MATH3521

MATH3521
Chapter 4 The Structure of Um and Zm
Dr Chi Mak
School of Mathematics and Statistics

University of New South Wales
S1 2018
Chi Mak (UNSW) MATH3521 Chapter 4 S1 2018 1 / 58

4.1 Subgroups and Cyclic Groups
To study Um and Zm , we need to study more group theory.
Definition 4.1 (Subgroup).
Let G be a group, and let H be a subset of G which is itself a group under
the same operation as G . Then we say that H is a subgroup of G .
For subgroups of a group G , we do not need to check all axioms.

Lemma 4.1 (The Subgroup Lemma).
Let G be a group and H a non-empty subset of G . Then H is a subgroup
of G if and only if it is closed under the group operation and inverse.
Proof.
Suppose H is a non-empty subset closed under the group operation and
inverse. Since associativity holds in G it holds in H, and so all we need to
check is that the identity e of G is in H. But choosing any element h of
H, we know h−1 ∈ H and hence h ∗ h−1 = e ∈ H, so H is a group.
The only if direction is trivial.
Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.1 Subgroups and Cyclic Groups S1 2018 2 / 58
Example 4.1.
Prove that {1, 4, 11, 14} is a subgroup of U15 .
Solution.
× 1 4 11 14
1 1 4 11 14
Under the multiplication of U15 , 4 4 1 14 11
11 11 14 1 4
14 14 11 4 1
In the multiplication table, the product of any two elements is still in the
set. The set is closed under multiplication.
There is a 1 in each row, and hence the set is closed under inverse.
Hence, by the Subgroup Lemma, {1, 4, 11, 14} is a subgroup of U15 .
Clearly every subgroup of an abelian group is abelian, but it is possible to

find abelian subgroups of non-abelian groups. For example, the subgroup
{e, d} of the symmetry group of a square is abelian.
Example 4.2.
Let G be a group and g ∈ G . The subset
hg i = {g k : k ∈ Z}
is a subgroup of G . Here, g −1 is the inverse of g in G and g −n represents
(g −1 )n . We call hg i the subgroup of G generated by g .
In additive notation, hg i = {kg : k ∈ Z}.
Warning: We use the same notation for ideal of a ring and subgroup of a
group generated by elements. If G is a group then there will not be any
confusion. However, for a ring R, we need to be specific.
Definition 4.2.
A group G is said to be cyclic if there exists an element g ∈ G such that
G = hg i, i.e. G is generated by a single element.
Definition 4.3.
The order of a finite group G is the number of elements in G , |G |.
The order of an element g in a group G is the smallest positive integer n
(if any) such that g n = e. We write o(g ) for the order of the element g .
Lemma 4.2.
If g ∈ G has order n, then the elements e, g , g 2 , . . . , g n−1 are all distinct.
Proof.
Exercise: Q. 97(a).
Note: o(g ) = |hg i|. Also, g k = e if and only if o(g ) | k.

Remark.
A finite group G is cyclic if and only if there exists g ∈ G such that
G = {g k : k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1}, where n = |G |.
Example 4.3.
1 Zm is a cyclic group of order m generated by 1.
2 Z is an infinite cyclic group generated by 1.
3 Let a > 0 and a 6= 1, hai is an infinite cyclic subgroup of R+ under
multiplication.
Example 4.4.
Find the orders of the elements in U15 and prove that U15 is not cyclic.
Solution.
U15 = {1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14}.
Since 11 = 1, so o(1) = 1.
21 = 2, 22 = 4, 23 = 8, 24 = 1. Hence o(2) = 4 and o(4) = 2.
71 = 7, 72 = 4, 73 = 4 × 7 = 13, 74 = 1. Hence o(7) = 4.
Similarly, we obtain, o(8) = 4, o(11) = 2, o(13) = 4, o(14) = 2.
Hence, none of the elements has an order 8. Therefore U15 is not cyclic.
Theorem 4.3.
Two finite cyclic groups are isomorphic if and only if they have the same
order.
Proof.
The only if part is true because isomorphisms are bijections. The if part is
left as an exercise, Q. 97 (c).
Hence, it does make sense to define a “generic” cyclic group of order n
to be the set of n elements
Cn = {1, a, a2 , . . . , an−1 } = {ak | k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1},
where an = 1.
The group operation is defined ( by adding exponents modulo n: that is,
as+t if s + t < n
as at = s+t−n
a if s + t > n.
Hence, all cyclic groups are commutative.
Theorem 4.4.
Any group of prime order p is isomorphic to the cyclic group Cp .
I leave the proof as an exercise: Q. 97 (b).

Corollary 4.5.
Any group of prime order is abelian.
By the Subgroup Lemma, a subset of a group is a subgroup if it is closed

under the group operation and inverse. The next theorem tells us that we
only need to check the closure of the group operation for a finite subset.
Theorem 4.6.
Let G be a group with operation ∗. If H is a non-empty finite subset of G
that is closed under ∗, then H is a subgroup of G .
Proof.
By the Subgroup Lemma, all we need to prove is that H is closed under
inverse. Let h ∈ H and consider the set {h, h2 , h3 , . . . } ⊂ H. Since the
set is finite and closed under the operation, it is the subgroup hhi. Since
o(h) is finite, we can write n = o(h). Now, hn = hhn−1 = e. Therefore,
hn−1 is the inverse of h and it is in H. The result then follows.
Lagrange’s Theorem
You may have noticed that in every example we have seen of a finite group
G with a subgroup H, the order of H is a factor of the order of G . This is
generally true.
Theorem 4.7 (Lagrange’s Theorem).
If G is a finite group and H is a subgroup of G , then |H| is a factor of |G |.

