or hard and brittle such as polysulfone (PSU). They are
available from optically transparent materials such as (cyclo-
olefin copolymer) COC and opaque ones such as polyamide
1 On leave to RWTH Aachen, Germany.
(PA) filled with graphite. Polymers such as PVDF even exhibit
a piezo-electrical effect.
Hence, micro molding of thermoplastic polymers should
be considered whenever a micro component leaves the
laboratory and enters the market.
The development of micro molding started more than 30
years ago. A lot of experience has been gathered in that
time, and today micro molding machines are commercially
available and routinely used in industry every day. A variety of
micro molding tools can be purchased from several suppliers.
Therefore, use of micro molding in industry and the number
of scientific institutes working in this field are expected to
increase in the forthcoming years. This will cause a growing
interest in an overview of the current situation of micro
molding, which is given in this review.
2. Micro molding processes
There are five processes which are employed for micro
molding of thermoplastic polymers: Injection molding,
reaction injection molding, hot embossing, injection
compression molding, and thermoforming.
2.1. Injection molding
The well-known macroscopic injection molding can be
adapted to the micro scale by employing a variotherm process
[1]. It comprises the following process steps: The mold cavity

0960-1317/04/030001+14$30.00 © 2004 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK R1

Topical Review

Table 1. A list of thermoplastic polymers that have been used for micro molding.
Acronym Full name Temperature stability [◦ C] Properties Structure
COC Cyclo-olefine 140 High transparency Amorphous
copolymer
PMMA Polymethylmethacrylate 80 High transparency Amorphous
PC Polycarbonate 130 High transparency Amorphous
PS Polystyrene 80 Transparent Amorphous
POM Polyoxymethylene 90 Low friction Semi crystalline
PFA Perfluoralkoxy copolymer 260 High chemical resistivity Semi crystalline
PVC Polyvinlchloride 60 Cheap Amorphous
PP Polypropylene 110 Mechanical properties Semi crystalline
PET Polyethylene terephtalate 110 Transparent, low friction Amorphous/Semi crystalline
PEEK Polyetheretherketone 250 High temperature resistivity Semi crystalline
PA Polyamide 80–120 Good mechanical properties Semi crystalline
PSU Polysulfone 150 Chemical and temperature Amorphous
resistivity
PVDF Polyvinylidenefluoride 150 Chemically inert, piezo-electric Semi crystalline

(a)

Mold inserts
Injection channel

(b)

Figure 2. Typical batch of micro structures as it comes from an

Polymer injection
injection-molding machine.

Injection molding is a technique that has been well

(c)
Figure 1. Principal process steps of micro injection molding:
(a) the molding tool is closed, evacuated, and heated above the glass
transition temperature of the polymer, (b) the polymer is injected
into the tool, and (c) tool and polymer are cooled down and the
polymer is demolded.
established in the macroscopic production of polymer parts for
decades. Therefore, vast know-how and machine technology
is available to be made use of in micro injection molding as
well. In general, cycle times are shortest (on the order of
some minutes) when producing micro parts from polymers
by injection molding. In almost all cases industrial series
production is based on injection molding.
2.2. Reaction injection molding

Reaction injection molding is similar to injection molding, but

equipped with a micro structured tool (mold insert) is closed,
evacuated, and heated above the glass transition temperature
of the polymer (see figure 1(a)), an injection unit heats the
polymer up and presses the viscous polymer into the mold
(figure 1(b)), and the polymer (and the tool) is cooled down
below its glass transition temperature and demolded from the
tool (figure 1(c)). This cyclic temperature control is called
variotherm (variothermal).
Figure 2 displays a photograph of parts made from PC as
they come from the injection-molding machine. They are still
connected to the sprue and runners, which are the part of the
injection channel and distribution system, respectively, which
are molded together with the micro parts to be fabricated. From
the micro parts, shown in figure 2, optical fiber connectors [2]
are assembled.
instead of one type of plastic, two components are injected into
the closed molding tool. This technique allows fabrication
of parts from polymers that are not thermoplastic, such as
thermosetting materials and elastomers. The manufacture of
micro parts by reaction injection molding was investigated
in the mid-1980s [3, 4] but turned out to be difficult to
perform because a good mixture of the components needs
to be achieved on the micro scale and a chemical reaction
has to take place in the micro structures of the molding tool,
which requires a comparatively long time and results in long
cycle times. Now, with the possibility of UV-curing instead
of thermal initiation of the polymerization, reaction injection
molding has appeared again. Today, this process is quite fast
and allows a type of rapid prototyping, because thermal cycling
is not necessary any more.

R2

(a)
Thermoplastic foil
Mold inserts
(b)
(c)
Residual layer
Figure 3. Principal process steps of hot embossing: (a) a
thermoplastic film is inserted into the molding machine, (b) the
molding tool is evacuated and heats up the polymer above its
softening temperature, and (c) the polymer is cooled down and
demolded.
Figure 4. Typical batch of micro structures molded by hot
embossing.
2.3. Hot embossing
The principal process steps of hot embossing are [5]: A
thermoplastic film is inserted into the molding machine (see
figure 3(a)), a micro-structured tool (mold insert) in an
evacuated chamber is pressed with high force into the film,
which has been heated above its softening temperature, and the
mold insert is filled by the plastic material which replicates the
microstructures in detail (figure 3(b)). Then the setup is cooled
and the mold insert is withdrawn from the plastic (figure 3(c)).
Figure 4 displays a photograph of a batch of housings of micro
valves [6] from PSU as it comes out of the molding machine.
The embossing die and countertool are not closed
completely, a characteristic residual layer is produced by
hot embossing. The residual layer may serve as a kind of
magazine during demolding and handling before a subsequent
Topical Review
dicing process. The main costs of molded micro components
typically result from mounting them into a system. This can be
facilitated significantly by arranging single micro components
on a batch in a well-ordered manner.
In contrast to injection molding, during hot embossing
the polymer flows a very short way from the foil into the
micro structure only. As a result, very little stress is produced
in the polymer and the molded parts are well suited as optical
components, such as wave-guides and lenses. The temperature
cycle of the polymer may be smaller for hot embossing, since
the viscous polymer does not need to be transported a long way
into the molding tool. This reduces shrinkage during cooling
and the friction forces acting on the micro structures during
demolding. Thus more delicate micro structures with higher
aspect ratios can be fabricated by hot embossing compared to
injection molding. Hot embossing is particularly suited for
forming plane plates or foils, as a small amount of plastic has
to be molded only.
Hot embossing allows for a very simple setup of the
plant, which is particularly advantageous if tool or plant
reconstructions or modifications are necessary. This results in
very short set-up times. When using standardized mold inserts,
a few minutes are sufficient to exchange a tool. Moreover, foils
made of various thermoplastic materials can be put into the
machine successively without any further modifications being
required. Therefore, hot embossing makes the production of
small and medium-scale series economically more efficient
and is especially suited for laboratory applications.
On the other hand, relatively long cycle times of up to
30 min may be required for some components. For some
applications such a long time can be advantageous if, e.g.,
inner stress is reduced by extreme slow cooling rates. But
long cycle times are caused mainly by the fact that the
heated polymer is not supplied continuously by an injection
unit. Such problems can be reduced considerably by further
developing hot embossing machines and their periphery as
has been done for injection molding machines. The principal
limit for shortening the molding cycle of hot embossing is a bit
larger than for injection molding, because in injection molding
the molten polymer can be filled into a mold insert which is
colder than the softening point of the polymer while in hot
embossing the polymer needs to be heated up by the mold
insert. This means that the thermal cycle of a mold insert
can be smaller in an injection molding machine than in a hot
embossing machine. On the other hand, hot embossing has
not yet reached this limit and it is not yet clear how large the
difference in cycle time will be, due to this effect.
Cycle times are also strongly affected by the tool design.
For mass fabrication a tool can be designed with heating
and cooling features adapted to the special design of the
component. Such an expensive tool will be not very flexible
and not be applicable for another micro component.
Originally designed for the LIGA standard format of
26 × 66 mm2, the embossing area has been extended
considerably in the past few years, and this year molding
machines for samples with a diameter of up to 200 mm are
being introduced onto the market. With increasing area,
shrinkage of the plastic component gains significance. A
sophisticated execution of the process is required to prevent
deformations, such as overdrawn edges of the components or
R3
Topical Review

even damage of the mold insert. Shrinkage of hot embossed Evacuation

samples is smaller, and, therefore, it is especially suited for a Sealing
further extension of the format.

