Anup R. Patel

Mechanical property and microstructural
investigation of aluminium bronze by
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centrifugal casting process
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ANUP R. PATEL
ROLL NO: (M12AMT05)
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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

U. V. PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
GANPAT UNIVERSITY
KHERVA, MEHSANA-382711 (NORTH GUJARAT)
Mechanical property and microstructural
centrifugal casting process
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A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO
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GANPAT UNIVERSITY
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE
OF
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MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
WITH SPECIALIZATION IN
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ADVANCED MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES
SUBMITTED BY
ANUP R. PATEL
(ROLL NO: M12AMT05)
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UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF
Prof. V.B. PATEL
(HEAD OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPT.)
JUNE -2014
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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

GANPAT UNIVERSITY
KHERVA, MEHSANA-382711 (NORTH GUJARAT)
Department of Mechanical Engineering
U. V. Patel College of Engineering
Ganpat University,
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Kherva, Mehsana-382711
(North Gujarat).
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Certificate
This is to certify that the work presented in the dissertation
entitled
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“Mechanical property and microstructural
centrifugal casting process”
ne Has been carried out by
ANUP R. PATEL
(Roll No: M12AMT05)
In a manner sufficiently satisfactory to warrant its acceptance as a partial

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fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the Degree of
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
In
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
with Specialization In
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Advanced Manufacturing Techniques
This is a bonfire work done by the student and has not been submitted to
any other University / Institute for the award of any other Degree.
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Prof. V. B. Patel Dr. P.H. Shah

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Guide Principal & Dean

Associate Professor and Head U.V.P.C.E., Ganpat University,
of Mechanical Engineering Kherva, Mehsana
Department
U.V.P.C.E., Ganpat University
Kherva, Mehsana
Department of Mechanical Engineering
U. V. Patel College of Engineering
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Ganpat University,
Kherva, Mehsana-382711
(North Gujarat).
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Certificate of Examination
et.
This is to certify that we have examined the thesis entitled
“Mechanical property and microstructural investigation of aluminium bronze
by centrifugal casting process” submitted by Mr. Anup R. Patel
(M12AMT05), a postgraduate student of Mechanical Engineering with
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specialization in Advanced Manufacturing Techniques. We hereby accord our
approval of it as a study carried out and presented in manner required for its
acceptance in partial fulfillment for the Post Graduate Degree for which it
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has been submitted. This approval does not necessarily endorse or accept every
statement made, opinion expressed or conclusion drawn as recorded in this
thesis. It only signifies the acceptance of the thesis for the purpose for which
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it is submitted.
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External Examiner Internal Examiner

DECLARATION
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I hereby certify that I am the sole author of this thesis and that neither any part of this
thesis nor the whole of the thesis has been submitted for a degree to any other University
or Institution.
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I certify that, to the best of my knowledge, my thesis does not infringe upon anyone's
copyright nor violate any proprietary rights and that any ideas, techniques, quotations, or
any other material from the work of other people included in my thesis, published or
otherwise, are fully acknowledged in accordance with the standard referencing practices.
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I declare that this is a true copy of my thesis, including any final revisions, as approved
by my thesis review committee.
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ANUP R. PATEL
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(Enrollment No. : 12014051005)
Date: ______________
II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
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It is indeed a pleasure for me to express my sincere gratitude to those who have always
helped me for this dissertation work.
I sincerely convey my gratitude to my guide and Head of Mechanical Engineering
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Department Prof V.B. Patel, who made me believe in myself and guided me through the
whole process of dissertation writing. He has never failed to help me to get a grasp on the
subject. I am sure that this dissertation would not have been possible without his support,
understanding and encouragement.
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I am sincerely thankful to Prof J. P. Patel Head of Mechatronics Dept., Prof. C. P. Patel
and Prof. H. A. Patel P.G incharge Mechanical Engg. Dept., Prof. J. R. Mevada
and Dr. B. P. Patel for their valuable co-operation.
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In addition, I would like to thank all teaching and non-teaching staff of Mechanical
Engineering Department, U.V.P.C.E, Kherva, who supported me by providing required
materials for my research work. I would also like to show my gratitude to my friends and
colleagues for their help, moral support and for providing me such a warm atmosphere to
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make my study more delightful and memorable.
I would also like to thanks my parents and family for their moral support, who always
kept faith in me and offered unconditional support and encouragement over the years.
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At the end, let me apologize to those people, who can’t found their names here……..
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A.R. PATEL
Date: ______________ (Enrollment No.12014051005)
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APPROVAL SHEET
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This dissertation is entitled as “Mechanical Property and microstructural
investigation of aluminium bronze by centrifugal casting process” by
ANUP R. PATEL is approved for 2nd part of M.Tech dissertation work of the degree of
Master of Technology (AMT).
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Examiner
et. Supervisor
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Head of department
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Date: ______________
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Place: ______________
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ABSTRACT
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The aim of the present experimental study is to investigate the influence of the vertical
centrifugal casting technique on hardness and microstructure of aluminium bronze
(CuAl11Fe4) at varying mould rotation speed and pouring temperature. In this study
hollow cylindrical samples were prepared at varying mould rotation speed like 1050,
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1150 and 1250 rpm with 1150°C & 1250°C pouring temperature. Microstructural study
was carried out by an optical microscope which is connected with computer and image
analyser software. Microstructural images which are taken from an optical microscope
were used for microstructural study of aluminium bronze. Microstructure images were
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taken from inner, middle and outer surfaces of each cast samples. Various
microconstituents of aluminum bronze were observed to be primary α phase, Cu-Al
compound and fine particles iron in microstructure images.
Rockwell hardness test were performed on the outer, middle and inner region of casting
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sample. Result of hardness shows that hardness value is increased from inner to outer
region. As mould rotation speed is increased from 1050 to 1250 rpm, grain size of
α -phase decreased seen from observations. Maximum hardness was obtained at 1250 rpm
and 1250°C pouring temperature, due to fine grain structure.
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IV
TABLE OF CONTENT
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Sr. No. Contents Page No.
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I Approval sheet I
II Declaration II
III Acknowledgement III
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IV Abstract IV
V Table of content V
VI neList of figures IX
VII List of tables XI
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
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1.1.1 Introduction to copper and its alloys 1
1.2 Classification & designation of copper alloys 2
1.2.1 Classification of copper alloys 2
1.2.2 Designation of copper alloys 3

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1.3 Properties of copper alloys 4
1.3.1 Good castability 4
1.3.2 In built corrosion protection

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4
1.3.3 Low frictional properties and good resistance 4
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to wear
1.3.4 Good mechanical properties at ambient and 4
high temperature
1.3.5 Machinability 4
V
1.4 Area of application of copper alloys 5
1.5 Copper alloys as bearing application 5
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1.6 Selection of material 6
1.7 Aluminium bronze 7
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1.7.1 Mechanical properties of aluminum bronze 8
1.7.2 Phase diagram of aluminum bronze 10
1.7.3 Microstructure of aluminum bronze 12
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1.7.4 Melting practice of copper alloys 13
1.7.5 Application of aluminum bronze 15
1.7.6 Chemical composition of aluminum bronze 16

ne 1.8 Significance of project 17
Chapter 2 Centrifugal Casting Technique

2.1 Introduction 18
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2.2 Centrifugal casting machines 18
2.2.1 Horizontal centrifugal machine 18
2.2.2 Vertical centrifugal machine 19

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2.2.3 Incline centrifugal machine 19
2.3 Centrifugal casting processes 19
2.3.1 True centrifugal casting 19

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2.3.2 Semi centrifugal casting 20
2.3.3 Centrifuge mold casting 20

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2.4 Process variables in casting technique 22
2.5 Mold heating and coating techniques 26
2.6 Advantages of centrifugal casting techniques 27
VI
2.7 Difference between horizontal centrifugal machine 28
and vertical machine
Chapter 3 Hardness Measurement and Metallography
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3.1 Introduction of hardness 29
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3.2 Brinell hardness 29
3.3 Vickers hardness 30
3.4 Rockwell hardness 30
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3.5 Metallography 32
3.5.1 Grinding 32
3.5.2 Polishing 33
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3.5.4 Microstructure study of specimen 34
Chapter 4 Literature Review