For the proof we need to introduce a new notion.
Definition 4.4.
Let G be a group and H a subgroup of G . For any g ∈ G we define the
left coset of H by g to be
gH = {gh | h ∈ H} .
If we used additive notation we would write a coset of H as g + H.
A left coset is the subset of G we get by operating everything in H on the
left by the fixed element g .
Example 4.5.
To illustrate the theorem, let G = U15 = {1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14} and
H = {1, 4}. Then the left cosets of H are
1H = {1, 4} = 4H, 2H = {2, 8} = 8H,
7H = {7, 13} = 13H, 11H = {11, 14} = 14H.
We see that each coset has the same number of elements as H, and that
different cosets do not overlap. There are four disjoint cosets the union of
which is U15 .
So the number of elements in G is four times the number in H.
Proof of the Lagrange’s Theorem.
We shall prove that
every element of G is in one of the cosets of H;
no element is in two different cosets;
any coset has the same number of elements as H.
It will then follow that the cosets partition G into a number of sets of size
|H|, and so |G | is a multiple of |H|.
The first part: for any g ∈ G , since e ∈ H, the coset gH contains ge = g .
Next, suppose that an element a of G is in both g1 H and g2 H. Then
a = g1 h1 = g2 h2 for certain elements h1 , h2 of H. We want to prove that
g1 H = g2 H. If k ∈ g1 H then k = g1 h for some h ∈ H and so
k = g1 h = (ah1−1 )h = g2 (h2 h1−1 h) .
But h2 h1−1 h is in H and so k ∈ g2 H and g1 H ⊂ g2 H. By a similar
argument we have g2 H ⊂ g1 H, and so g1 H = g2 H. Therefore a is not in
two different cosets.

Proof (Continued).
Finally, if H has elements h1 , h2 , . . . , hm then the left coset gH has
elements gh1 , gh2 , . . . , ghm ; and all these elements are distinct, because
ghi = ghj ⇒ hi = hj .
Therefore gH has the same number of elements as H. As explained
previously, this completes the proof.
Example 4.6.
Find all subgroups of U15 . (Question 99 (b))
Solution.
Evidently, {1} and U15 = {1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14} are subgroups of U15 .
To get the other subgroups, we form the smallest subgroup containing
each set of preselected elements.

Solution (Continued).
We only need to include as few elements as possible to the set to make it
closed under multiplication. Since U15 is finite, all these subsets are finite.
These sets are closed under multiplication. By Theorem 4.6, they are
subgroups.
The smallest subgroup containing 2 is h2i = {1, 2, 4, 8}. Note: 24 = 1.
The smallest subgroup containing 4 is h4i = {1, 4}.
By Lagrange’s Theorem, the order of a subgroup of U15 must be 1, 2, 4,
8. If we put more elements in h2i, the subgroup formed by making the set
closed will be U15 . Now try to add 11 to h4i, We obtain the smallest
subgroup containing 4 and 11: h4, 11i = {1, 4, 11, 14}.
I leave it as an exercise for you to find all other subgroups of U15 .
Attempt questions 95 to 101 except 97 (e).

Corollary 4.8.
Suppose G is a group of finite order and g ∈ G . Then g |G | = e.
Proof.
Since o(g ) = |hg i|, so it divides |G |. Write |G | = o(g )k; then
g |G | = (g o(g ) )k = e k = e.
This corollary leads to an important result in number theory.
Theorem 4.9 (Fermat’s Little Theorem).
If p is a prime and a is not a multiple of p, then ap−1 ≡ 1 (mod p).
Proof.
If a is not a multiple of p then a is a unit modulo p, that is, a ∈ Up .
But Up has order p − 1, and so by the previous corollary ap−1 = 1 in Up .
In Z this means ap−1 ≡ 1 (mod p), as asserted.
Corollary 4.10.
If p is prime and a is any integer, then ap ≡ a (mod p).
Example 4.7 (Application of Fermat’s Little Theorem).
Evaluate 710502 (mod 13).
Solution.
By the Fermat’s Little Theorem, 712 ≡ 1 (mod 13). By division, we have
10502 = 12 × 875 + 2. Hence 710502 = (712 )875 × 72 ≡ 49 ≡ 10 (mod 13).
Definition 4.5.
If n is a positive integer we denote by φ(n) the number of positive integers
which are less than n and relatively prime to n.
The function φ : Z+ → Z+ is known as Euler’s function or the totient
function.
Example 4.8.
Find φ(10) and φ(15).
Solution.
Positive integers which are coprime to 10: 1, 3, 7, 9. Hence φ(10) = 4.
Similarly, 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14 are coprime to 15; so φ(15) = 8.
A simple but important example: if p is prime then φ(p) = p − 1.
Clearly φ(n) is the order of Un . Euler generalised Fermat Little Theorem.
Theorem 4.11 (Euler’s Theorem).
Let n be a positive integer, and let a be an integer relatively prime to n.
Then aφ(n) ≡ 1 (mod n).
Since a and n are relatively prime, a (mod n) is in Un . The rest of the
proof is almost identical to that of Fermat’s Theorem.
Example 4.9.
Simplify 73210987 modulo 15.
Solution.
Since 7 is relatively prime to 15 and φ(15) = 8, by Euler’s Theorem 78 ≡ 1
(mod 15). By division, and 3210987 = 401373 × 8 + 3, so
73210987 = (78 )401373 × 73 ≡ 49 × 7 ≡ 4 × 7 ≡ 13 (mod 15).
The same as d and σ, the Euler’s function is also multiplicative.
Attempt questions 102 to 107.
4.2 Direct Products of Groups
Definition 4.6.
Let A and B be two sets. The Cartesian production of the two sets is
defined by
A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B}.
Lemma 4.12.
Let H and K groups with operation ∗ and ×, respectively. The set H × K
with the operation • defined by
(h1 , k1 ) • (h2 , k2 ) = (h1 ∗ h2 , k1 × k2 )
is a group.
The proof is left as an exercise. (You need to check all 4 axioms.)