2.4. Injection compression molding (a)

Injection compression molding is a combination of injection

molding and embossing to overcome the problem of heating
the polymer by the tool. The plastified polymer is injected Polymer film
from a screw into the semi-closed molding tool and then Mold insert
pressed into the micro structures by closing the tool. In this
way, the problem of injection through a small gap is avoided
when producing a micro structure on a thin carrier layer. (b)
Injection compression molding is widely used to produce CDs
and DVDs. CDs possess critical dimensions of less than one
micro meter, but the aspect ratio is rather small and, therefore,
demolding is no problem. Pressurized gas

2.5. Thermoforming
Micro thermoforming is employed to form thin thermoplastic (c)
films. The polymer film is inserted into a molding tool,
which shows micro structures on one side (mold insert). The
molding tool is evacuated (see figure 5(a)), the film is clamped
(figure 5(b)), heated up and pressed into the micro structure by
a gas (figure 5(c)), cooled down and demolded (figure 5(d )).
Figure 6 shows a 25 µm thick PS film with 125 µm deep and (d )
250 µm wide micro channels.
Only a few papers have been published on molding of
thin thermoplastic films [7, 8]. In contrast to the processes
described above, the film does not fill the micro structures of
the molding tool completely. The film may not be heated so Figure 5. Principal process steps of micro thermoforming: (a) a
that it becomes too soft, because the permeability of polymers thermoplastic film is inserted into the molding machine and the tool
for gases increases with temperature. As a result, and due to is evacuated, (b) the film is fixed by clamping, (c) the molding tool
heats up the polymer above its softening temperature and a gas
the high flexibility of thin films, demolding is easy for films
presses the film against the mold insert, and (d ) the polymer is
molded by thermoforming, and even micro structures with a cooled down and demolded.
cross section similar to the form of the Greek letter
can be
demolded. Thermoforming is not suitable for achieving high
aspect ratios, as a thin film cannot be stressed too much, if it
is not made soft enough by heating.

3. Micro molding tools

Molding tools used in micro engineering generally consist of

a micro-structured mold insert and the tool. This separation
is unknown in macroscopic molding technology. It is due
to the completely different requirements to be met by the
micro structure and by the tool. The tool has to fulfill the
classical tasks of encapsulating the polymer and ejecting the
molded parts. In addition, the micro-molding tool needs to
Figure 6. Micro channels manufactured in a PS film by micro
provide for a vacuum and to undergo a variotherm process. thermoforming.
Evacuated tools are required in micro molding, because the
micro structures form pocket holes from which air cannot The requirements, which need to be fulfilled by the mold
escape when the polymer is filled in. Consequently, the insert, are very different. The mold insert has to provide for
structure has to be empty right from the start. In addition, the primary micro structure and, therefore, is manufactured
the mold inserts need to be heated above the glass transition with techniques appropriate for this. The micro structure
temperature, so the small amount of thermoplastic material should exhibit smooth side walls to avoid friction during
processed does not solidify immediately when getting into demolding and a small inclination angle is desirable, if this
contact with the large mass of the mold insert. For demolding, can be tolerated by the application of the micro structures
the mold insert has to be cooled down again. to be molded. Furthermore, the mold insert should preserve