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4.1 Introduction 36
4.2 Review of literatures 36
4.3 Summary 42
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4.4 Objective of dissertation 42
Chapter 5 Experimental Procedure

5.1 Introduction 43
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5.2 Plan of experiments 43
5.3 Experimental setup 44

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5.3.1 Specification of induction furnace 44
5.3.2 Vertical centrifugal casting machine 45
5.4 Experimental procedure 46
VII
5.4.1 Determination of casting weight 46
5.4.2 Preparation of casting 47
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5.4.3 Sample preparation for microstructure study 50
5.4.4 Preparation of hardness measurement 51
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specimen
Chapter 6 Result and Discussion

6.1 Results 53
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6.1.1 Microstructure of aluminium bronze 53
6.1.2 Results of hardness measurement 60
6.2 Relationship between microstructure and hardness 61

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6.3 Effect of pouring temperature and mold rotation on 61
hardness of aluminium bronze

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Chapter 7 Conclusion 64
Chapter 8 Future Scope 65
Chapter 9 References 66
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VIII
LIST OF TABLES
Sr. No. Table Name Page
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No.
Table 1.1 Guide to the performance of bearing materials 6
Table 3.1 The Rockwell hardness scales 31
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Table 5.1 Experimental design to obtain results from combination 43
of parameters
Table 6.1 Results of hardness measurement 60
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IX
LIST OF FIGURES
Sr. No. Figure Name Page
No.
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Figure 1.1 Selection of aluminium bronze 7
Figure 1.2 Phase diagram of aluminium bronze 11
Figure 1.3 Microstructure of cast 10% aluminum bronze showing primary 12
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α and granular eutectoid
Figure 1.4 Microstructure of furnace-cooled aluminum bronze showing 12

lamellar eutectoid
Figure 1.5
Figure 1.6
Figure 1.7
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Microstructure of quenched 10.7 percent aluminum bronze
showing a martensitic β structure
Microstructure of aluminum bronze C95400
Test certificate of spectro analysis of aluminum bronze ingots

13
13
16
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Figure 2.1 True centrifugal casting or machine: (A) Horizontal 21
centrifugal machine, (B) Vertical centrifugal machine,
(C) Inclined centrifugal machine
Figure 2.2 Semi centrifugal casting 21

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Figure 2.3 Centrifuge mold casting 22
Figure 2.4 Mould speed diagram 26
Figure 5.1 Induction furnace 44

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Figure 5.2 Vertical centrifugal casting machine 45
Figure 5.3 Variable frequency drive (VFD) 46
Figure 5.4 Induction heater for preheating of mould 47

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Figure 5.5 Ingots, flux, degasser and deoxidant for aluminium bronze 48
Casting
Figure 5.6 Micro temperature detector 48
IX
Figure 5.7 Degassing and deoxidizing treatment 49
Figure 5.8 Dross removing process 49
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Figure 5.9 The casting cylinders extracted from vertical centrifugal 49
casting
Figure 5.10 Double polishing machine 50
Figure 5.11 Optical microscope 51
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Figure 5.12 Specimen for microstructure examination and hardness 51
measurement
Figure 5.13 Rockwell hardness tester 52
Figure 6.1
Figure 6.2
and 1050 RPM
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Cast sample AB1 produced at pouring temperature 1150 0C
Cast sample AB2 produced at pouring temperature 1150 0C

and 1150 RPM
54
55
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Figure 6.3 Cast sample AB3 produced at pouring temperature 1150 0C 56
and 1250 RPM

and 1050 RPM
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and 1250 RPM

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and 1250 RPM
Figure 6.7 Hardness (HRB) of each casting sample 60
Figure 6.8 The value of hardness at constant pouring temp. 1150 0C 62

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Figure 6.9 The value of hardness at constant pouring temp. 1250 0C 62
X
Introduction
Chapter 1
Introduction
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1.1 Introduction
Most manufacturing materials can be classified into four groups: metallics, polymerics,
ceramics and composites. Metallic materials are metals such as iron, steel, and aluminum
etc. Polymeric materials include natural polymers like wood and rubber as well as
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synthetic polymers like plastics. Pottery, chine, porcelain and glass are examples of
ceramic materials. Composite materials are actually combinations of two or more
materials bonded together. Plywood is an example of a wood based composite material.
Metals are grouped in two broad categories, ferrous and nonferrous. Iron is the primary
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element in ferrous metals, while nonferrous metals contain little or no iron. The two
major groups of ferrous metals are cast iron and steel. Cast iron and steel contain an alloy
of iron, carbon, silicon, and other materials. Nonferrous metals commonly include
aluminum, copper, zinc and lead. Aluminum is lightweight and strong, also is excellent
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conductor and resists corrosion so used in automobiles and airplanes manufacturing parts
etc. Copper alloys are brass (copper and zinc alloy) and bronze (copper and tin alloy).
Natural characteristics of lead make it useful as a material in bearings [1].
1.1.1 Introduction of copper and its alloys

Copper is the oldest material used by man, its uses dates back to prehistoric times. Copper
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and its alloys constitute one of the major groups of commercial metals. They are widely
used because of their excellent electrical and thermal conductivities, outstanding
resistance to corrosion and wear, ease of fabrication, to gather with good strength and
fatigue resistance. Pure copper is used extensively for cables and wires, electrical contacts
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and a wide variety of other parts that are required to pass electrical currents [2].
Copper is face-centre-cubic. Melting temperature is 1083°C and density is 8900 kg/m3,
which is three times heavier than aluminum. Metallurgically from ores, where the
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chemical compound of copper with oxygen, sulphur or other elements occurs, copper is
produced:
 chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) - contains around 34.5 % of copper;
 azurite (Cu3[OH-Co3]2) and malachite (Cu2[OH-Co3]2) -alkaline copper
carbonates;
1
Introduction
 cuprites (Cu2O) - copper oxide. [3,4]

Copper ores found in the United States contain about 1% copper in the form of copper
sulfide. Copper sulfide concentrates are smelted to yield a dull that is a mixture of copper
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and iron sulfides. The copper containing dull are melted again in a converter. Air is blown
through the mattes to oxidize the remaining sulfur. The remaining copper is called blister
copper and about 99% pure. The blister copper is further fire refined to remove other
impurities, leavening a tough-pitch copper of around 99.5% purity. This is suitable for
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many alloys but for some higher purity of 99.9% is obtained by electrolytic refinement of
the tough-pitch copper [5].
Copper based alloys are commonly identified through a system of number standardized
by the Copper Development Association which has been adopted by American Society
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for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and the U.S.
government. Alloys numbered from 100 to 190 are mostly copper with less than 2% alloy
addition. Number 200 to 799 are other wrought alloys. The 800 and 900 series are all
casting alloys [6].
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1.2 Classification & designation of copper alloys
From the casting point of view, especially based on the solidification range (freezing
range) copper cast alloys can be divided into three groups:
Group I alloys - alloys that have a narrow freezing range, that is a range of 50°C between
the liquidus and solidus curves. These are the yellow brasses, manganese and aluminum
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bronzes, nickel bronze, manganese bronze alloys and chromium copper.

Group II alloys - alloys that have an intermediate freezing range, which is a freezing
range of 50 to 110°C between the liquidus and the solidus curves. These are the beryllium
coppers, silicon bronzes, silicon brass and copper-nickel alloys.
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Group III alloys- alloys that have a wide freezing range. These alloys have a freezing
range of well over 110°C, even up to 170°C. These are the leaded red and semi-red
brasses, tin and leaded tin bronzes and high leaded tin bronze alloys [7].
1.2.1 Classification of copper alloys

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The most important commercial copper alloys may be classified as follows:

1. Brasses- These are alloys of copper and zinc. These can be further classified as
follows:
2
Introduction
A. Alpha (α) brasses- This alloy is containing up to 36 percent zinc.