Definition 4.7.
The group in the previous lemma is called the direct product of H and K
and it is denoted by H ⊗ K .
Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.2 Direct Products of Groups S1 2018 16 / 58
Let G , H, K be groups, we have (G ⊗ H) ⊗ K ∼
= G ⊗ (H ⊗ K ). We simply
denote this group by G ⊗ H ⊗ K .
Example 4.10.
For the subgroups {1, 3}, {1, 5} of U8 , draw up the group table for
{1, 3} ⊗ {1, 5}. Find an isomorphism between U8 and {1, 3} ⊗ {1, 5}.
Solution.
Note that {1, 3} ⊗ {1, 5} = {(1, 1), (1, 5), (3, 1), (3, 5)}.
× (1,1) (1,5) (3,1) (3,5)

(1,1) (1,1) (1,5) (3,1) (3,5)
(1,5) (1,5) (1,1) (3,5) (3,1)
(3,1) (3,1) (3,5) (1,1) (1,5)
(3,5) (3,5) (3,1) (1,5) (1,1)
By comparing multiplication tables, the function ψ : U8 → {1, 3} ⊗ {1, 5}

defined by ψ(1) = (1, 1), ψ(3) = (1, 5), ψ(5) = (3, 1), ψ(7) = (3, 5)
is an isomorphism.
Even when both H and K are subgroups of G , H ⊗ K is not a subgroup of
G . However G and H ⊗ K can be isomorphic, not always though.
Theorem 4.13.
Let G be a finite abelian group. If H and K are subgroups of G such that
|H| |K | = |G | and H ∩ K = {e}, then the mapping
ψ : H ⊗ K → G , where ψ(h, k) = hk ,
is an isomorphism.
Proof.
Firstly we must show that ψ is a bijection.
Suppose that ψ(h1 , k1 ) = ψ(h2 , k2 ), that is, h1 k1 = h2 k2 .
Then we have h2−1 h1 = k2 k1−1 , where the left hand side is in H, the right
hand side in K .
But the only element common to H and K is e. Therefore
h2−1 h1 = e and k2 k1−1 = e ,
so h1 = h2 , k1 = k2 and ψ is one-to-one.

Proof (Continued).
But |H ⊗ K | = |H| |K | = |G | and so ψ is a one-to-one map between two
finite sets of the same size, and hence must also be onto. Thus ψ is a
bijection. Furthermore,

ψ (h1 , k1 )(h2 , k2 ) = ψ(h1 h2 , k1 k2 )
= h1 h2 k1 k2
= h1 k1 h2 k2 as G is abelian
= ψ(h1 , k1 )ψ(h2 , k2 ).
Thus ψ is an isomorphism.
A matter of notation:
Definition 4.8.
The direct sum of two additive abelian subgroups H and K is
H ⊕ K = {(h, k) | h ∈ H and k ∈ K } ,
with operation defined by
(h1 , k1 ) + (h2 , k2 ) = (h1 + h2 , k1 + k2 ) .
The three additions in the above definition are not the same.
Theorem 4.14 (Decomposition of Zn ).

Suppose positive integer n factorises as n = st.
If s and t are relatively prime, then Zn ∼= Zs ⊕ Zt .
Conversely, if s and t are not relatively prime, then Zn 6∼
= Zs ⊕ Zt .
Proof.
We shall prove that the function ψ : Zn → Zs ⊕ Zt given by
ψ(g ) = ( g mod s , g mod t )
is an isomorphism.
So, suppose that ψ(g1 ) = ψ(g2 ). Treating g1 and g2 as ordinary integers,
g1 mod s = g2 mod s and g1 mod t = g2 mod t ;
hence s | g1 − g2 and t | g1 − g2 . Since s and t are coprime st | g1 − g2 ,
that is, n | g1 − g2 . But this means that g1 ≡ g2 (mod n) in Z and
therefore g1 = g2 in Zn . Thus ψ is one-to-one, and as Zn is finite, this
means it is a bijection.

Proof (Continued).
Next we must show that ψ preserves addition.

ψ(g1 + g2 ) = (g1 + g2 ) mod s , (g1 + g2 ) mod t

= (g1 mod s) + (g2 mod s) , (g1 mod t) + (g2 mod t)
= ( g1 mod s , g1 mod t ) + ( g2 mod s , g2 mod t )
= ψ(g1 ) + ψ(g2 ) ,
which shows that ψ is an isomorphism.
Conversely, assume that s, t are not coprime. Then m = lcm(s, t) is less
than n. For any (h, k) in Zs ⊕ Zt we have m(h, k) = (mh, mk), where
m(h, k) denotes the sum of m lots of (h, k). But m is a multiple of s, so
mh = 0 in Zs ; similarly, mk = 0 in Zt . Hence
m(h, k) = (0, 0) ,
the identity in Zs ⊕ Zt . This means that every element of Zs ⊕ Zt has
order m or less. But Zn has an element of order n, and therefore cannot
be isomorphic to Zs ⊕ Zt .

Example 4.11.
Before we apply the theorem to decompose Zn . Let us compare the group
tables Z6 and Z2 ⊕ Z3 , and compare the tables for Z4 and Z2 ⊕ Z2 .
Solution.
We compare the multiplication tables for Z6 and Z2 ⊕ Z3 :
+ 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4

+ (0,0) (1,1) (0,2) (1,0) (0,1) (1,2)
(0,0) (0,0) (1,1) (0,2) (1,0) (0,1) (1,2)
(1,1) (1,1) (0,2) (1,0) (0,1) (1,2) (0,0)
(0,2) (0,2) (1,0) (0,1) (1,2) (0,0) (1,1)
(1,0) (1,0) (0,1) (1,2) (0,0) (1,1) (0,2)
(0,1) (0,1) (1,2) (0,0) (1,1) (0,2) (1,0)
(1,2) (1,2) (0,0) (1,1) (0,2) (1,0) (0,1)
From the two addition tables, the function ψ : Z6 → Z2 ⊕ Z3 defined by

ψ(n) = (n mod 2, n mod 3)
is clearly an isomorphism.
Alternatively, in Z6 , we have h6/2i = h3i = {0, 3} ∼
= C2 ∼
= Z2 .
∼ ∼
Similarly, h6/3i = h2i = {0, 2, 4} = C3 = Z3 .
As h3i ∩ h2i = {0} and |Z6 | = |h3i||h2i|, so Z6 ∼
= h3i ⊕ h2i.

Suppose we compare the multiplication tables for Z4 and Z2 ⊕ Z2 :
+ 0 1 2 3 + (0,0) (0,1) (1,0) (1,1)

0 0 1 2 3 (0,0) (0,0) (0,1) (1,0) (1,1)
1 1 2 3 0 (0,1) (0,1) (0,0) (1,1) (1,0)
2 2 3 0 1 (1,0) (1,0) (1,1) (0,0) (0,1)
3 3 0 1 2 (1,1) (1,1) (1,0) (0,1) (0,0)
In Z2 ⊕ Z2 , no element is of order greater than 2, but in Z4 , 1 is of order

4. Hence Z4 and Z2 ⊕ Z2 are not isomorphic.
Example 4.12.
Decompose each of the following additive groups into direct sum of cyclic
groups.
Z20 ∼
= Z4 ⊕ Z5 .
Z30 = Z6 ⊕ Z5 ∼
∼ = Z2 ⊕ Z3 ⊕ Z5 .