R4

(a) (b)
(d ) (e)
Figure 7. Mold inserts fabricated by different processes: (a) milling with a CNC machine, (b) laser-manufactured tool with different
surface roughnesses, (c) x-ray lithography and electroplating, (d ) silicon etching (courtesy of Jenoptik Mikrotechnik GmbH),
(e) photolithography with SU8, and ( f ) electric discharge machining (courtesy of Institut für Mikrotechnik Mainz).
the micro structure over many molding cycles and withstand
lateral and normal forces during injection and demolding. This
is achieved by using a material that is hard and ductile enough
for the mold insert and by choosing a suitable design. Which
material is hard and ductile enough and which design is proper
depends on a lot of parameters, such as the polymer to be
molded, the molding process, etc, and no general rule can be
given.
While the tool with its closing and sealing units
and ejection systems is manufactured by classical metal
processing, various methods are applied for micro structuring
the mold insert. These are methods of direct structuring,
including mechanical micro machining, laser structuring, and
electric discharge machining (EDM) on the one hand, and
lithographic processes with x-rays or UV radiation combined
with electroplating, on the other. Figure 7 shows some
examples of mold inserts fabricated by different techniques.
Electroplating allows fabrication of a metal mold insert
from micro structures made of plastics, silicon, and other
materials not suitable for use as a mold insert [9–11]. It may
be also advantageous to transform a metal micro structure
worked from a solid soft metal into a hard alloy (e.g., Fe–Ni
or Co–Ni) or hard metal by electroplating. Another reason for
employing electroplating is that some critical micro structures
such as narrow grooves or sharp concave corners cannot be
milled while their inverted forms (narrow rib or sharp convex
corner) can easily be manufactured by mechanical means.
Even structures in the nanometer range can be replicated by
electroplating and, therefore, this is an important technique
for tool manufacturing. For very high microstructures mold
inserts need a thick backing in order to provide the necessary
mechanical stability. This results in quite long plating times
Topical Review
(c )
(f )
of up to some weeks. For certain purposes thinner backings
(shims) are possible and electroplating is much quicker.
Another problem is that the electrochemical process is very
sensitive to disturbing artifacts, such as thin insulating layers
and gas bubbles in the electrolyte. Control of the concentration
of chemicals in the electrolyte is another important issue,
which may affect the mechanical stress in the mold insert,
and thus, may result in the bending of the mold insert.
Consequently, a lot of know-how is required for electroplating
mold inserts. This know-how is available at some companies
and research institutes, which offer electroplating of mold
inserts as a service [12].
Mechanical micro machining is closest to traditional tool
technology. Techniques such as turning, drilling, or milling are
employed for fabricating mold inserts (see figure 7(a)). Mold
inserts fabricated by mechanical micro machining with CNC
machines are offered by companies (e.g., [13] and [14]) and
available from research institutes e.g., [15]. The smoothest
side walls of micro structures are obtained with diamond tools
but these are not suitable for work in steel which is a favorite
material for mold inserts. Moreover, the smallest diameter
of diamond tools is approximately 200 µm. When narrower
grooves need to be fabricated on a mold insert or the mold insert
needs to be made of tool steel, milling and drilling tools made
of hard metal can be used, with the requirements regarding
the smoothness of side walls being reduced. Compared to
lithographic processes it is easy to fabricate mold inserts with
three-dimensional micro structures even with curved surfaces
by mechanical micro machining, and sloped side walls of the
micro structures can be achieved by simply using milling tools
with the required profile.
R5
Topical Review
Another technique initially developed for macroscopic
use is electric discharge machining (EDM) (see figure 7( f )).
Today, it also allows micro structured mold inserts to be
produced. This is achieved by using wires as thin as 30 µm for
wire erosion or by sinking erosion with electrodes produced
by electroplating. In this way, micro structures from nickel
or other metals can be transformed into mold inserts made of
steel. A disadvantage of this technique is that the side walls
of micro structures fabricated in this way are rough compared
to milling.
Lithographic processes are particularly suited for minute
structures. A resist is patterned with a micro structure
that is electroplated to build up a mold insert. Classical
LIGA technology based on x-ray deep-etch lithography is
characterized by extremely high structural heights, smallest
lateral dimensions, and side walls with a roughness of less
than 50 nm (see figure 7(c)) [16, 17]. UV lithography
is a less complex and less expensive alternative to x-ray
technology, which is able to meet less demanding
specifications. Both methods are based on the lithographic
generation of non-conductive plastic micro structures that are
filled by electroplating. Mold inserts made by both methods
are available from companies and research institutes [12].
Mold inserts from silicon (see figure 7(d )) or glass micro
structured by wet etching [18–20] or reactive ion etching [21]
can also be employed for micro molding, but silicon is a very
brittle material, so wafers tend to break. Therefore the wafer
is bonded on top of a quartz glass to get a stable compound. If
less than 10 molding steps are to be performed for prototyping
purposes, mold inserts from silicon may be suitable. Silicon
treated by wet etching is more favorable, because it shows
inclined side walls and a smoother surface than dry-etched
silicon.
Another possibility for structuring metal is laser
technology (see figure 7(b)) [11]. This development is still
at its beginning, but promises to have enormous potential in
terms of aspect ratios and minimum structural dimensions.
This technology is of particular interest, as it allows processing
of materials such as stainless steel or tungsten carbide.
4. History
To the knowledge of the authors, the first paper on micro
molding of thermoplastic polymers was published in 1970 by
a group of researchers from RCA laboratories at Princeton,
NJ, USA [22]. The objective of this work was to develop a
low-cost reproduction technique of hologram motion pictures
for television playback [23]. A master tape was made by
electroplating nickel into photo resist patterns. The master
was run through heated rollers together with a vinyl tape and,
thus, the micro structure (see figure 8) was transferred into the
vinyl.
This work was continued in Zurich, Switzerland
[24], where diffraction gratings for color filtering were
manufactured by hot embossing of PVC [25]. The ratio of
the depth of the micro structure to its width reached up to
5.7 (0.4 µm wide and 1.4 µm high gratings). Work at RCA
laboratories was stopped, because no market success had been
achieved [26].
R6
Figure 8. SEM of a hot-embossed micro structure from PVC for a
hologram on a movie picture, 1.4 µm in height [25].
The first paper on micro molding of optical waveguides
was published in 1972 [27]. A simple groove was hot
embossed into PMMA with a glass fiber and the groove was
filled with poly(cyclohexyl methacrylate) (PCHMA) which
shows a higher optical index.
Independent of this work, the development of micro
molding started in Karlsruhe, Germany in the mid-1980s as a
replication technology for LIGA microstructures, to provide
this technique with an economic mass fabrication process.
LIGA initially was an acronym for ‘Lithografie und Galvanik’
which means ‘lithography and electroplating’ [28]. Then
micro molding was introduced in the process and the acronym
was reinterpreted as ‘Lithografie, Galvanik und Abformung’
which means ‘lithography, electroplating, and molding’
[3, 29]. First investigations had been carried out using reaction
injection molding [4] until it turned out that injection molding
is a much easier process, which can be performed with a shorter
cycle time. Therefore, further work focused on injection
molding [30, 31].
During the first years the parts manufactured with micro
molding were intended to demonstrate that high aspect ratios,
steep side walls, and stepped profiles can be achieved and
various materials can be used [30, 31]. In the following years,
micro molding turned out to be the most important production
step of LIGA in industrial applications, because this low-cost
process makes LIGA an economic success. On the other
hand, micro molding can not only be done with LIGA-made
mold inserts. A lot of products do not need to have high
aspect ratios, and inclined side walls are advantageous for the
demolding of micro structures. Mold inserts made by micro
milling and electroplating of micro structures made by UV
lithography in several 10 µm thick resist layers were brought
up for discussion.
Meanwhile, the development of hot embossing had been
started at Karlsruhe [32]. The intention of this work was
to find a way to produce a molded LIGA microstructure
on top of electronic circuits, i.e. to fabricate an acceleration
sensor directly on top of an amplifying circuit on a silicon
wafer [33]. When hot embossing turned out to be suitable
for molding micro structures with aspect ratios as high
as 10 and introduction of low mechanical stress in the
products, this process was employed for other devices as well
[34, 35].