1. Yellow alpha brasses are containing 20 to 36 percent zinc
2. Red brasses are containing 5 to 20 percent zinc
B. Alpha plus beta (α+β) brasses are containing 54 to 62 percent copper
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2. Bronzes- These are alloys of copper and tin. These can be further classified as follows:
A. Tin bronzes
B. Silicon bronzes
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C. Aluminum bronzes
D. Beryllium bronzes
3. Cupronickels- These alloys are made of copper and nickel.
4. Nickel silvers- These alloys are made of copper, nickel, and zinc [7].
1.2.2 Designation of copper alloys
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According to United Number System, Cu and its alloys are divided into two classes:
(1) Wrought alloys C100xx to C7xxxx,
(2) Cast alloy C800xx to C9xxxx [8].
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Wrought alloys
C100xx–C159xx Commercially pure Cu
C160xx–C199xx Nearly pure Cu, age hardenable
C2xxxx Cu-Zn (classical brass)
C3xxxx Cu-Zn-Pb (leaded brass)
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C4xxxx Cu-Zn-Sn (tin bronze)

C5xxxx Cu-Sn (classical bronze) and Cu-Sn-Pb (phosphor bronze)
C6xxxx Cu-Al (aluminum bronze), Cu-Si (silicon bronze), Cu-Zn-Mn
(manganese bronze)
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C7xxxx Cu-Ni (cupronickel), Cu-Ni-Zn (nickel silver)
Cast alloys
C800xx–C811xx Commercially pure Cu
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C813xx–C828xx 95-99% Cu
C833xx–C899xx Cu-Zn alloys containing Sn, Pb, Mn, or Si
C9xxxx Other Cu alloys, including tin bronze, aluminum bronze, cupronickel,
and nickel silver
3
Introduction
1.3 Properties of copper alloys

1.3.1 Good castability
The technology of copper alloy founding has advanced considerably in recent years and
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castings are produced to a high degree of integrity to fulfill many critical applications
where inspection requirements are particularly difficult. The most flexible casting
technique used is sand moulds. Die-casting, which uses permanent moulds usually of
iron, is more suited to long runs of castings. Both sand and die-casting allow low cost
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production of complex near net-shape components, minimizing machining costs and
avoiding difficult fabrications.
Rings and discs for the manufacture of products such as gears or valve seating and tubes
or flanged pipes as well as other symmetrical shapes such as for bearings are available as
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centrifugal castings. The casting process is far more versatile than fabrication.
1.3.2 In-built corrosion protection

No protective treatments against corrosion are necessary with copper alloys. Slow
tarnishing occurs in moist air but this is superficial. Alloys recommended for sea water
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applications generally have better resistance to pitting attack than stainless steels.
1.3.3 Low frictional properties and good resistance to wear

Journal and other solid bearings, worm wheels, automobile gear selector forks and many
other components where low friction and good wear resistance are required are
commonly made from copper alloy castings.
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1.3.4 Good mechanical properties at ambient and high temperature

Coppers and copper alloys can be chosen to give an optimum combination of strength in
tension and compression, hardness, ductility and resistance to impact to suit most
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applications. Strengths equivalent to stainless steels are available at lower cost and, in
many applications, improved corrosion resistance. Properties at elevated temperatures are
significantly better than other non-ferrous metals.
1.3.5 Machinability
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Many of the alloys contain an addition of lead which ensures excellent machinability with
easy chip formation. Even the stronger lead-free alloys present no problems in machining
[9].
4
Introduction
1.4 Area of application of copper alloys

The term brass has been established for binary Cu-Zn alloys. Pure α- (Cu) solid solutions
(up to about 38% Zn) are cold-working alloys. Wrought products of brasses and bronzes
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are used in automobile radiators, heat exchangers, and home heating systems, as pipes,
valves, and fittings in carrying clean water and as springs, fasteners, hardware, small
gears and cams, to give a few examples.
Cast leaded red and semi-red brasses find their application as lower pressure rating
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valves, fitting, and pump components as well as commercial plumbing fixtures, cocks,
faucets and certain lower-pressure valves.
General hardware, ornamental parts, parts in contact with hydrocarbon fuels and
plumbing fixtures are made from yellow leaded brass. Yellow brass is suitable for
fittings.
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structural, heavy-duty bearings, hold-down nuts, gears, valve stems and some marine
Bronzes are Cu-Sn, Cu-Al, and Cu-Si based alloys. Cast products of tin bronzes are used
as high-quality valves, fittings and pressure vessel for applications at temperatures of up
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to 290°C, special bearings, pump parts, gears and steam fittings.
Aluminum and silicon bronzes have very good strength, excellent formability and good
toughness. They are used as gears, slides gibs, cams, bushings, bearings, molds, forming
dies, combustion engine components, valve stems, spark-resistant tools and in marine
applications such as propellers, impellers and hydrofoils.
Copper-nickel alloys show excellent corrosion resistance against seawater. Accordingly,
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they are used in shipboard components, power plants in costal areas and saline-water
conversion installations. Since Ni in Cu leads to a drastic decrease in electrical and
thermal conductivity Cu-Ni alloys are also suitable for cryogenic applications [8].
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1.5 Copper alloys as bearing application

Copper base alloys have been popular because of their unique compatibility with steel
journal materials together with good bearing strength. The bronzes in particular, perform
well under boundary lubrication conditions [3]. Bronzes are unquestionably the most
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versatile class of bearing materials, offering a broad range of properties from a wide
selection of alloys and compositions. Bearing bronzes offer broad ranges of strength,
ductility, hardness, wear resistance, anti-seizing properties, low friction and the ability to
conform to irregularities, tolerate dirty operating environments and contaminated
lubricants [8].
5
Introduction
Bearing material selection is an expected compromise between tribological bearing

properties requiring soft materials, and mechanical strength requiring hard materials.
By selecting appropriate constituents and using various alloying techniques, a wide range
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of materials with different properties can be realized. Table 1.1 lists the broad range of
copper alloy materials, indicating their relative properties which need to be considered for
bearing applications.
It can be seen from table 1.1 that copper alloy materials cover a wide range of properties.
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In selecting the optimum choice of a bearing material, the first consideration is usually
the required mechanical properties of load capacity and temperature limitations [10].
Table 1.1 Guide to the performance of bearing materials [10].
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1.6 Selection of Material

Published article in CDA-126 on “Cast and wrought aluminium bronzes properties,
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processes and structure”. They studied comparing the wear resistance of different
materials, the harder materials are often found to be the most wear resistant. There is
considerable service experience to show that an aluminium bronze with a hard surface has
excellent galling resistance. It was thought therefore at one time that wear was inversely
proportional to the hardness of the surface being worn away. Although hardness is
6
Introduction
definitely an important factor in wear performance, its role is more complex.

In aluminium bronze, the presence of hard intermetallic particles in a soft constituent of
the microstructure is an advantageous feature in resisting wear [11].
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The copper alloys are selected as their uses in bearing applications. Then definite number
of alloys is short outs by means of the study of some bearing manufacturing companies
and accordance of Copper Development Association. The alloy compositions of
aluminium bronzes are selected which are generally manufacture by all bearing
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manufacturing companies and suggested as best bearing material from CDA association.
This is as shown in the figure 1.1. Aluminium bronzes are selected because use of them in
preference to other copper alloys when the counterface is hardened steel.
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Figure: 1.1 Selection of material