Theorem 4.15.
Let s1 , s2 , . . . , sk be positive integers. Then the direct sum
Zs1 ⊕ Zs2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Zsk is cyclic if and only if s1 , s2 , . . . , sk are pairwise
relatively prime.
Proof.
Write n = s1 s2 · · · sk . If the sj are pairwise relatively prime then we can
use theorem 4.14 to show by induction that Zs1 ⊕ Zs2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Zsk ∼ = Zn
which is cyclic.
Conversely, if the numbers are not pairwise relatively prime then
m = lcm(s1 , s2 , . . . , sk ) is less than n.
As in proof of theorem 4.14, Zs1 ⊕ Zs2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Zsk has no element of order
greater than m, but it has n elements. None of its elements is a generator
of the whole group. Hence, Zs1 ⊕ Zs2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Zsk is not cyclic.
Example 4.13.
The group Z11 ⊕ Z15 ⊕ Z28 is cyclic but Z16 ⊕ Z23 ⊕ Z30 is not.
Canonical decomposition of Zn
We can find many ways of writing Z84 as a direct sum:
Z84 ∼
= Z3 ⊕ Z28 ∼
= Z4 ⊕ Z21 ∼
= Z7 ⊕ Z12 .
Note that Z84 is not isomorphic to Z6 ⊕ Z14 because 6 and 14 are not
relatively prime.
We have also
Z84 ∼
= Z22 ⊕ Z3 ⊕ Z7 ,
and this is in some sense the “best” way of writing Z84 as a direct sum.
We shall call it the canonical decomposition of Z84 , by analogy with the
canonical factorisation 84 = 22 × 3 × 7.
To write this expression in terms of specific subgroups of Z84 , we use
Theorem 4.13 to obtain
Z84 ∼
= h84/4i ⊕ h84/3i ⊕ h84/7i = h21i ⊕ h28i ⊕ h12i
= {0, 21, 42, 63} ⊕ {0, 28, 56} ⊕ {0, 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72} .
Attempt questions 90(e), 108 to 111.
The Chinese Remainder Theorem
The following problem is posed and solved in a text by Sun Zi, a Chinese
mathematician of about the fifth century A.D.
Suppose we have an unknown number of objects. When counted in
threes, 2 are left over, when counted in fives, 3 are left over, and when
counted in sevens, 2 are left over. How many objects are there?
Translation from
www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Sun Zi.html
In modern terms, the problem is to find all x which satisfy the three
congruences
x ≡ 2 (mod 3) , x ≡ 3 (mod 5) , x ≡ 2 (mod 7).
We have learnt that there is a group isomorphism
ψ : Z105 → Z3 ⊕ Z5 ⊕ Z7 defined by
ψ(x) = ( x mod 3 , x mod 5 , x mod 7).
We can rephrase the problem as to find x such that ψ(x) = (2, 3, 2). Since
ψ is a bijection we know that the problem has a unique solution in Z105 ;
that is, in Z there is a unique solution modulo 105.
Theorem 4.16 (The Chinese Remainder Theorem).
Suppose that the integers m1 , m2 , . . ., mt are pairwise coprime, and let
b1 , b2 , . . . , bt be any integers. Then the simultaneous congruences
x ≡ b1 (mod m1 ) , x ≡ b2 (mod m2 ), . . . , x ≡ bt (mod mt )
have a unique solution modulo m1 m2 · · · mt .
Proof.
Write n = m1 m2 · · · mt .
Since the mk are coprime in pairs, the proof of Theorem 4.14 shows that
ψ(x) = ( x mod m1 , x mod m2 , . . . , x mod mt )
defines a bijection between Zn and Zm1 ⊕ Zm2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Zmt .
So there is a unique x ∈ Zn for which ψ(x) = (b1 , b2 , . . . , bt ), and this
proves the theorem.
The theorem is on the existence of unique solution, but how to find it?

Example 4.14.
Solve the simultaneous congruences
x ≡ 2 (mod 3) , x ≡ 3 (mod 5) , x ≡2 (mod 7) .
The solution given by Sun Zi over 1500 years ago (translation from the
same source as before):
Multiply the number of units left over when counting in threes by 70,
add to the product of the number of units left over when counting
in fives by 21, and then add the product of the number of units left
over when counting in sevens by 15. If the answer is 106 or more
then subtract multiples of 105.
Solution.
Write the solution in modern terms.
x ≡ 2 × 70 + 3 × 21 + 2 × 15 (mod 105).
≡ 233 (mod 105)
≡ 23 (mod 105)
Why does this method work? The key is that
70 ≡ 1 (mod 3), 70 ≡ 0 (mod 5), 70 ≡ 0 (mod 7);
21 ≡ 0 (mod 3), 21 ≡ 1 (mod 5), 21 ≡ 0 (mod 7);
15 ≡ 0 (mod 3), 15 ≡ 0 (mod 5), 15 ≡ 1 (mod 7).
It is not difficult to see 35 is 0 in both modulo 5 and modulo 7. However,
35 is not 1 modulo 3, but 2 × 35 is.
Solution (without guess and check).
We write x = 35p + 21q + 15r , then take modulo 3, then modulo 5, then
modulo 7. We obtain,
2p ≡ 2 (mod 3), q ≡ 3 (mod 5), r ≡ 2 (mod 7).
So p = 1, q = 3, r = 2 will do.
Since there is a unique solution for x modulo 105,
x = 35 × 1 + 21 × 3 + 15 × 2 = 128 ≡ 23 (mod 105).

Example 4.15.
Solve (if possible) the simultaneous congruences
x ≡ 1 (mod 15) , x ≡ 2 (mod 7) , x ≡ 8 (mod 10) .
Solution.
Note that 10 and 15 are not coprime. We cannot apply the method right
away. However, Z15 ∼= Z3 ⊕ Z5 and apply the isomorphism ψ where
ψ(n) = (n mod 3, n mod 5), we have
x ≡ 1 (mod 15) ⇔ x ≡ 1 (mod 3) and x ≡ 1 (mod 5).
Similarly, x ≡ 8 (mod 10) ⇔ x ≡ 0 (mod 2) and x ≡ 3 (mod 5).
We cannot have x ≡ 1 (mod 5) and x ≡ 3 (mod 5) simultaneously.
Hence there is no solution.
Example 4.16.
Solve 4x ≡ 1 (mod 7) , x ≡ 3 (mod 10) , x ≡ 11 (mod 24).