Figure 9. Micro pump fabricated by injection molding [45].
In the same year in which the first publication was made
by the Karlsruhe group, a group from Zurich reported on their
work related to hot embossing of integrated optical micro
structures [36, 37]. Two years later, the first paper on hot
embossing by a group from Mainz, Germany, was published
[38] and first papers on micro molding of thermoplastic
polymers from Santa Cruz, CA, USA [26], Middlesbrough,
UK [39], Dortmund, Germany [40], Stockholm, Sweden
[41], Ann Arbor, MI, USA [42], Hayward, CA, USA [19],
Gaithersburg, MD, USA [18], Jena, Germany [43], and Taiwan
[44] followed.
In recent years hot embossing became an emerging
technology for the fabrication of electronic devices with
critical dimensions in the nanometer range [79–84].
The first components based on micro molding were made
for micro optical applications as described above [22, 27].
The first micro fluidic component was a micro pump [45]
(see figure 9). It was fabricated by injection molding from
polysulfone (PSU). Two housing shells fabricated by molding
were adhesively bonded to a membrane made of polyimide
patterned by photolithography. The mold had been fabricated
by milling with a CNC machine. The fabrication process
of the micro pump was later called the AMANDA process
[46]. Today, it is still employed to produce micro fluidic
devices. With this process and other similar processes several
Membrane Heater wire
Figure 10. Flow sensor made of PSU with a support membrane from PI [52]. By the design of the membrane, sensitivity to temperature
changes is reduced.
Topical Review
new components were developed in the next years such as
micro pumps [41, 47], micro valves [48–50], and micro sensors
[51].
5. Design
Polymers show properties that differ from those of silicon,
glass, and metals. Of major significance are thermal
expansion, creep, diffusion, and chemical properties.
Especially the large thermal expansion of polymers has to be
considered when micro components are to be designed from
polymers. For a lot of applications it is necessary to combine
different materials, which results in stresses that are a function
of temperature. Even when two different types of polymers are
bonded to each other the difference in their thermal expansion
may cause remarkable effects. On the other hand such effects
can be avoided with a proper design.
A 10 mm long device with a typical expansion coefficient
of 100 ppm will be extended by 1 µm with every degree
of temperature change. This means that polymers are not
suitable for building up high-precision components with small
tolerances. The example of an anemometric flow transducer
[52] illustrates how such difficulties can be overcome.
Figure 10 shows that a metal heater wire is mounted in a
flow channel. The wire is supported by a membrane, which is
adhesively bonded between two hot-embossed housing shells.
Both the wire and the membrane are designed to be very
thin (100 nm and 2.4 µm, respectively) in order to achieve
a low heat capacity. If the membrane was spread over the full
width of the flow channel, thermal expansion of the housing
would result in a change of the transducer signal, because
the wire would behave like a strain gauge. Therefore, the
membrane is fixed to the housing at two points only and
the sensitive part of the wire is placed on a tongue-like part
of the membrane, which is not affected by the strain of the
housing. Moreover, the heater wire is arranged on the neutral
axis where bending of the membrane does not result in any
strain. In this way, the signal of the transducer is changed by
1% only when the temperature rises from 20 ◦ C to 60 ◦ C.
Polymer parts tend to creep much more than metals and
glasses when subjected to a permanent load. Making housings
R7
Topical Review
from polymer does not cause any problem in most cases,
because they can be designed thick enough to withstand the
load. However, creep is a problem if, e.g., the elastic element
of a sensor or actuator is made of a polymer. Often, it is a
good idea to fabricate the housing by micro molding and use
another material as an elastic element.
It is also known that polymers allow for the diffusion of
gases and are not tight over a longer term. The usual way of
solving this problem is to evaporate approximately 100 nm of
a metal layer onto the polymer [53]. This increases fabrication
costs, but is no problem under most circumstances.
The design of polymer micro components needs to
account for bonding techniques which differ very much
compared to bonds made between silicon, glass, or metals.
Adhesive bonding is quite popular, because it avoids high
temperatures that may damage micro structures or induce
mechanical stresses. If adhesives are used, they need to be
kept away from micro cavities by stopping grooves or sealing
partitions [54, 55]. The design of the same micro component
may be very different when it is to be bonded by ultrasonic
power, because energy directors are necessary in this case.
The lid of capillary systems is often bonded by welding
[56–60] or with solvents [59]. Most of these bonding
techniques are tolerant to small damages or particles on
the surface to be bonded because adhesives can fill small
holes, ultrasonic power and welding processes locally melt
the polymer and the liquid may close holes, and solvents let
polymers swell. This facilitates the design of polymer micro
components and contributes to the success of micro molding.
Last but not the least, there are design rules caused by
the molding process. Sharp corners should be avoided in the
design where possible, because they cause stress peaks in the
polymer, which may result in cracks.
Most problems in micro molding are not caused by the
filling of the mold, but by demolding. During demolding,
micro structures may be torn apart, deformed, or destroyed.
Demolding very much affects the wear of mold inserts and
delicate parts of the mold insert may even be destroyed after a
single molding process, if the micro structure is not designed
properly or unsuitable molding parameters are chosen. It is
possible to demold micro structures with vertical side walls,
but an inclination angle of just 2◦ reduces demolding forces a
lot and is even more important than the roughness of the side
walls. An important factor in demolding is the shrinkage of
the polymer, which occurs when cooling down the polymer
between the filling of the mold and demolding. Therefore,
demolding forces also are a function of the orientation of
microstructures relative to the direction of shrinkage and the
placement of critical micro structures relative to the center of
shrinkage. This is why the path of the polymer into the mold
has to be chosen with care for injection molding.
Delicate micro structures, such as pins with a high aspect
ratio can be protected against shear forces resulting from
shrinkage and mold filling by neighboring auxiliary structures
which are stable enough to withstand these forces.
Shrinkage of the samples may be not identical over a
longer production run. For this reason, molded parts that
need to fit together in the later production should be placed on
the same mold insert and pieces from the same molding step
should be attached to each other.
R8
If a mold insert is covered by areas with micro structures
of different height or varying density, these areas should be
arranged symmetrically on the mold insert. In this way, tilting
of the mold insert during molding is avoided.
6. Applications
Micro molding has been employed to fabricate a variety of
polymer components. Most applications are in the field of
micro optics and micro fluidics, but there are also some
examples of micro (and nano) electrical and mechanical
devices.
The most widely sold micro molding product probably
is the well-known CD and DVD for data storage, music,
and videos. Another wide spread article are holograms
which are affixed to credit cards [26]. Other molded
micro optical components are spectrometers [35, 62]
(see Figure 11(a)), lenses [65–67], optical switches [68, 69],
optical fiber connectors [2], waveguides [27, 70, 71],
anti-reflective surfaces [72], optical gratings [9, 25], and
photonic structures [73].
There is a variety of molded micro fluidic devices,
such as pumps [41, 46, 47, 64] (see Figure 11(d ), valves
[6, 48–50], nebulizers [62], ink jets [62], degassers for HPLC
systems [74], capillary analysis systems [18–20, 63, 75–77]
(see figure 11(c)), devices for investigations of living cells
[62, 78] (see figure 11(b)), pressure sensors [51], and flow
sensors [52]. Today, the largest turnover is probably reached
with nebulizers for inhalers used in asthma therapy, the largest
market is expected for lab-on-a-chip applications.
Prospective applications of thermoplastic molding also
lie in electronics. One of them is nano imprinting [79–84]
which may allow for the low-cost replication of electronic
circuits with critical dimensions as small as ten nanometers.
Embossing techniques provide for the transfer of the desired
geometry into a thin resist layer on a silicon wafer, and this
geometry is the basis for generating circuits by reactive ion
etching, lift-off, and other methods. For this application
the polymer is used in an intermediate step only. Hence,
the most important properties are a good adhesion to the
substrate, dimensional stability, easy dissolution, and a low
glass transition temperature which allows one to keep the
thermal cycle small or even to avoid it completely.
Other future electronic applications may be electronic and
optical circuit boards [71], acceleration sensors [33, 85], and
simple devices, such as electrical switches [86], may find a
market share as well.
7. Machine development
The development of micro molding and the development of
molding machines have always been connected with each
other. The simple process technology, which mainly requires
a heating device and a pressure unit, inspired several research
groups to start thermoplastic molding [87]. Simple optical
structures with aspect ratios of up to 1 did not require
any special equipment. Modified laminating presses or
small stamping presses with an electrical heating plate were
sufficient to transfer microstructures from a metallic master to
a plastic sheet.
 Topical Review

(a ) ( b)

(c ) (d )

Figure 11. Products made by thermoplastic molding. (a) Hot-embossed micro spectrometer [35], (b) injection-molded cell chip
LILLIPUT [62] (courtesy of Steag microParts GmbH and Merlin Diagnostica GmbH), (c) hot-embossed micro titer plate [63],
and (d ) piezo-driven micro pump XXS2000 made by injection molding [64] (courtesy of thinXXS GmbH).

The goal to provide reliable commercial equipment for

micro replication led to adaptation of the CD stamping
process and film extrusion technology. CD technology very
much inspired injection compression and injection molding
technologies, thus leading to a complete new machine
generation [92] (see figure 13).
Film fabrication with continuous structuring from roll-to-
roll was the first implementation of thermoplastic molding of
micro structures [22] and still provides us with holographic
security elements and light-reflecting films for different
purposes [89–91]. In this case the demanding task is to
develop suitable rotating tools. Production machines are not
commercially available, but need to be developed for each
application.
The appearance of the LIGA technology led to a new
challenge in the thermoplastic molding of micro structures:
The replication of high aspect ratios. As a result, mold Figure 12. Home-made reaction injection machine [4].
filling and demolding became two new issues. Grooves
and pin holes of some hundred microns depth and a few
The broader material range then gave rise to the idea of
microns width only required a very low viscous polymer for
mold filling. In Karlsruhe, first attempts in the mid–1980s developing thermoplastic replication of micro structures, and
focused on reaction injection molding using thermosets of a commercially available injection molding machine for CD
low viscosity [4]. A reaction injection molding machine production was employed. It needed to be adapted to the
was constructed (see figure 12), but process difficulties and molding of micro structures, because operation at very high
problematic properties like large shrinkage prevented a success temperatures close to the decomposition temperature of the
similar to the one achieved by UV-curing and PDMS casting polymer and integral heating of the mold and material turned
nowadays. out to be insufficient for complete mold filling. Trapped air