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1.7 Aluminum bronze

Aluminum bronze is a type of bronze in which aluminum is the main alloying metal
added to copper. A variety of aluminum bronze of different composition have found
industrial use, with most ranging from 5% to 11% aluminum by weight, the remaining
mass copper, other alloying element such as iron nickel, manganese and silicon are also
7
Introduction
sometime added to aluminum bronze. The presence of aluminum increases the

mechanical properties of the alloy by the establishment of a face-centre-cubic (F.C.C)
phase which could improve the casting and hot working properties of the alloy.
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Other alloying elements improve the mechanical properties and modify the
microstructure. Nickel and manganese improves the corrosion resistance, whereas Fe is
a grain refiner. Mechanical properties of bronze alloy are depending on their chemical
composition, microstructure, and production condition and can be improved significantly
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by heat treatment. Aluminum bronze is the most tarnish-resistant copper alloy and shows
no serious deterioration in appearance and no significance loss of mechanical properties
on expose to most atmospheric condition their resistance to atmospheric corrosion
combined with high strength is exploited, for example in their use for bearing and bushes
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in aircraft frames. Aluminum bronze also shows low rate of oxidation at high temperature
and excellent resistance to sulphuric acid, sulphur oxide and other combustion product
and are therefore used for the construction of items exposed to either both of these
conditions [10].
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1.7.1 Mechanical properties of aluminum bronze
1.7.1.1 Tensile strength
Aluminum bronzes exhibit strengths comparable to low alloy steels and many are
stronger than most stainless steels. Furthermore, the alloys retain a substantial proportion
of their strength at elevated temperature, and at low temperatures, they gain strength
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slightly while retaining ductility. Shear strength can be estimated as being two thirds of
the tensile strength.
1.7.1.2 Yield strength

Yield strength is a more useful property than tensile strength since it is a measure of the
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stress needed to cause a measurable permanent (non-elastic) deformation, i.e., far lower
than the stress needed to cause failure. However, yield strength is not quite so easy to
measure as is tensile strength in this case because, unlike steels, copper alloys do not
show a sudden "yield" deformation when stress is increased past a critical value, so
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"proof strength" is a more appropriate term.
8
Introduction
1.7.1.3 Ductility
Most aluminum bronzes show adequate ductility to provide adequate service life and to
resist fatigue. Again, values attainable vary with alloy content and amount of prior cold
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work. Elongation figures decrease as the alloys get harder.
1.7.1.4 Hardness
The hardness of aluminum bronzes increases with aluminum (and other alloy) content as
well as with stresses caused through cold working. Some manganese and manganese-
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nickel-aluminum bronzes exhibit martensitic transformations similar to those seen in
steels, but while these reactions produce higher mechanical properties, they are not
generally thought of as primary strengthening mechanisms.
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1.7.1.5 Wear resistance
Wear resistance of aluminum bronzes often provide excellent service in both cast and
wrought forms. Metal sprayed or welded overlay deposits of aluminum bronze on steel
also provide effective wear resistant surfaces. At the high end of the wear and abrasion
resistance spectrum are special aluminum bronze alloys containing up to 14% aluminum
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whose applications include dies for deep drawing and molds for die casting.
1.7.1.6 Bearing and frictional properties

Aluminum bronzes are used as bearing materials and heavy duty guides where other
materials would fail quickly. They thrive on heavy loads, shocks and harsh working
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environments and so are found in steel works, in agricultural, mining and earthmoving
equipment, and as bridge bearings and other structural and architectural applications.
In rotating applications, best results are usually achieved when running aluminum bronzes
against hardened surfaces. When lubrication of sliding surfaces is less than ideal,
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aluminum bronzes are superior to ferrous materials. Both wrought and cast alloys are
used. Permanent mold provides an excellent production method for the quantity
production of such low friction items as selector forks for gearboxes.
1.7.1.7 Shock resistance

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Aluminum bronze alloys and in particular the wrought products, have excellent resistance
to shock provided, as always, that the material is sound and undue stress concentrations
are avoided in design.
9
Introduction
1.7.1.8 Damping capacity & non-sparking characteristics

Aluminum bronzes are twice as effective as steel in their ability to dampen vibrations.
Excellent non-sparking characteristics make aluminum bronzes suitable for the
.in
manufacture of tools and equipment used in the handling of explosives, in mines,
petroleum and chemical plants, gas-handling equipment and similar applications.
1.7.1.9 Fatigue strength

Aluminum bronzes have exceptional resistance to fatigue, which is one of the most
ac
common causes of deterioration in marine engineering equipment. This property helps to
give the alloys their excellent resistance to corrosion fatigue that makes them suitable for
use as propellers and in pumps.
et.
1.7.1.10 Corrosion resistance
Aluminum bronzes can be used in environments that are far more aggressive than are
tolerated by most other metals, including even copper and the brasses used for general
purposes. They can provide heavy duty service at higher temperatures, in seawater
environments and in the presence of many chemicals and acids [11].
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1.7.2 Phase diagram of aluminum bronze
Aluminum bronze alloys can be categorized in three distinct series as can be seen from
the binary equilibrium diagram of copper-aluminum system. They constitute the α series,
the α+β series and α+γ2 series, possessing properties entirely different in nature. The
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copper-rich portion of the copper-aluminum alloy system is shown in figure 1.2.

The maximum solubility of aluminum in the α solid solution is approximately 9.5 percent
at 565°C (1050°F). The β phase undergoes a eutectoid reaction at 565°C (1050°F) to form
the α+γ2 mixture. Most commercial aluminum bronzes contain between 4 and 11 percent
u.i
aluminum. Those alloys containing up to 7.5 percent aluminum are generally single-phase
alloys, while those containing between 7.5 and 11 percent aluminum are two-phase
alloys. Other elements such as iron, nickel, manganese, and silicon are frequently added
to aluminum bronzes. Iron (0.5 to 5.0%) increases strength and hardness and refines the
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grain; nickel (up to 5%) has same effect as iron but is not so effective: Silicon (up to 2%)
improves machinability; manganese promotes soundness in castings by combining with
gases and also improves strength. The α+β phase aluminum bronzes are interesting
because they can be heat treated to obtain structures similar to those in steel [12].
10
Introduction
The equilibrium diagram of aluminum bronze is as shown in figure 1.2. It is clear that the
β phase structure is stable only at high temperature and undergoes α+γ2 phase,
transformation at about 565°C. The β phase gives a high hardness combined with
.in
relatively high mechanical properties under normal conditions, but severity of cooling
results in the formation of β phase with martensitic structure which has lower elongation.
The α/β alloys have favorable combination of strength and corrosion resistance. The
decomposition of β phase to α+γ2 phase, which occurs during slow cooling or reheating in
ac
the temperature range between 550°C and 350°C, has to be avoided [13].
et.
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Figure 1.2 Phase diagram of Aluminium Bronze (From: “Metal Handbook”

1948 ed., page no.1160, American Society for metals, Metals Park, Ohio)
During the slow cooling rate the β phase is transformed at eutectoid temperature
565°C to the lamellar eutectoid α+β phase. For this reason the eutectoid reaction of
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β phase is sometimes called “pearlitic transformation”. From 10 to 12 % Al content alloys

can be heat treated with a similarly process as in the case of steels. The martensitic
transformation can be reached in the case when the eutectoid transformation is limited by
fast alloys cooling rate from the temperatures in the β phase or α+β phase areas [13].
11
Introduction
Aluminum bronzes, or copper base alloys containing between 5% and 11% aluminum are
stronger and tougher than the tin bronzes. As the aluminum content of the alloy is
increased, the toughness reduces. At 14% aluminum, the alloy is very brittle but can only
.in
be used for special applications 1ike deep drawing dies [12].
1.7.3 Microstructure of aluminum bronze

Microstructure of aluminum bronze is as shown in figure 1.3, the structure of primary
α phase and granular eutectoid α+γ2 phase are representative of an as cast 10 percent
ac
aluminum bronze. On furnace cooling from above the eutectoid temperatures, a lamellar
structure resembling pearlite is formed in shown figure 1.4. The two-phase alloy is
quenched from 1500°F to 1600°F; a needlelike structure resembling martensite is formed
in shown figure 1.5. The quenched alloys are tempered between 700°F and 1100°F to
increase strength and hardness [12].
et.
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Figure 1.3 Microstructure of cast 10% aluminum bronze showing primary α and
granular eutectoid (From: “Introduction to physical metallurgy by Sidney H.
Avner” 2nd ed., page no.477)
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Figure 1.4 Microstructure of furnace-cooled aluminum bronze showing lamellar

eutectoid (From: “Introduction to physical metallurgy by Sidney H. Avner” 2nd ed.,
page no.477)
12
Introduction
.in
ac
Figure 1.5 Microstructure of quenched 10.7 percent aluminum bronze showing a
martensitic β structure (From: “Introduction to physical metallurgy by Sidney H.
Avner” 2nd ed., page no.477)
The microstructure of typical bearing grade aluminum bronze containing 3% iron is
et.
shown in figure 1.6. The matrix is β phase and the acicular phase is α phase. The pepper-
1ike phase is iron precipitate [14].
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Figure 1.6 Microstructure of Aluminum bronze C95400 (From: W.A. Glaeser,