Solution.
Clearly the first congruence is not of the form x ≡ a (mod m). However,
gcd(2, 7) = 1, we can multiply both sides of this congruence by 2.
4x ≡ 1 (mod 7) ⇔ 8x ≡ 2 (mod 7) ⇔ x ≡ 2 (mod 7).
The second and the third congruence equations have non-coprime moduli.
Splitting them up, we have
x ≡ 1 (mod 2) and x ≡ 3 (mod 5);
x ≡ 2 (mod 3) and x ≡ 3 (mod 8).
Although we still have non-coprime moduli, yet
x ≡ 1 (mod 2) and x ≡ 3 (mod 8) ⇔ x ≡ 3 (mod 8).
Hence the solutions of the given simultaneous congruence equations is the
same as the solutions of
x ≡ 2 (mod 7) , x ≡ 2 (mod 3) , x ≡ 3 (mod 5), x ≡ 3 (mod 8).
Let x = 120p + 280q + 168r + 105s. Then take modulo 7, modulo 3,
modulo 5 and modulo 8. I leave the rest of the question to you as
exercise. The answer is x ≡ 443 (mod 840).
Decomposition of Um
Recall that if s and t are relatively prime then the additive groups Zst and
Zs ⊕ Zt are isomorphic, and that in particular the mapping defined by
ψ(g ) = ( g mod s , g mod t )
is an isomorphism from the former to the latter.
But note that ψ has another property:
ψ(g1 g2 ) = ( g1 g2 mod s , g1 g2 mod t )
= ( g1 mod s , g1 mod t )( g2 mod s , g2 mod t )
= ψ(g1 )ψ(g2 )
that is, ψ preserves multiplication as well.

It is therefore also an isomorphism of the rings Zst and Zs ⊕ Zt .
To study the relationship between Ust and Us ⊗ Ut , we consider the
function ψ restricted to the sets of units.
Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.3 Um – Group of Units of Zm S1 2018 33 / 58

Theorem 4.17 (Decomposition of Un ).
If n = st is a positive integer, Un ∼
= Us ⊗ Ut if and only if s and t are
coprime.
Proof of ‘if’ part.

Assume s and t are coprime and let
ψ : Zn → Zs ⊕ Zt where ψ(g ) = ( g mod s , g mod t ) ,
and regard this as a function between two rings.
We want to define a function with the same rule, but involving only the
units in these rings.
Firstly, therefore, we need to show that ψ maps units to units.
If g is a unit in Zn then gg 0 = 1 for some g 0 ∈ Zn .
As we already know that ψ preserves multiplication, we have
ψ(g )ψ(g 0 ) = ψ(gg 0 ) = ψ(1) = (1, 1) ,
which is the multiplicative identity in Zs ⊕ Zt .
That is, ψ(g ) has a multiplicative inverse, namely ψ(g 0 ), and is therefore a
unit in Zs ⊕ Zt .
Proof (Continued).
So we can define a function
ω : Un → Us ⊗ Ut where ω(g ) = ψ(g ) = ( g mod s , g mod t ) .
Since ω is just ψ restricted to the group of units, it is one-to-one and

preserves multiplication; we just need to prove is ω is onto.
So, let (h, k) be an arbitrary element Us ⊗ Ut .
Then h is a unit modulo s and hence has a multiplicative inverse h0 in Us
and similarly k has an inverse k 0 in Ut .
Since ψ is onto, there exist g and g 0 in Zn such that ψ(g ) = (h, k) and
ψ(g 0 ) = (h0 , k 0 ).
Then
ψ(gg 0 ) = ψ(g )ψ(g 0 ) = (h, k)(h0 , k 0 ) = (1, 1) = ψ(1).
But ψ is one-to-one, so gg 0 = 1 and g is a unit in Zn . This means that
ω(g ) = (h, k), and we have shown that ω is onto.
The proof of the converse is harder and will be left until later.

Example 4.17.
Decompose each of U15 and U24 as direct product of groups of units, and
cyclic groups.
Solution.
= U3 ⊗ U5 ∼
U15 ∼ = C2 ⊗ C4 .
Note that U3 = {1, 2} and 22 = 1 modulo 3. Hence U3 = h2i ∼= C2 .
2 3 4
The elements of U5 are {1, 2, 3, 4} and 2 = 4, 2 = 3, 2 = 1 modulo 5.
Hence U5 = h2i and o(2) = 4 in U5 . Therefore U5 ∼= C4 .
From Example 4.10, U8 =∼ C2 ⊗ C2 . Hence
∼ ∼
U24 = U3 ⊗ U8 = C2 ⊗ C2 ⊗ C2 .
Recall that φ(n) is the number of positive integers coprime to n. Hence

φ(n) = |Un |.
Corollary 4.18.
The Euler’s Function φ is multiplicative.

Theorem 4.19 (Formula for φ(n)).
Let n be a positive integer with canonical factorisation n = p1α1 p2α2 · · · psαs .
Then s s
Y Y 1
pkαk − pkαk −1 = (pk − 1)pkαk −1 = n
Y
φ(n) = 1− .
p
k=1 k=1 p|n
Proof.
We first compute |Upα |, where p is prime. The elements of Zpα are
0, 1, 2, . . . , p, . . . , 2p, . . . , 3p, . . . , (p α−1 − 1)p, . . . , p α − 1 ,
and all of them are units except for the multiples of p, namely,
0, p, 2p, 3p, . . . , (p α−1 − 1)p .
There are p α−1 of these, and so
φ (p α ) = Upα = p α − p α−1 = (p − 1)p α−1 .