R9
Topical Review

(a) (b)

(c ) (d ) (e )

Figure 13. Commercially available micro molding machines. (a) Injection molding machine for CD fabrication [88] (courtesy of
Ferromatik Milacron Maschinenbau GmbH), (b) hot embossing machine HEX03 [93] (courtesy of Jenoptik Mikrotechnik GmbH), (c) hot
embossing machine Stamp Press MS 1 [94] (courtesy of Wickert Maschinenbau GmbH), (d ) injection molding machine microsystem 50
[92] (courtesy of Battenfeld Kunststoffmaschinen GmbH), and (e) EVG R 520HE hot embossing system for embossing and nanoimprinting
[95] (courtesy of EV Group).

caused defects in high aspect ratio micro structures. Therefore,
a vacuum unit needed to be included.
Another constraint in high-aspect-ratio molding is a high
stiffness of the machine frame to ensure precise movements
during demolding. Steep side walls mean contact between
the mold and replica during the whole demolding process.
Any lateral movement has to be avoided along the demolding
path of up to some millimeters. Finally, the requirement
made on machine control is extremely high. Minimal speed
of a few microns per second and position control with an
accuracy of a few microns even at high forces are necessary.
Critical points are transient stages when the polymer softens
and viscosity changes rapidly. At this moment machine
control must maintain the pressure without damaging the mold
insert.
In cooperation with Jenoptik Mikrotechnik, the first hot
embossing press suitable for high aspect ratio replication was
developed at Karlsruhe: The HEX02. The high accuracy
of this machine allows alignment of the upper and lower
crosshead of the machine very precisely. Thus, aligned
molding on both sides of a polymer or on an already
patterned substrate is possible. A new concept of alignment
working also under high load and high temperature changes
was developed under the BMBF-funded project PROBE
[96] and implemented in the machine generation of HEX03
(see figure 13(b)). An alignment accuracy of less than 10 µm
can be achieved with this machine.
Hot embossing machines which aim at the industrial
market are the Stamp Press MS 1 (see figure 13(c)) [94], which
was the first machine used by industry for hot embossing of
micro spectrometers. This year, a new type of hot embossing
machine will be introduced on the market by the same
company. This machine reaches much shorter cycle times
and is able to produce hot-embossed layers of up to 200 mm
in diameter. It can be equipped with an automatic handling
system, which contributes essentially to the reduction of cycle
times, because the polymer workpiece can be exchanged more
quickly and at much higher temperatures.
Another direction of development are for machines
suitable for the production of smaller details. The demand

R10
 Topical Review

for nano replication results in a slightly different machine

technology. Machines for large-area replication on wafer areas
of up to 200 mm with modified wafer bonding equipment are
available from Karl Suss and EVG (see figure 13(e)) [95, 97].

8. Limitations and solutions of special problems

What are the limitations of micro molding of thermoplastic

polymers? The investigations of nano imprinting show that
even structures of only a few tens of nanometers in size are
replicated very well. This is a bit astonishing, because the
size of the macromolecules the polymer consists of is more
than that. Obviously, the macromolecules to a certain extent
adapt to the form of the mold. Hence, the limit of the smallest
possible feature size has not yet been approached.
However, there is a limitation regarding the achievable
aspect ratio of columns, grooves, and walls. This limit is a
function of the geometry of the microstructure, its position
on the sample, the polymer type, and the process parameters.
Therefore, there is no simple rule for giving us the maximum
aspect ratio which can be achieved in a particular case. An
extreme case is a groove with a width of 10 µm and a depth
of 100 µm, which is filled and demolded with PMMA by
hot embossing. Another example is the spectrometer with
270 nm deep steps of an optical grid in a vertical PMMA wall of
125 µm in height, which are both hot-embossed and injection-
molded. Finite element calculations could help solve molding
problems of high-aspect-ratio microstructures, but FEM codes
are available for mold filling only and the limiting process step
is demolding of the microstructures. Development of FEM
calculations of demolding has just started [98].
Another limitation is the overall size of a sample or batch
of microstructures, which is molded in one step. Shrinkage of
the polymer is a function of the overall size and the farther a
delicate microstructure with a high aspect ratio is placed from
the center of shrinkage, the more difficult does demolding
become. On the other hand, shrinkage can be reduced both by
a proper design and by a proper molding process. Therefore,
further development may open up the way to larger samples
and even lower costs for multiple components produced in one
batch.
Moreover, the production of through holes may be
difficult, because a direct contact of delicate microstructures
of the mold insert with the counter plate may cause damage.
However, if a small gap is left in-between, it will be filled
with the polymer, because the molding process needs to be
performed such that microstructures are filled. In general, a
thin residual layer needs to be removed after molding to open
up through holes.
An alternative to this may be hot embossing of composite
layers [99]. Interesting effects may be achieved by replacing
the simple semi-finished product by a composite of several
foils. An example is the micro spectrometer for the UV-
VIS range [35] (see figure 11(a)). By combining PMMA
foils of variable refraction coefficients, a waveguide for light
transmission is obtained. If polymers are chosen, which are
not welded during embossing, but still adhere strongly to each
other so that they can be demolded together and separated
afterwards, through holes or separate, microstructures can be
generated (see figure 14).
Figure 14. Micro riddle (300 × 300 µm) hot embossed into the
upper layer of a stack of two polymers which were separated
afterwards [99].
The second layer may be a metal conduction path on the
surface of the plastic semi-finished product [100]. During hot
embossing this conduction path follows the topography and,
thus, an electric connection from the surface to the structure
base is generated. This is a way providing micro fluidic
structures with an additional functionality.
9. Conclusions and outlook
Micro molding of thermoplastic polymers today is a well-
established process. Several micro molding machines are
sold on the market and mold inserts fabricated with various
techniques suitable for most applications are available. This is
reflected by an increasing interest of industry in micro molding
processes and machines.
While injection molding is the process most frequently
used for micro molding in industry, because short cycle times
are achieved, hot embossing is most popular on the laboratory
scale, because it is more flexible and more delicate structures
can be produced. Alternative processes are under investigation
by research groups.
Further research work will focus on achieving higher
aspect ratios on larger scales and on developing special
functionalities of molded parts, such as through holes and
electrical paths. Apart from this work, there is still a need
for the development of processes to be applied after molding,
such as bonding, and for establishing reliable interconnections
to the macroscopic world.
Research is required with respect to a proper design of
devices and components, because design rules can neither be
transferred without changes from micro components made of
silicon or glass nor from macroscopic polymer products.
There are a variety of applications already known for
micro molding of thermoplastic polymers and many more are
expected to come up in the future.
References
[1] Hanemann T, Heckele M and Piotter V 2000 Current status of
micromolding technology Polym. News 25 224–9