“Wear properties of heavy loaded copper bearing alloys”; Journal of metals)
1.7.4 Melting practice of copper alloys

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Metal treatment
The main types of alloys requiring metal treatment are high conductivity copper,
commercial copper, brasses, gun metals, aluminium bronzes and copper nickels.
Molten copper dissolves both oxygen and hydrogen and on solidification, the oxygen and
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hydrogen can combine to form water vapour (steam reaction) which causes porosity in
the casting. Without the presence of oxygen, hydrogen alone may also cause gas porosity.
Alloys containing aluminium form oxide skins which can cause problems in castings.
In some other alloys, traces of aluminium may cause defects and residual aluminium must
13
Introduction
be removed. Special melting and metal treatment techniques have been developed to deal
with these effects. These include fluxing, degassing and deoxidation treatments.
Fluxes
.in
Different types of fluxes are available for cleaning, covering, element removal, protection
against chromium loss and slag coagulation. They are sold under the brand names
ALBRAL, CHROMBRAL, CUPREX, CUPRIT, ELEKTRO, ELIMINALU,
RAFFINATOR, RECUPEX and SLAX. The choice of flux depends on alloy types and
ac
foundry practice (furnaces, melt process, type of castings, etc).
There are two melting techniques. One method is to melt the alloy under cover of a
reducing flux, which protects the metal from the absorption of oxygen. The second
method is to melt the alloy under strongly oxidising conditions using an oxidising flux
cover to exclude all hydrogen.
et.
It is frequently necessary to protect the surface of a melt in the furnace or ladle to prevent
oxidation losses of alloying elements (such as aluminium or zinc). ALBRAL and
CUPRIT fluxes are recommended for this process.
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When it is necessary to melt under oxidising conditions, oxidising fluxes or combined
covering and oxidizing fluxes are available, such as CUPREX. It is also frequently
necessary to recover metal from dross. In this case RECUPEX or RAFFINATOR fluxes
are used.
ELIMINALU fluxes are specifically designed to reduce aluminium to very low levels by
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treatment with a flux. The main objectives are:

• Elimination of gas porosity
• Elimination of oxides
• Removal of metallic impurities
u.i
• Effective slag removal
Degassing
LOGAS 50 degassing agents are designed to remove dissolved hydrogen from copper and
copper alloys. They also purge and remove oxides from the melt. They are particularly
gn
effective for removing hydrogen and inclusions from copper melts.
Deoxidant
DEOX Tubes are designed to remove dissolved oxygen from liquid metal by the
introduction of a very reactive agent to form a stable oxide which separates from the melt.
14
Introduction
DEOX Tubes are available for all types of copper based alloys. Thermal and electrical
conductivity of the alloys are not affected [15, 16].
1.7.4.1 Melting practice of aluminum bronze
.in
Melt down the ingots of Aluminium Bronze under a fluid cover of ALBRAL 2 to
minimise oxidation and cleanse the melt of aluminium oxide films, then deoxidise.
Up to 1% of ALBRAL 2 is used to form the cover, and when the metal is at pouring
temperature, plunge and rabble a further 0.25–0.5% of ALBRAL 2.
ac
The molten metal is poured into a ladle carefully then a piece of LOGAS 50 is added to
remove the gasses out from the molten metal.
After 2-3 minutes, leave the metal to settle then deoxidise by plunging DEOXIDISING
TUBES series E. Deoxidation treatment coalesces suspended non-metallics and improves
fluidity [17].
1.7.5 Application of aluminum bronze

et.
The aluminum bronzes comprise a wide range of compositions, and alloys can be chosen
with a correspondingly wide range of properties to suit many types of application as
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shown below [11].
FOUNDRY PRODUCTS WROUGHT PRODUCTS

Bushes Bearings
Bearings Chain
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Continuous cast bar & shapes Compressor blades

Centrifugal castings Drop forgings
Die-cast components Fasteners
Deep drawing dies Pressure vessels
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Gears & Gear blanks Springs

Impellers Shafting
Pumps & valves Tube sheets
Pipe fittings Tubes & Shells
gn
Shafts Synchronizing ring Wear plates
15
Introduction
1.7.6 Chemical composition of aluminum bronze

The selected aluminium bronze material is having specific chemical composition.
Purchased ingots of aluminium bronzes were tested with spectrograph analysis with
.in
reference to supplier of aluminum bronzes Govind Metal Co. The test certificate of
spectro analysis is as shown in the figure 1.7.
ac
et.
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Figure 1.7 Test certificate of spectro analysis of aluminum bronze ingots
16
Introduction
1.8 Significance of project

Dissertation is performing to investigate mechanical properties of centrifugally cast
aluminum bronze. Aluminum bronze having excellent mechanical properties in
.in
accordance with microstructure. Dissertation is concerning with this parameter because
correlation between microstructure and mechanical properties such as hardness
application of aluminum bronze bearing. A bearing and bearing material adapted for use
with a relatively movable bearing member or bearing material having a considerably
ac
greater hardness, the bearing material of the invention comprising aluminum bronze
which is heat treated to create there through particles of harder material than the
aluminum bronze prior to heat treating, said particles being harder than the matrix in
which they are dispersed. This study introduces combination of centrifugal casting
et.
parameters such as pouring temperature and mold rotation speed. Result will suggest best
combination of both parameter to produce aluminum bronze having microstructurer and
mechanical properties.
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17
Centrifugal casting
Chapter 2
Centrifugal Casting
.in
2.1 Introduction
CENTRIFUGAL CASTING is one of the largest casting branch in the casting industry,
accounting for 15% of the total casting output of the world in terms of tonnage.
Centrifugal casting was invented in 1918 by the Brazilian Dimitri Sensaud deLavaud,
ac
after whom the process was named. DeLavaud’s invention eliminated the need for a
central core in the pipe mold, and the mold was water cooled, allowing for a high rate of
repeated use. The technique uses the centrifugal force generated by a rotating cylindrical
mold to throw molten metal against a mold wall to form the desired shape.
et.
The centrifugal technique is used primarily for the production of hollow components, but
centrifugal casting is used to create solid parts. The centrifugal casting process is
generally preferred for producing a superior-quality tubular or cylindrical casting.
The centrifugal force causes high pressures to develop in the metal, and it contributes to
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the feeding of the metal, with separation from nonmetallic inclusions and evolved gases
[18].
Centrifugal casting machines are categorized into three basic types based on the direction
of the spinning axis.
 Horizontal centrifugal machine
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 Vertical centrifugal machine

 Inclined centrifugal machine
Centrifugal casting processes also have three types.
 True centrifugal casting (horizontal, vertical, or inclined)
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 Semi-centrifugal (centrifugal mold) casting

 Centrifuge mold (centrifugal die) casting
2.2 Centrifugal casting machines

gn
Centrifugal casting machines are categorized into three basic types based on the direction
of the spinning axis: horizontal, vertical or inclined.
2.2.1 Horizontal centrifugal machine

Horizontal centrifugal casting is used to cast pieces having horizontal axis of revolution.
The technique uses the centrifugal force generated by a rotating cylindrical mold to throw
18
Centrifugal casting
the molten metal against the mold wall and form the desired shape. Horizontal centrifugal
casting is mainly used to cast pieces with a high length-to-diameter ratio or with a
uniform internal diameter. Products include pipe, tubes, bushings cylinder sleeves
.in
(liners), and cylindrical or tubular castings that are simple in shape [18, 19].
2.2.2 Vertical centrifugal machine