By factorising n into prime powers, then by Corollary 4.18 we have

φ(n) = φ (p1α1 p2α2 · · · psαs ) = φ (p1α1 ) φ (p2α2 ) · · · φ (psαs ) ,
and the results follows.
Note that if n = 1 then the canonical factorisation of n has no factors; so
according to the above formulae, φ(1) is given by an empty product, which
is 1. the formula is still valid.
Corollary 4.20.
The quotient φ(n)/n depends on the prime factors of n, but not on their
multiplicity.
Example 4.18.
φ(21) = φ( 3 × 7 ) = 2 × 6 = 12
φ(2111) = 2110
φ(211111) = φ( 107 × 1973 ) = 106 × 1972 = 209032
φ(21111111) = φ( 37 × 72 × 197 ) = (37 −36 )×(72 −7)×196 = 12002256.
Example 4.19.
Simplify 23232323 modulo 200.

Solution.
Clearly gcd(23, 200) = 1, and we calculate
φ(200) = φ(23 × 52 ) = (23 − 22 ) × (52 − 5) = 80 .
So by Euler’s Theorem 2380 ≡ 1 (mod 200) and hence
23232323 = 2380×2904+3 ≡ 233 ≡ 167 (mod 200) .
Example 4.20.
Find all integers n such that φ(n) = 20.
Solution.
If p is a prime factor of n, by Theorem 4.19 p − 1 is a factor of φ(n) = 20.
Therefore n has no prime factors except 2, 3, 5 and 11. We only need
consider the following values of φ(p α ) with α > 1: φ(2) = 1, φ(22 ) = 2,
φ(23 ) = 4, φ(3) = 2, φ(5) = 4, φ(52 ) = 20, φ(11) = 10.
We only listed those functional values of φ which are factors of 20.

By carefully finding every possible way of writing 20 as a product of these
candidates we have:
1 × 2 × 10 = φ(2 × 3 × 11), 1 × 20 = φ(2 × 52 ),
2 × 10 = φ(22 × 11), 2 × 10 = φ( 3 × 11), 20 = φ(52 ),
and so the solutions are n = 25, 33, 44, 50, 66.
Lemma 4.21.
Suppose that gcd(s, t) = g . Then
φ(g )φ(st) = g φ(s)φ(t) .
Proof.
Using the third formula for φ(n) we have
Y 1 Y 1 Y 1 Y 1
LHS = gst 1− 1− , RHS = gst 1− 1− .
p p p p
p|g p|st p|s p|t
Clearly the factor gst is the same on both sides.
Proof (Continued).
As for the rest, if a prime p is a divisor of both s and t then it is also a
divisor of g , and the factor (1 − p1 ) occurs twice on each side.
If p is a divisor of s but not of t then the factor occurs once on each side,
and likewise if p is a divisor of t but not of s.
If p is a divisor neither of s nor of t then the factor does not occur at all.
Therefore. the result follows.
Proof of Theorem 4.17, ‘only if’ part.

We have to show that if s and t are not coprime then Ust and Us ⊗ Ut are
not isomorphic.
Suppose that gcd(s, t) = g > 1.
Then φ(g ) < g , and hence by the lemma
φ(g )
φ(s)φ(t) = φ(st) < φ(st) .
g
Therefore Us ⊗ Ut has fewer elements that Ust , and there is no bijection
between them, let alone an isomorphism, so the two groups are not
isomorphic.
The behaviour of φ is very irregular, but its “average” is simple.
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
φ(n) 1 1 2 2 4 2 6 4 6 4 10 4 12 6 8
and two graphs:
Figure: Graphs of φ(n) and φ(n)

Xn
1 3n
A formula for the asymptotic behaviour: lim φ(k) =1.
n→∞ n π2
k=1
We have seen that any Un can be written as a direct product of groups of
units modulo a prime power,
Un ∼
= Upα1 ⊗ Upα2 ⊗ · · · ⊗ Upsαs .
1 2
In every case we have examined, the “factors” involved were either cyclic
(for example, U5 ∼
= C4 ) or easily expressible in terms of cyclic groups
∼
(U8 = C2 ⊗ C2 ). In general, we have the following theorem.
Theorem 4.22.
Let p be a prime, p 6= 2. Then Upα is cyclic,
Upα ∼
= C(p−1)pα−1 .
For powers of 2 we have U2 ∼= C1 , U4 ∼
= C2 and
∼
U2α = C2 ⊗ C2α−2 for α ≥ 3 .
Proof.
Difficult. The proof is not examinable. Skipped.

Theorem 4.23.
Let n ≥ 2. Then Un is cyclic if and only if n = 2, n = 4, n = p α or
n = 2p α , where p is an odd prime and α is a positive integer.
Proof.
From the previous theorem, Un is cyclic in the first three cases. In the
fourth case we have
U2pα ∼= U2 ⊗ Up α ∼= C1 ⊗ C(p−1)pα−1 ∼= C(p−1)pα−1
which is cyclic.
Conversely, if n does not have any of the given forms we have three cases:
1) n = 2α , where α ≥ 3. In this case Un ∼= C2 ⊗ C2α−2 ∼ = Z2 ⊗ Z2α−2
which is not cyclic by Theorem 4.15, since the factors are both even
so the orders are not coprime.
2) n = 2α p β for α ≥ 2, p an odd prime. In this case, for the same
reason Un ∼ = C2 ⊗ C2α−2 ⊗ C(p−1)pβ−1 is not cyclic.
α β
3) n = p q · · · for distinct odd primes p, q etc. In this case
Un ∼= C(p−1)pα−1 ⊗ C(q−1)qβ−1 ⊗ · · · and the same argument as p − 1
and q − 1 are even: not cyclic
Example 4.21.
Write as products of cyclic groups with prime power order U164 , U165 and
U176 . Are any of these groups isomorphic to each other?
Solution.
Now 164 = 22 × 41, 165 = 3 × 5 × 11, 176 = 24 × 11. By Theroem 4.17
and Theorems 4.22
U164 ∼
= U4 ⊗ U41 ∼
= C2 ⊗ C40 ∼
= C2 ⊗ C8 ⊗ C5 ,
∼ U3 ⊗ U5 ⊗ U11 ∼
U165 = = C2 ⊗ C4 ⊗ C10 ∼= C2 ⊗ C4 ⊗ C2 ⊗ C5 , and
U176 ∼= U16 ⊗ U11 ∼ = C2 ⊗ C4 ⊗ C10 ∼= C2 ⊗ C4 ⊗ C2 ⊗ C5 .
This shows that U165 and U176 are isomorphic. However 2 and 4 are not
coprime, so by Theorem 4.14 C2 ⊗ C4 is not isomorphic to C8 , and
therefore U164 is not isomorphic to these two.
Example 4.22.
Show that U675 has an element of order 180.