R11
Topical Review
[2] Wallrabe U, Dittrich H, Friedsam G, Hanemann Th, Mohr J,
Müller K, Piotter V, Ruther P, Schaller Th and Zißler W
2002 Micromolded easy-assembly multi fiber connector:
RibCon Microsyst. Technol. 8 83–7
[3] Ehrfeld W, Bley P, Götz F, Hagmann P, Maner A, Mohr J,
Moser H O, Münchmeyer D, Schelb W, Schmidt D and
Becker E W 1987 Fabrication of microstructures using the
LIGA process Proc. IEEE Micro Robots and Teleoperators
Workshop (Hyannis, Cape Cod, MA, USA, 9–11 Nov. 1987)
ed K J Gabriel and W S N Trimmer IEEE Catalogue
Number 87TH0204–8
[4] Hagmann P, Ehrfeld W and Vollmer H 1987 Fabrication of
microstructures with extreme structural heights by reaction
injection molding First Meeting of the European Polymer
Federation European Symp. on Polymeric Materials (Lyon,
France, 14–18 Sept.) paper EPD05
[5] Heckele M, Bacher W and Müller K D 1998 Hot
embossing-the molding technique for plastic
microstructures Microsyst. Technol. 4 122–4
[6] Rogge T, Rummler Z and Schomburg W K 2002 Piezo-driven
polymer microvalve manufactured by the AMANDA
process Proc. of Eurosensors XVI (Prague, 15–18 Sept.
2002) pp 214–7
[7] Dreuth H and Heiden C 1999 Thermoplastic structuring of thin
polymer films Sensors Actuators A 78 198–204
[8] Truckenmüller R, Henzi P, Herrmann D, Saile V and
Schomburg W K 2003 Bonding of polymer micro
structures by UV irradiation and welding at low
temperatures Conf. on Microfabrication, Integration and
Packaging (Mandelieu-La Napoule, France DTIP, 5–7 May
2003)
[9] Niggemann M, Blaesi B, Boerner V, Gombert A, Klicker M,
Kuebler V, Lalanne P and Wittwer V 2001 Periodic
microstructures for large area applications generated by
holography Conf. Physics, Theory, and Applications of
Periodic Structures in Optics (San Diego, CA, USA,
1–2 Aug. 2001) Proc. SPIE 4438 108–15
[10] Jian L, Desta Y M and Goettert J 2001 Multilevel
microstructures and mold inserts fabricated with planar and
oblique x-ray lithography of SU-8 negative photoresist
Conf. Micromachining and Microfabrication Process
Technology VII (San Francisco, CA, USA, 22–24 Oct. 2001)
Proc. SPIE 4557 69–76
[11] O’Donnell T, McCloskey P, Brunet M, Winfield R,
Mathuna S C O, Stephen A and Metev S 2000 High aspect
ratio RF coils fabricated using laser processing and
micro-moulding techniques Proc. European
Microelectronics Packaging and Interconnection
Symposium (Prague, Czech Republic, 18–20 June 2000)
pp 169–74 ISBN: 80–238–5509–3
[12] http://www.mimotec.ch, Mimotec SA, Blancherie 61,
CH-1950 Sion, Switzerland
http://www.elmicron.ch, Elmicron AG, Feldstrasse 1,
CH-6304 Zug, Switzerland
http://www.fzk.de, Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, Institut für
Mikrostrukturtechnik, Postfach 3640, D-76021 Karlsruhe,
Germany
[13] http://www.kern-microtechnic.com, Kern Micro- und
Feinwerktechnik GmbH & Co. KG, Ammergauer Str. 11,
D-82418 Murnau, Germany
[14] http://www.i-sys.de, i-sys Automationstechnik GmbH,
Greschbachstraße 19, D-76229 Karlsruhe, Germany
[15] Schaller T, Bier W, Linder G and Schubert K 1995 Realization
of microstructured mold inserts using mechanical
microengineering methods First Conf. on High Aspect Ratio
Microstructure Technology, HARMST ’95 (Karlsruhe,
Germany, 3–5 June1995) Book of abstracts
[16] Mohr J 1998 LIGA—A technology for fabricating
microstructures and microsystems Sensors Mater. 10
363–73
[17] Chung S, Hein H, Mohr J, Pantenburg F-J and Wallrabe U
2000 LIGA technology today and its industrial applications
R12
Proc. SPIEs Int. Conf. on Microrobotics and Microassembly
II (Boston, 5–6 Nov. 2000) Proc. SPIE 4184 44–55
[18] Martynova L, Locascio L E, Gaitan M, Kramer G W,
Christensen R G and MacCrehan W A 1997 Fabrication of
plastic microfluid channels by imprinting methods Ann.
Chem. 69 4783–9
[19] McCormick R M, Nelson R J, Alonso-Amigo M G,
Benvegnu D J and Hooper H H 1997 Microchannel
electrophoretic separations of DNA in injection-molded
plastic substrates Ann. Chem. 69 2626–30
[20] Lee G-B, Chen S-H, Huang G-R, Lin Y-H, Sung W-C and Lin
Y-H 2001 Microfabricated plastic chips by hot embossing
methods and their applications for DNA separation and
detection Sensors Actuators B 75 142–8
[21] Menz A and Benecke W 2000 Silicon moulds for
micro-injection moulding techniques Proc. MICRO.tec
2000 (Hannover, Germany, 25–27 Sept. 2000) (Berlin:
VDE-Verlag) 645–8
[22] Bartolini R, Hannan W, Karlsons D and Lurie M 1970
Embossed hologram motion pictures for television playback
Appl. Opt. 9 2283–90
[23] Hannan W J, Flory R E, Lurie M and Ryan R J 1973 HoloTape:
A low-cost prerecorded television system using holographic
storage J. Soc. Motion Pict. Telev. Eng. 82 905–15
[24] Gale M T, Kane J and Knop K 1978 ZOD images:
Embossable surface-relief structures for color and
black-and-white reproduction J. Appl. Photogr. Eng. 4 41
[25] Knop K 1976 Color pictures using the zero diffraction order of
phase grating structures Opt. Commun. 18 298–303
[26] Haines K 1996 Development of embossed holograms Proc.
SPIE 2652 45–52
[27] Ulrich R, Weber H P, Chandross E A, Tomlinson W J and
Franke E A 1972 Embossed optical waveguides Appl. Phys.
Lett. 20 213–5
[28] Becker E W, Betz H, Ehrfeld W, Glashauser W, Heuberger A,
Michel H J, Münchmeyer D, Pongartz S and Siemens R V
1982 Production of separation nozzle systems for uranium
enrichment by a combination of x-ray lithography and
galvanoplastics Naturwissenschaften 69 520–3
[29] Becker E W, Ehrfeld W, Hagmann P, Maner A and
Münchmeyer D 1986 Fabrication of microstructures with
high aspect ratios and great structural heights by
synchrotron radiation lithography, galvanoforming and
plastic molding (LIGA process) Microelectron. Eng. 4
35–56
[30] Menz W, Bacher W, Harmening M and Michel A 1991 The
LIGA Technique—A novel concept for microstructures and
the combination with Si-technologies by injection molding
MEMS’91—Fourth IEEE Workshop on Micro Electro
Mechanical Systems (Nara, Japan 31 Jan.–2 Feb. 1991)
pp 69–73
[31] Harmening M, Bacher W, Bley P, El-Kholi A, Kalb H,
Kowanz B, Menz W, Michel A and Mohr J 1992 Molding
of three-dimensional microstructures by the LIGA process
Micro Electro Mechanical Systems ’92 (Travemünde,
Germany, 4–7 Feb.) pp 202–7
[32] Michel A, Ruprecht R, Harmening M and Bacher W 1993
Abformung von Mikrostrukturen auf prozessierten Wafern
Bericht des Kernforschungszentrums Karlsruhe, KfK 5171
ISSN 0303–4003
[33] Both A, Bacher W, Heckele M, Müller K D, Ruprecht R and
Strohrmann M 1995 Molding process with high alignment
precision for the LIGA technology Proc. Micro Electro
Mechanical Systems (Amsterdam, The Netherlands,
29 Jan–2 Feb.) pp 186–90 (IEEE Catalogue Number 95
CH35754)
[34] Ruprecht R, Kalb H, Kowanz B and Bacher W 1996 Molding
of LIGA microstructures from fluorinated polymers
Microsyst. Technol. 2 182–5
[35] Heckele M 1997 Aufbau und Betrieb einer
Kleinserienfertigung von LIGA-Spektrometern Swiss
Plastics 19 5–9