Vertical centrifugal casting is mainly for castings with a low length-to-diameter ratio or
with a conical diameter. The product range for vertical centrifugal casting machines is
ac
wider, because non-cylindrical (or even nonsymmetrical) parts can be made using vertical
centrifugal casting. All vertical centrifugal castings have more or less taper on their inside
diameters, depending on the gravitational (g) force applied to the mold and the casting
size [20].
2.2.3 Inclined centrifugal machine
et.
Inclined centrifugal casting machine bears advantages and disadvantages of both
horizontal and vertical castings and can be very useful in certain applications.
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2.3 Centrifugal casting processes
Centrifugal casting processes also have three types: True centrifugal casting (horizontal,
vertical, or inclined), Semi-centrifugal casting, Centrifuge mold casting.
2.3.1 True centrifugal casting

True centrifugal casting is characterized by an outer cylindrical mold with no cores. The
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process can be vertical, horizontal, or inclined as shown figure 2.1. The permanent mold
is rotated about its axis at high speeds 300 to 3000 rpm, so that the molten metal is forced
to the inside mold wall, where it solidifies. The casting is usually very fine grained on the
outer diameter, while the inside diameter has more impurities and inclusions that can be
u.i
machined away. Centrifugal casting is used to produce cylindrical, tubular, or ring-shaped

castings. The need for a center core is completely eliminated. Castings produced by this
method will always have a true cylindrical bore or inside diameter, regardless of shape or
configuration. The bore of the casting will be straight or tapered, depending on the
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horizontal or vertical spinning axis used. Castings produced in metal molds by this
method have true directional heat flow, facilitating a planar solidification front move
from the outside of the casting toward the axis of rotation. This method results in the
19
Centrifugal casting
production of high-quality, defect-free castings without shrinkage, which is the largest

single cause of defective sand castings.
2.3.2 Semi centrifugal casting
.in
Semi centrifugal casting is used to produce castings with configurations determined
entirely by the shape of the mold on all sides, inside and out, by spinning the casting and
mold about its own axis. A vertical spinning axis is normally used for this method as
shown figure 2.2. Cores may be necessary if the casting is to have hollow sections.
ac
Directional solidification is obtained by proper gating, as in static casting. Castings that
are difficult to produce statically can often be economically produced by this method,
because centrifugal force feeds the molten metal under pressure many times higher than
that in static casting. This improves casting yield significantly (85 to 95%), completely
et.
fills mold cavities, and results in high-quality casting free of voids and porosity. Thinner
casting sections can be produced with this method than with static casting. Typical
castings of this type include gear blanks, pulley sheaves, wheels, impellers, and electric
motor rotors.
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2.3.3 Centrifuge mold casting
Centrifuge casting has the widest field of application. In centrifuge mold casting,
the casting cavities are arranged about the center axis of rotation like the spokes of a
wheel, thus permitting the production of multiple castings. Centrifugal force provides the
necessary pressure on the molten metal in the same manner as in semi-centrifugal casting
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as shown figure 2.3. This casting method is typically used to produce valve bodies and
bonnets, plugs, yokes, brackets, and a wide variety of various industrial castings [18].
u.i
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(A)
20
Centrifugal casting
.in
ac
(B)
et.
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(C)
Figure 2.1 True centrifugal casting or machine: (A) Horizontal centrifugal machine,
(B) Vertical centrifugal machine, (C) Inclined centrifugal machine
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(From: “Centrifugal Casting, ASM Handbook, Volume 15 ”, 2008,

ASM International, page no.668)
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Figure 2.2 Semi centrifugal casting (From: “Centrifugal Casting, ASM Handbook,
Volume 15”, 2008, ASM International, page no. 668)
21
Centrifugal casting
.in
ac
Figure 2.3 Centrifuge mold casting (From: “Centrifugal Casting, ASM Handbook,
et.
Volume 15”, 2008, ASM International, page no.668)
2.4 Process variables in casting technique

Once the particular process has been established, the main variables controlling casting
ibn
quality are speed of rotation, pouring temperature, pouring speed and mould temperature.
Due to the interaction of several mechanisms it has not so far proved feasible to formulate
general rules defining the influence of the main casting variables upon grain structure.
In practice the most consistent influence is that of a low pouring temperature in producing
grain refinement and equiaxed structures, whilst somewhat higher temperatures tend to
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promote columnar grains by suppressing nucleation and increasing the radial temperature
gradient towards an optimum level.
2.4.1 Pouring temperature

Pouring temperature exerts a major influence on the mode of solidification and needs to
u.i
be determined partly in relation to the type of structure required. Low temperatures are
associated with maximum grain refinement and with equiaxed structures, whilst higher
temperatures promote columnar growth in many alloys. However, practical
considerations limit the available range: the pouring temperature must be sufficiently high
gn
to ensure satisfactory metal flow and freedom from cold laps whilst avoiding coarse
structures and increased risk of hot tearing due to excessive superheat [21].
The metal density can be increased by maintaining a lower pouring temperature. Low
pouring temperature minimizes the gas absorption and gives fine grain size. However, the
minimum temperature is often dictated by casting dimensions and pouring condition [22].
22
Centrifugal casting
2.4.2 Mould temperature

The use of a metal die produces marked refinement when compared with sand casting,
but mould temperature is only of secondary importance in relation to structure. Its
.in
principal significance lies in the degree of expansion of the die with preheating:
expansion diminishes the risk of tearing in true [21].
2.4.3 Pouring speed or pouring rate

This is governed primarily by the need to finish casting before the metal becomes
ac
sluggish, although too high a rate can cause excessive turbulence and ejection. In practice
slow pouring offers a number of advantages: directional solidification and feeding are
promoted, whilst the slow development of full centrifugal pressure on the outer solidified
skin reduces the risk of tearing. High pouring rate reduce the incidence of cold shuts and
et.
laps on the outer surface of the casting and improve directionality of solidification and
reduces the risk of shrinkage cavity formation near the bore [21].
It is generally considered desirable to pour the metal at the lowest casting temperature,
highest rate and with maximum permissible speed of rotation [22].
ibn
2.4.4 Speed of rotation
The main factors influencing speed selection were discussed in relation to the
fundamentals of the process. The governing factor in true centrifugal casting is retention
of the bore shape against gravity whilst avoiding longitudinal tearing through excessive
hoop stress; in semi-centrifugal and pressure casting, feeding pressure is the main
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criterion.
Rotational speed also exerts an influence upon structure, the most common effect of
increased speed being to promote refinement, although this can also rise from turbulence
induced by instability of the liquid mass at very low speeds. On balance, to secure
u.i
maximum benefit from centrifugal casting, it is logical to use the highest speed consistent
with the avoidance of tearing [21].
In a rotating body the radial, acceleration is V2/r where V is the tangential velocity and
r is the radius. The mean acceleration in the initial direction developed due to the rotation
gn
of the mold, therefore can be calculated using the following formula:

G =5.59 x 10-4 N2 D
Where,
G = Radial acceleration due to centrifugal action / Acceleration due to gravity
D = Mean diameter of casting, m
23
Centrifugal casting
N = Speed of mold rotation, rpm

At low speeds of rotation, the centrifugal acceleration is low. If it is insufficient to
counteract the effect of gravity, metal droplets may fall from the inside surface of
.in
horizontal centrifugal castings causing what is commonly referred as raining. In vertical
castings, the force may be inadequate to distribute the metal along the axial direction
causing highly parabolic contour of the inside surface. In extreme cases, the metal may
not rise to the full height of the casting. There is therefore, a minimum speed of rotation
ac
for obtaining satisfactory castings in both horizontal and vertical processes.
In horizontal castings, raining is eliminated above a certain rpm and the inside surface
becomes smoother as the mold rpm increases. In vertical castings, the difference between
the radii at the top and bottom progressively reduces.
et.
At very high speed however, the hoop stress due to centrifugal force in the initially
solidified layer become excessive and the casting may rack longitudinally. The speed at
which this cracking takes place depends on the hot strength and thermal conductivity of
the material, casting size and the cooling conditions [22].
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Mould speed curve
Centrifugal force acting on a rotating body is, C.F. = mv2/r,
Gravitational force, G.F. = mg
Where,
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2).
nfl
mv2 v2
G factor = CF/GF = =
r.mg rg
G Factor
Solving further we get, N = 42.3 �
D
u.i
Thornton suggested 50 – 100 G speed range for die cast (metal mould) and 25 – 50 G for
sand cast pots and shaped castings. Too high speed results in excessive stresses and hot
tears in outside surfaces [23].
Monographs are also available for determining the proper speed of rotation for centrifugal
gn
casting. However, Eq. (1.1) can be used to calculate spinning speed.