Solution.
We have U675 ∼ = U33 ⊗ U52 ∼ = C2×32 ⊗ C4×5 ∼ = C2 ⊗ C9 ⊗ C4 ⊗ C5 .
Since 9, 4 and 5 are relatively prime in pairs, by Theorem 4.15
U675 ∼
= C2 ⊗ C180 . If a is generator of C180 then the element (e, a) of
C2 ⊗ C180 has order 180, hence U675 has such an element.
Example 4.23.
Find the maximum order of any element in U1001 .
Solution.
Writing U1001 as a direct product of cyclic groups,
U1001 ∼ = U7 ⊗ U11 ⊗ U13 ∼ = C6 ⊗ C10 ⊗ C12
∼
= C2 ⊗ C3 ⊗ C2 ⊗ C5 ⊗ C4 ⊗ C3 ∼ = C2 ⊗ C2 ⊗ C3 ⊗ C60 .
For any element of this latter group we have
(g , h, i, j)60 = (g 60 , h60 , i 60 , j 60 ) = (e, e, e, e) ,
so no element can have order exceeding 60. If a generates C60 , the order
of (e, e, e, a) is exactly 60. So the maximum possible order in U1001 is 60.
Theorem 4.24.
Suppose that G is a cyclic group of order n and that g is a generator of G .
Then
a) for any integer α, the order of g α is n/ gcd(α, n);
b) g α generates G if and only if α is relatively prime to n.
Proof.
Write d = gcd(α, n). Then
n α n
(g α )β = e ⇔ n | αβ ⇔ β ⇔ β.
d d d

The last step follows as gcd(n/d, α/d) = 1.
Therefore the smallest β such that (g α )β = e is n/d.
This proves the first assertion, and the second is an easy consequence.

4.4 Primitive Roots
Definition 4.9.
A generator of Um is called a primitive root modulo m.
In other words, g is a primitive root modulo m if the powers of g modulo

m include all of the units modulo m.
For example, the powers of 2 modulo 11 are
1, 2, 4, 8, 5, 10, 9, 7, 3, 6
and so 2 is a primitive root modulo 11.

But the powers of 3 are
1, 3, 9, 5, 4
and so 3 is not a primitive root modulo 11.
The following theorems are nothing more than restatements of certain
observations we made in this chapter.
Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.4 Primitive Roots S1 2018 48 / 58
Theorem 4.25.
A primitive root modulo m will exist if and only if m = 2, m = 4, m = p α
or m = 2p α , where p is an odd prime.
Proof.
It follows directly from Theorem 4.23.
Theorem 4.26.
Let g be a primitive root modulo m. Then g α is a primitive root modulo
m if and only if α is relatively prime to φ(m), that is iff α ∈ Uφ(m) .
Proof.
It follows directly from Theorem 4.24.
Corollary 4.27.
If there are any primitive roots modulo m then there are φ (φ(m)) of them.
Example 4.24.
Find all primitive roots modulo 11.
Solution.
We have φ(11) = 10, and 2 is a primitive root modulo 11. Working in Z11
the powers of 2, listed in order, are
1, 2, 4, 8, 5, 10, 9, 7, 3, 6 .
α
By Theorem 4.26, 2 is a primitive root modulo 11 iff α ∈ Uφ(11) . Hence
the set of all primitive roots modulo 11 is
{21 , 23 , 27 , 29 } = {2, 8, 7, 6} .
By Theorem 4.26, once we have one primitive root we can find them all.
But how do we find a first primitive root modulo m?
The only answer is “by intelligent trial and error”. Let me illustrate this
in the next example.
Example 4.25.
Find all primitive roots modulo 31.
Solution.
A primitive root modulo 31, g , is a generator of U31 . Since
|U31 | = φ(31) = 30, we need g 30 = 1, but g α 6= 1 for all 1 ≤ α ≤ 29. By
Lagrange’s Theorem, the order of any element in U31 must be a factor of
30. If g is not a generator then at least one of the following will be 1 in
U31 . g 1 , g 2 , g 3 , g 5 , g 6 , g 10 , g 15
However, if one of g , g 3 , g 5 is 1, then g 15 is 1. Equivalently, if g 15 is not
1, then none of g , g 3 , g 5 is 1. In general, we only need to check those
α 6= 30 and α is a proper factor of 30 but not a factor of any other proper
factors of 30. Hence, we only need
g 6 6≡ 1 (mod 31), g 10 6≡ 1 (mod 31) and g 15 6≡ 1 (mod 31).
Try g = 2, and calculate 26 , 210 and 215 modulo 31 as efficiently as
possible.
21 = 2 , 22 = 4 , 24 = 42 = 16 , 26 = 4 × 16 = 2 6= 1,
210 = 24 × 26 = 16 × 2 = 1.
Therefore 2 is not a primitive root modulo 31.

Then try g = 3. We have
31 = 3 , 32 = 9 , 34 = 92 = 19 , 36 = 9 × 19 = 16 6= 1,
310 = 19 × 16 = 25 6= 1, 315 = 3 × 34 × 310 = 3 × 19 × 25 = 30 6= 1.
Thus, 3 is a primitive root.
By theorem 4.26, 3α will be a primitive root iff gcd(α, φ(31)) = 1, that is,
α ∈ {1, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29} = U30 , so there are 8 primitive roots:
{3, 17, 13, 24, 22, 12, 11, 21}
Indices Modulo m
Let g be a primitive root modulo m and a is a unit modulo m. There
exists a unique α ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . , φ(m) − 1} such that a = g α .
Definition 4.10.
The exponent α above is called the discrete logarithm of a modulo m
to the base g , or the index of a modulo m, relative to g . We write
α = logg a or α = indg a .
Example 4.26.
The indices of all units modulo 11, relative to the primitive root 6, are
given in the following table.
a = 6α 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
α = ind6 (a) 0 9 2 8 6 1 3 7 4 5
Rules for manipulating indices are essentially identical to the familiar rules
of (real) logarithms: we just have to remember that indices modulo m
should be simplified modulo φ(m).
Example 4.27.
In Z11 , if we want to multiply a = 8 and b = 9, instead of doing it directly,
we can compute the product in terms of powers of 6:
ab = 67 × 64 = 611 = 611 (mod 10) = 61 = 6.
In other words,
ind6 (ab) = 1 ≡ ind6 a + ind6 b (mod 10).
This verifies part of the next theorem.
Note: the product of units is simplified modulo m, but the sum of indices
is simplified modulo φ(m).
Theorem 4.28.
Let g be a primitive root in Um .
a) If a, b ∈ Um then indg (ab) ≡ indg a + indg b (mod φ(m)).
b) If a ∈ Um and k ∈ Z then indg (ak ) ≡ k indg a (mod φ(m)).
Proof.
Exercise
Note: Just as there is no useful simplification of log(x + y ), so there is no

useful simplification of the index of a sum.
Indices are only useful for multiplicative problems.