[36] Baraldi L, Kunz R E and Meissner J 1993 High-precision
molding of integrated optical structures Proc. SPIE 1992
21–9
[37] Gale M T, Baraldi L G and Kunz R E 1994 Replicated
microstructures for integrated optics Proc. SPIE 2213 2–10
[38] Gerner M, Paatzsch T, Weber L, Schift H, Smaglinski I,
Bauer H-D, Abraham M and Ehrfeld W 1995 Micro-optical
components for fiber and integrated optics realized by the
LIGA technique Proc. Micro Electro Mechanical Systems
(Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 29 Jan–2 Feb. 1995)
pp 328–33 (Catalogue no 95CH35754)
[39] Harvey T G 1997 Replication techniques for micro-optics
Proc. SPIE 3099 76–82
[40] Kalveram S and Neyer A 1997 Precision molding techniques
for optical waveguide devices Proc. SPIE 3135 2–11
[41] Olsson A, Larsson O, Holm J, Lundbladh L, Öhman O and
Stemme G 1997 Valve-less diffuser micropumps fabricated
using thermoplastic replication Proc. IEEE Tenth Annu. Int.
Workshop on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, MEMS’97
(Nagoya, Japan, 26–30 Jan. 1997) pp 305–10
[42] Lin L, Cheng Y T and Chiu C J 1998 Comparative study of hot
embossed micro structures fabricated by laboratory and
commercial environments Microsyst. Technol.
4 113–6
[43] Becker H and Dietz W 1998 Microfluidic devices for µ-TAS
applications fabricated by polymer hot embossing Proc.
SPIE 3515 177–82
[44] Yang H, Chou M-C, Yang A and Mu C-K 1999 Realization of
fabricating microlens array in mass production Proc. SPIE
3739 178–85
[45] Büstgens B, Bacher W, Bier W, Ehnes R, Maas D, Ruprecht R,
Schomburg W K and Keydel L 1994 Micromembrane pump
manufactured by molding Actuator’94: Proc. Fourth Int.
Conf. on New Actuators (Bremen, 15–17 June) pp 86–90
[46] Schomburg W K, Ahrens R, Bacher W, Martin J and Saile V
1999 AMANDA—Surface micromachining, molding, and
diaphragm transfer Sensors Actuators A 76 343–8
[47] Döpper J, Clemens M, Ehrfeld W, Kämper K-P and Lehr H
1996 Development of low-cost injection molded
micropumps Actuator’96: Proc. Fifth Int. Conf. on New
Actuators pp 37–40
[48] Fahrenberg J, Bier W, Maas D, Menz W, Ruprecht R and
Schomburg W K 1995 Microvalve system fabricated by
thermoplastic molding J. Micromech. Microeng. 5 169–71
[49] Goll C, Bacher W, Büstgens B, Maas D, Menz W and
Schomburg W K 1996 Microvalves with bistable buckled
polymer diaphragms J. Micromech. Microeng. 6 77–9
[50] Goll C, Bacher W, Büstgens B, Maas D, Ruprecht R and
Schomburg W K 1997 Electrostatically actuated polymer
microvalve equipped with a movable membrane electrode J.
Micromech. Microeng. 7 224–6
[51] Martin J, Bacher W, Hagena O F and Schomburg W K 1998
Strain gauge pressure and volume-flow transducers made by
thermoplastic molding and membrane transfer Proc. Int.
Workshop on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems,
MEMS ’98 (Heidelberg, Germany, 25–29 Jan. 1998)
pp 361–6
[52] Dittmann D, Ahrens R, Rummler Z, Schlote-Holubek K and
Schomburg W K 2001 Low-cost flow transducer fabricated
with the AMANDA process 11th Int. Conf. on Solid-State
Sensors and Actuators, Transducers’01 (Munich, Germany,
10–14 June 2001) paper 4B2.10P
[53] Harder T, Ehlers T, Kolbe W and Hieber H 1994 Hermetische
Kunststoffgehäuse Proc. EUPAC’94, DVS 158 pp 1–5
[54] Maas D, Büstgens B, Fahrenberg J, Keller W, Ruther P,
Schomburg W K and Seidel D 1996 Fabrication of
microcomponents using adhesive bonding techniques Proc.
Int. Workshop on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems,
MEMS ’96 (San Diego, CA, USA, 11–15 Feb. 1996)
pp 331–6
[55] Fu C, Koller T, Ahrens R, Rummler Z and Schomburg W K
2002 Optimization of chamber adhesive bonding for
Topical Review
packaging of micro components Proc. Eurosensors XVI
(Prague, 15–18 Sept. 2002)
[56] Öhman O 1997 Method of producing microchannel/
microcavity structures European Patent EP 0 738
306 B1
[57] Soane D S, Soane Z M, Hooper H H and Amigo M G 1998
Methods for fabrication enclosed microchannel structures
PCT Patent WO 98/45693
[58] Benisch J, Blum H, Müller L, Holländer A and Heim U 2001
Verfahren zum dauerhaften Verbinden von
Polymerbauteilen mit Bauteilen aus gleichartigem oder
andersartigem Material German Patent DE 100 04 853 C1
[59] Stuke M, Lapczyna M and Müller K 1999 Klebstoff-freie
Verbindung von Polymerbauteilen zur Erzeugung von
geschlossenen Mikro- und Nanokanalstrukturen German
Patent DE 198 15 632 C2
[60] Truckenmüller R, Henzi P, Herrmann D, Saile V and
Schomburg W K 2003 Bonding of polymer micro structures
by UV irradiation and welding at low temperatures
Conference on Microfabrication, Integration and
Packaging, DTIP (Mandelieu-La Napoule, France, 5–7 May
2003)
[61] Bader R, Jacob P, Volk P and Moritz H 2000 Verfahren zum
Verbinden von mikrostrukturierten Werkstücken aus
Kunststoff sowie nach diesem Verfahren erhaltenes Bauteil
European Patent EP 1 030 896 A1
[62] http://www.steag-microparts.de/, STEAG microParts GmbH,
Hauert 7, D-44227 Dortmund, Germany
[63] Gerlach A, Knebel G, Guber A, Heckele M, Herrmann D,
Muslija A and Schaller T 2002 Microfabrication of
single-use plastic microfluidic devices for high-throughput
screening and DNA analysis Microsyst. Technol. 7 265–8
[64] http://www.thinxxs.com/, thinXXS GmbH, Wernher-von-
Braun-Str. 9, D-55129 Mainz, Germany
[65] Lee H S, Lee S-K, Kwon T H and Lee S S 2002 Microlenses
array fabrication by hot embossing process 2002
IEEE/LEOS Int. Conf. Optical MEMS (Lugano,
Switzerland, 20–23 Aug. 2002, IEEE (2002)) pp 73–4
(Catalogue no 02EX610)
[66] Shen X-J, Pan L-W and Lin L 2002 Microplastic embossing
process: experimental and theoretical characterizations
Sensors Actuators A 97–8 428–33
[67] Ong N S, Koh Y H and Fu Y Q 2002 Microlens array produced
using hot embossing process Microelectron. Eng. 60 365–9
[68] Shan X C and Maeda R 2002 Development of a low-cost 8×8
optical switch using micro hot embossing 2002
IEEE/LEOS Int. Conf. Optical MEMS (Lugano,