g = 0.0000142 x D x N … … … … (1.1)
Where,
g = Number of Times gravity,
24
Centrifugal casting
D = Inside diameter of the casting,

N = Speed of rotation.
Mould speed from mould speed diagram are determined by the inside diameter of the
.in
casting. Mould speed curve shown in figure 2.4 is based on the inside diameter of casting.
The length of casting is not considered in determining speed [19].
For example, the mold speed for producing a casting 100 mm (4 in.) in outside diameter
by 75 mm (3 in.) in inside diameter at a centrifugal force of 60 g is calculated as follows.
ac
Find the 3 in. diameter at the bottom of the curve. Move vertically from this point until
the 3 in. line intersects the diagonal line marked 60 g. From this intersection, move
directly to the right-hand edge of the curve; speed of rotation of the mold in this case
should be 1150 rpm.
et.
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25
Centrifugal casting
.in
ac
et.
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Figure 2.4 Mould speed diagram

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(From: “ASM Metals Handbook, Volume 15, casting”, 9th ed., page no.652)
2.5 Mold heating and coating techniques

The centrifugal casting mold must be heated and coated with ceramic mold wash, mold
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powder, sand, resin sand, or graphite. The most widely used mold coating is water-based
mold wash, which is consistently replacing the other coating materials. Sand and resin
sand linings are quickly fading out, and graphite coating is mainly used for small
nonferrous castings. The dominance of water-based mold wash is established on the fact
that it offers significant advantages over the other types.
26
Centrifugal casting
Some of these advantages are:

• Water-based mold wash is insulating enough for almost all applications.
• It allows immediate metal pouring as soon as the coating application is finished,
.in
which greatly increases the casting productivity.
• It offers a better surface finish to the castings.
• Coating thickness can be easily used to control the microstructure.
• It greatly reduces the friction between the casting and the mold.
ac
• It can be easily cleaned off the casting and mold.
• Its consumption is very small compared to sand linings.
• The mold has a long life under its protection.
The mold can be heated from the outside or inside diameter on the machine with the mold
et.
spinning slowly by a row, or rows, of gas burners or off the machine in an oven at
180 to 320 0C. The mold temperature can be critical for the coating adhesion to the mold,
coating strength, as well as casting surface quality. Once the mold is heated sufficiently,
mold wash is applied on the mold inside diameter by spraying or flooding. The mold
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wash thickness is usually between 0.5 and 3 mm (0.02 and 0.12 in.), depending on the
application. The spraying method is preferred for most processes because it gives more
uniform coating thickness, smoother coating finish, and more consistent coating quality
[18].
2.6 Advantages of centrifugal casting techniques

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2.6.1 Flexibility in casting composition

Centrifugal casting is applicable to nearly all compositions, with the exception of high-
carbon steels (0.40 to 0.85% C). Carbon segregation can be a problem in this composition
range. Wide range of available product characteristics: The metallurgical characteristics
u.i
of a tubular product are mainly characterized by its soundness, texture, structure, and
mechanical properties. Centrifugal castings can be manufactured with a wide range of
microstructures tailored to meet the demands of specific applications.
gn
2.6.2 Dimensional flexibility

Horizontal centrifugal casting allows the manufacture of pipes with maximum outside
diameters close to 1.6 m (63 in.) and wall thicknesses to 200 mm (8 in.). Tolerances
depend on part size and the type of mold used.
27
Centrifugal casting
2.6.3 Quality
The centrifugal action removes unwanted inclusions, dross, cleaner casting, and material
that contain shrinkage, which can be machined away. Castings can be produced without
.in
the need for upgrading and costly weld repairs.
2.6.4 Properties
Mechanical properties are often superior to those of static castings due to finer grains
resulting from the process, which are of constant size in circumferential and axial
ac
directions. Due to cleanliness and finer grain size, good weldability is achieved [18].
2.7 Difference between horizontal centrifugal machine and vertical

machine
et.
Although both vertical and horizontal methods employ centrifugal force, there are some
differences in how the force is applied with respect to the axis of the mold rotation and
the speed of the molten metal relative to the rotating mold. For example, with a vertical
mold axis, the resultant force on the liquid is constant. This is not the case in a horizontal
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mold.
The other difference between horizontal and vertical mold orientation is the speed
obtained by the molten metal as it spins around the mold. When metal is poured into the
horizontally rotating mold, considerable slip occurs between the metal and the mold such
that the metal does not move as fast as the rotating mold. To overcome this inertia, the
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metal must be accelerated to reach the mold rotation speed. This is not a problem in the
vertical centrifugal process, where the molten metal reaches the speed of the mold soon
after pouring. However, with a vertical mold axis, there is a tendency for the molten metal
to form a parabolic shape due to the competing gravitational and centrifugal forces [18].
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28
Hardness measurement and metallography
Chapter 3
Hardness Measurement and Metallography
.in
3.1 Introduction of hardness
In general, hardness usually implies a resistance to deformation and for metals the
property is a measure of their resistance to permanent or plastic deformation. Hardness is
generally considered as resistance to penetration. The harder materials, the greater the
ac
resistance to penetration. Hardness is directly related to the mechanical properties of the
material. Factors influencing hardness include microstructure, grain size, strain
hardening, etc. Generally as hardness increases so does yield strength and ultimate tensile
strength, thus specifications often require the results of hardness tests rather than tensile
metals and alloys [24, 25].
3.2 Brinell hardness

et.
tests. The most popular methods are Brinell, Vickers and Rockwell hardness tests for
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The Brinell hardness tester usually consists of a hand operated vertical hydraulic press,
designed to force a ball indenter into the test specimen. Standard procedure requires that
the test be made with a ball of 10 mm diameter under a load of 3,000 kg for ferrous
metals or 500 kg for non-ferrous metals. For ferrous metals the loaded ball is pressed into
the test specimen for at least 10 s; for non-ferrous metals the time is 30 s. The diameter of
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the impression produced is measured by means of a microscope containing an ocular

scale, usually graduated in tenths of a millimeter, permitting estimations to the nearest
0.05 mm.
The Brinell hardness number (HB) is the ratio of the load in kilograms to the impressed
u.i
area in square millimeters and is calculated from the following formula:

2𝐿
BHN=
𝜋 𝐷[𝐷−√𝐷2 −𝑑 2]
Where,
L = applied load, kg
gn
D = diameter of ball, mm
d = diameter of the indentation, mm
It will be noticed that the units of the BHN are kilograms per square millimeter
(1 kgf- mm-2)
29
The Brinell hardness number followed by the symbol HB without any suffix numbers
denotes standard test conditions using a ball of 10 mm diameter and load of 3,000 kg
applied for 10 to 15 second for other conditions, the hardness number and symbol HB are
.in
supplemented by numbers indicating the test conditions in following order: diameter of
ball, load, and durations of loading. For example, 75 HB 10/500/30 indicates a Brinell
hardness of 75 measured with a ball of 10 mm diameter and load of 500 kg applied for 30
second [12].
ac
3.3 Vickers hardness
In this test, the instrument uses a square-based diamond pyramid indenter with an
included angle of 1360 between opposite faces. The load range is usually between 1 and
120 kg. The Vickers hardness tester operates on the same basic principle as the Brinell
et.
tester, the numbers being expressed in terms of load and area of the impression. As a
result of the indenter’s shape, the impression on the surface of the specimen will be a
square. The length of the diagonal of the square is measured through a microscope fitted
with an ocular micrometer that contains movable knife-edges. The distance between
ibn
knife-edges is indicated on a counter calibrated in thousands of a millimeter. Measured
diagonal to Vickers pyramid hardness number (HV) or the following formula may be
used [12]:
1.8544𝐿
HV = (in some sources VHN is cited as DPH)
𝑑2
nfl
Where,
L = applied load, kg
d = average length of diagonals, mm
u.i
3.4 Rockwell hardness