Solving Congruences Using Indices
We shall solve the following congruences modulo 11 by choosing 6 as a

primitive root and consulting the table in example 4.26.
In order to simplify notation we write ind instead of ind6 .
Example 4.28.
Solving the following congruences.
1 3x ≡ 10 (mod 11),
2 x 3 ≡ 4 (mod 11),
3 x 5 ≡ 4 (mod 11),
4 2x 4 ≡ 7 (mod 11),
5 8x ≡ 9 (mod 11),
6 9x ≡ 8 (mod 11).

Solution.
1 Linear Example:
3x ≡ 10 (mod 11) ⇔ ind 3 + ind x ≡ ind 10 (mod 10)
⇔ 2 + ind x ≡ 5 (mod 10)
⇔ ind x ≡ 3 (mod 10)
⇔ x ≡7 (mod 11)
2 Monomial congruence:
x3 ≡ 4 (mod 11) ⇔ 3 ind x ≡ 8 (mod 10)
⇔ ind x ≡ 6 (mod 10)
⇔ x ≡5 (mod 11)
3 Monomial congruence:
x 5 ≡ 4 (mod 11) ⇔ 5 ind x ≡ 8 (mod 10) .
However 5n (mod 10) can only be 0 or 5. There is no solution.

4 Quartic Example:
2x 4 ≡ 7 (mod 11) ⇔ 9 + 4 ind x ≡ 3 (mod 10)
⇔ 4 ind x ≡ 4 (mod 10)
⇔ ind x ≡ 1 or 6 (mod 10)
⇔ x ≡ 6 or 5 (mod 11)
5 Exponential congruence:
8x ≡ 9 (mod 11) ⇔ x ind 8 ≡ ind 9 (mod 10)
⇔ 7x ≡ 4 (mod 10)
⇔ x ≡2 (mod 10)
6 Another exponential congruence:
9x ≡ 8 (mod 11) ⇔ x ind 9 ≡ ind 8 (mod 10)
⇔ 4x ≡ 7 (mod 10)
There is no solution.

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Chapter 4 The Structure of Um and Zm

School of Mathematics and Statistics

Chi Mak (UNSW) MATH3521 Chapter 4 S1 2018 1 / 58

For subgroups of a group G , we do not need to check all axioms.

Clearly every subgroup of an abelian group is abelian, but it is possible to

Note: o(g ) = |hg i|. Also, g k = e if and only if o(g ) | k.

I leave the proof as an exercise: Q. 97 (b).

By the Subgroup Lemma, a subset of a group is a subgroup if it is closed

Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.1 Subgroups and Cyclic Groups S1 2018 8 / 58

Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.1 Subgroups and Cyclic Groups S1 2018 10 / 58

Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.1 Subgroups and Cyclic Groups S1 2018 11 / 58

Attempt questions 95 to 101 except 97 (e).

Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.1 Subgroups and Cyclic Groups S1 2018 12 / 58

The proof is left as an exercise. (You need to check all 4 axioms.)

× (1,1) (1,5) (3,1) (3,5)

By comparing multiplication tables, the function ψ : U8 → {1, 3} ⊗ {1, 5}

Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.2 Direct Products of Groups S1 2018 18 / 58

Theorem 4.14 (Decomposition of Zn ).

Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.2 Direct Products of Groups S1 2018 20 / 58

Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.2 Direct Products of Groups S1 2018 21 / 58

Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.2 Direct Products of Groups S1 2018 22 / 58

From the two addition tables, the function ψ : Z6 → Z2 ⊕ Z3 defined by

Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.2 Direct Products of Groups S1 2018 23 / 58

+ 0 1 2 3 + (0,0) (0,1) (1,0) (1,1)

In Z2 ⊕ Z2 , no element is of order greater than 2, but in Z4 , 1 is of order

Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.2 Direct Products of Groups S1 2018 24 / 58

Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.2 Direct Products of Groups S1 2018 28 / 58

Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.2 Direct Products of Groups S1 2018 30 / 58

Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.2 Direct Products of Groups S1 2018 31 / 58

that is, ψ preserves multiplication as well.

Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.3 Um – Group of Units of Zm S1 2018 33 / 58

Proof of ‘if’ part.

ω : Un → Us ⊗ Ut where ω(g ) = ψ(g ) = ( g mod s , g mod t ) .

Since ω is just ψ restricted to the group of units, it is one-to-one and

Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.3 Um – Group of Units of Zm S1 2018 35 / 58

Recall that φ(n) is the number of positive integers coprime to n. Hence

Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.3 Um – Group of Units of Zm S1 2018 36 / 58

By factorising n into prime powers, then by Corollary 4.18 we have

Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.3 Um – Group of Units of Zm S1 2018 38 / 58

Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.3 Um – Group of Units of Zm S1 2018 39 / 58

Proof of Theorem 4.17, ‘only if’ part.

Figure: Graphs of φ(n) and φ(n)

Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.3 Um – Group of Units of Zm S1 2018 43 / 58

Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.3 Um – Group of Units of Zm S1 2018 45 / 58

Attempt questions 115 to 124.

In other words, g is a primitive root modulo m if the powers of g modulo

and so 2 is a primitive root modulo 11.

Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.4 Primitive Roots S1 2018 51 / 58

Note: Just as there is no useful simplification of log(x + y ), so there is no

Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.4 Primitive Roots S1 2018 54 / 58

We shall solve the following congruences modulo 11 by choosing 6 as a

Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.4 Primitive Roots S1 2018 55 / 58

Chi Mak (UNSW) 4.4 Primitive Roots S1 2018 56 / 58

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