Switzerland, 20–23 Aug. 2002, IEEE (2002)) pp 21–2
(Catalogue no 02EX610), ISBN: 0–7803–7595–5
[69] Hashiura Y, Ikehara T, Kitajima A, Goto H and Maeda R 2001
Optical switch array based on microforming process Conf.
Device and Process Technologies for MEMS and
Microelectronics (Adelaide, SA, Australia, 17–19 Dec.
2001) Proc. SPIE 4592 414–21
[70] Lehmacher S, Neyer A and Mederer F 2001 Polymer optical
waveguides integrated in printed circuit boards Proc. 27th
European Conf. Optical Communication (Amsterdam,
Netherlands, 30 Sept–4 Oct 2001) pp 302–3 (Catalogue no
01TH8551), ISBN: 0–7803–6705–7
[71] Krabe D and Scheel W 1999 Optical interconnects by hot
embossing for module and PCB technology—the EOB
approach- Proc. 49th Electronic Components and
Technology Conference (San Diego, CA, USA, 1–4 June
1999) (Catalogue no 99CH36299) ISBN: 0–7803–5231–9
pp 1164–6
[72] David C, Haberling P, Schnieper M, Sochtig J and Zschokke C
2002 Nano-structured anti-reflective surfaces replicated by
hot embossing Microelectron. Eng. 61–62 435–40
[73] Grigaliunas V, Kopustinskas V, Meskinis S, Margelevicius M,
Mikulskas I and Tomasiunas R 2001 Replication
technology for photonic band gap applications Conf.
Optoelectronics I, Materials and Technologies for
R13
Topical Review
Optoelectronic Devices, Symposium G of the 2000
E-MRS-IUMRS-ICEM Spring Conf. (Strasbourg, France,
30 May–2 June 2000) Opt. Mater. 17 15–8
[74] Rummler Z, Berndt M, Härtl H-G, Hempel M, Peters R and
Schomburg W K 2000 Micro degasser made of inert
polymers for HPLC devices ASME Winter Annual Meeting
(Orlando, FL, USA, 5–10 Nov. 2000)
[75] Blankenstein G 2000 Microfluidic devices for biomedical
applications MST News (Sept. 2000) 14–15, published by:
VDI/VDE-Technologiezentrum Informationstechnik
[76] Grass B, Neyer A, Johnck M, Siepe D, Eisenbeiss F, Weber G
and Hergenroder R 2001 A new PMMA-microchip device
for isotachophoresis with integrated conductivity detector
Sensors Actuators B 72 249–58
[77] Weston D F, Smekal T, Rhine D B and Blackwell J 2001
Fabrication of microfluidic devices in silicon and plastic
using plasma etching J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 19
2846–51
[78] Kashanim D, Williams V, Shvets I V, Volkov Y and Kelleher
D 2000 Microfluidic biochips for cell guidance and
separation Proc. First Annu. Int. IEEE-EMBS Special Topic
Conference on Microtechnologies in Medicine and Biology
(Lyon, France, 12–14 Oct. 2000) pp 279–82 (Catalogue
no 00EX451)
[79] Chou S Y, Krauss P R and Renstrom P J 1995 Imprint of
sub-25 nm vias and trenches in polymers Appl. Phys. Lett.
67 3114–6
[80] Roos N, Luxbacher T, Glinsner T, Pfeiffer K, Schulz H and
Scheer H-C 2001 Nanoimprint lithography with a
commercial 4 inch bond system for hot embossing
Conf. Emerging Lithographic Technologies V. (Santa Clara,
CA, USA, 27 Feb–1 Mar. 2001) Proc. SPIE 4343 427–35
[81] Lebib A, Chen Y, Cambril E, Youinou P, Studer V, Natali M,
Pépin A, Janssen H M and Sijbesma R P 2002
Room-temperature and low-pressure nanoimprint
lithography Microelectron. Eng. 61–62 371–7
[82] Malaquin L, Carcenac F, Vieu C and Mauzac M 2002 Using
polydimethylsiloxane as a thermocurable resist for a soft
imprint lithography process Microelectron. Eng. 61–62
379–84
[83] Roos N, Schulz H, Bendfeldt L, Fink M, Pfeiffer K and
Scheer H-C 2002 First and second generation purely
thermoset stamps for hot embossing Microelectron. Eng.
61–62 399–405
[84] Schift H, Heydermann L J, Padeste C and Gobrecht J 2002
Chemical nano-patterning using hot embossing lithography
Microelectron. Eng. 61–62 423–8
[85] Ehrhardt E, Gehäußer T, Giousouf M, Kück H, Mohr R and
Warkentin D 2002 Innovative concept for the fabrication of
R14
micromechanical sensor and actuator devices using
selectively metallized polymers Sensors Actuatos A 97–98
473–7
[86] Kurosawa M, Haga S, Yamasato H, Kobayashi I and Suzuki S
1995 PET emboss membrane switch Fujikura Tech. Rev. 24
97–100
[87] Morales A M, Domeier L A, Gonzales M and Hruby J M 2001
Replication of high aspect ratio microstructures in plastics,
metals, and ceramics Fourth Int. Conf. on High Aspect
Ratio Microstructure Technology (HARMST ’01)
(Baden-Baden, Germany, 17–19 June 2001)
[88] http://www.ferromatik.com/, Ferromatik Milacron
Maschinenbau GmbH, Riegeler Straße 4, D-79364
Malterdingen, Germany
[89] www.mmm.com, 3M company, USA
[90] http://www.microreplication.com, Avery Dennison
Corporation, 150 North Orange Grove Boulevard,
Pasadena, CA 91103–3596, USA
[91] Bier W, Maner A and Schubert K 1988 German patent DE 38
42 610 C1 and US Patent 5005163
[92] www.battenfeld.ch/, Battenfeld Kunststoffmaschinen
Ges.m.b.H, Wr. Neustädter Straße 81, A-2542
Kottingbrunn, Austria
[93] http://www.jo-mikrotechnik.com, JENOPTIK Mikrotechnik
GmbH, Göschwitzer Straße 40, D-07745 Jena, Germany
[94] http://www.wickert-presstech.de, WICKERT Maschinenbau
GmbH, Wollmersheimer Höhe 2, D-76829 Landau,
Germany
[95] http://www.evgroup.com/, EVGroup, DI Erich Thaller Straße
1, A-4780 Schärding, Austria
[96] Fahrenberg J and Heckele M 1998 Produktionstechnik für
bewegliche Mikrostrukturen auf strukturierten Substraten
am Beispiel des Beschleunigungssensors Ergebnisbericht
des Verbundprojektes PROBE, Wissenschaftliche Berichte,
FZKA-PFT 192 (November 98)
[97] www.suss.de, SÜSS MicroTec Lithography GmbH,
Schleissheimer Str. 90, D-85748 Garching, Germany
[98] Worgull M and Heckele M 2003 New aspects of simulation in
hot-embossing Proc. DTIP (Cannes Mandelieu, 5–7
May 2003)
[99] Heckele M and Durand A 2001 Microstructured through-holes
in plastic films by hot embossing Proc. Second Euspen Int.
Conf. (Turin) pp 196–8
[100] Heckele M and Anna F 2002 Hot embossing of
microstructures with integrated conduction paths for the
production of lab-on-chip systems Int. Conf. Design, Test,
Integration, and Packaging of MEMS/MOEMS 2002
(Cannes, France, 6–8 May 2002) Proc. SPIE
4755 670–4