This hardness test uses a direct reading instrument based on the principle of differential
depth measurement. The test is carried out by slowly raising the specimen against the
indenter until a fixed minor load has been applied. This is indicated on the dial gauge.
gn
Then, the major load is applied through a loaded lever system. After the dial pointer
comes to rest, the major load is removed and, with the minor load still acting, the
Rockwell hardness number is read on the dial gauge. Since the order of the number is
reversed on the dial gauge, a shallow impression on hard material will result in a high
number while a deep impression on soft material will result in low number.
30
There are two Rockwell machines, the normal tester for relatively thick sections, and the
superficial tester for thin sections. The minor load is 10 kg on the normal tester and 3 kg
on the superficial tester. Variety of indenter and loads may be used, and each combination
.in
determines a particular Rockwell scale. Indenter includes hard steel balls 1/16”, 1/8”,
1/4”, and 1/2” in. in diameter and a 1200 conical diamond (Brale) point. Minor load are
usually 60, 100, and 150 kg on the normal tester and 15, 30, and 45 kg on the superficial
tester. The most commonly used Rockwell scales are the B (1/16” in. ball indenter and
ac
100-kg load) and the C (diamond indenter and 150 kg load), both obtained with the
normal tester. Because of the many Rockwell scales, the hardness number must be
specified by using the symbol HR followed by the letter designing the scale and preceded
by the hardness numbers. For example, 82 HRB means a Rockwell hardness of 82
et.
measured on the B scale with 1/16” in. ball indenter and 100 kg load [12].
Table 3.1 the Rockwell hardness scales [12]

MAJOR
TYPE OF
SCALE LOAD, TYPICAL MATERIALS TESTED
INDENTER
ibn
KG
A 60 Diamond cone Extremely hard materials, tungsten carbides etc
Medium hard materials, low and medium-
B 100 1/16” ball
carbon steels, brass, bronze, etc.
C 150 Diamond cone Hardened steels, hardened and tempered alloys
nfl
D 100 Diamond cone Case hardened steel

E 100 1/8” ball Cast iron, aluminum and magnesium alloys
F 60 1/16” ball Annealed brass and copper
G 150 1/16” ball Beryllium copper, phosphor bronze, etc.
u.i
H 60 1/8” ball Aluminum sheet

K 150 1/8” ball Cast iron, aluminum alloys
L 60 1/4” ball Plastics and soft metals such as lead
1/4” ball Same as L scale
gn
M 100
P 150 1/4” ball Same as L scale
R 60 1/2” ball Same as L scale
S 100 1/2” ball Same as L scale
V 150 1/2” ball Same as L scale
31
3.5 Metallography
Metallography or microscopy consists of the microscopic study of the structural
characteristics of a metal or an alloy. The microscope is by far the most important tool of
.in
the metallurgist from both the scientific and technical standpoints. It is possible to
determine grain size and the size, shape, and distribution of various phases and inclusions
which have a great effect on the mechanical properties of the metal. The microstructure
will reveal the mechanical and thermal treatment of the metal, and it may be possible to
ac
predict its behavior under a given sets of conditions.
Experience has indicted that success in microscopic study depends largely upon the care
taken in the preparation of the specimen. The most expensive microscope will not reveal
the structure of the specimen that has been poorly prepared. The procedure to be followed
et.
in the preparation of a specimen is comparatively simple and involves a technique which
is developed only after constant practice. The steps required to prepare a metallography
specimen properly are as below [12].
3.5.1 Grinding
ibn
A small piece of specimen is cut by a metal cutting-saw machine or hand hacksaw
machine. After cutting operation, two grinding process are apply as rough grinding and
inter mediate grinding process. In rough grinding, specimen sample may be made flat by
slowly moving it up and back across the surface of a flat smooth file. The soft or hard
specimen may be rough grinding, with kept cool by frequent dropping in water during in
nfl
the grinding operation. The rough grinding is continued until the surface in flat and free
of nicks, burrs, etc., and all scratches are removing on the surface of specimen. In
intermediate grinding polishing operations using emery paper are usually done dry;
however, in certain cases such as the preparation of soft materials, silicon carbide
u.i
abrasive may be used. As compared to emery paper, silicon carbide has a greater removal
rate and as it resin-bonded can be used with lubricant.
Using a lubricant prevents over-heating the sample, minimize smearing of soft metals.
The silicon carbide grinding papers are held flat in a unit containing water facility for
gn
lubrication purpose. Each unit contains four grades of papers, starting with grade 400
(coarse) and finishing with grade 1200 (fine) or emery paper of 1/0, 2/0, 3/0, 4/0 grades in
descending order. Grinding of the work piece is done by starting with the coarse papers
and then continuing with the fine papers. In each stage, grinding is done by rubbing the
specimen backwards and forwards on the grinding paper in one direction only, until the
32
surface is completely ground, that is, until only grinding marks due to this particular
paper can be seen to cover the whole surface. The specimen is washed thoroughly to
remove coarse silicon carbide particles before proceeding to a finer paper. The direction
.in
of grinding is changed from paper to paper, so that the removal of previous grinding
marks is easily observed. The extra time spent on each paper should be increased as the
finer papers are used. At the end of the grinding sequence, the specimen is washed
thoroughly and dried. Now, the specimen is ready for polishing [12, 25].
ac
3.5.2 Polishing
The success of fine polishing depends largely upon the care that was exercised during the
previous grinding operation step. The final approximation to a flat scratch-free surface
is obtained by use of wet rotating wheel covered with a special cloth that is charged with
et.
carefully sized abrasive particles. While many will do a satisfactory job, there appears to
be a preference for the gamma form of aluminum oxide for ferrous and copper based
materials, and cerium oxide for aluminum, magnesium and their alloys. Other final
polishing abrasives often used are diamond paste, chromium oxide, and magnesium
ibn
oxide.
The choice of a proper polishing cloth depends upon the particular material being
polished and the purpose of the metallographic study. Many cloths in form of velvet cloth
and synthetic polishing cloths are available for general polishing purposes, of which two,
under the trade names of gamal and micro-cloth are mostly widely used. A properly
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polished sample will shoe only the nonmetallic inclusions and will scratch-free. The
specimen should be held firmly in contact with the polishing wheel, but excessive
pressure should be avoided. During polishing the specimen should be rotated or moved
around the wheel so as to give an even polish. The specimen should be thoroughly
u.i
cleaned and dried between each wheel [12, 25].
3.5.3 Etching
The purpose of the etching is to make visible the many structural characteristics of the
metal or alloy. The process must be such that the various parts of the microstructure may
gn
be clearly differentiated. This is accomplished by use of an appropriate reagent which

subjects the polished surface to chemical action. In alloy composed of two or more
phases, the components are revealed during etching by a preferential attack of one or
more these constituents by the reagent, because of difference in chemical composition of
the phases [12].
33
Before etching, it is essential to ensure that the polished surface is grease and smear free.
If the final polishing has involved the use of magnesia (in the form of an aqueous paste of
fine magnesia) or alumina (in the form of an aqueous suspension of fine alumina),
.in
then thorough washing followed by drying off with acetone or alcohol will give a suitable
surface, although it must not be fingered afterwards. Etching is generally done by
swabbing. Etching times will vary from specimen to specimen; however, a good general,
procedure is to observe the surface during etching, and to remove the specimen when
ac
evidence of the grains first appears. Microscopical examination will then reveal whether
the degree of etching is sufficient. Further etching can then follow to strengthen up the
details as required.
After each etching, the specimen should be thoroughly washed in running water, followed
et.
by drying off with acetone or alcohol.
As a guide the following etchants are commonly used [25]:
Alcoholic Ferric Chloride - Copper alloys
Mixed Acids - Aluminum alloys
Nital (ethyl alcohol+ 2% HN03) - Iron and steel
ibn
Dilute HCI - Zinc alloys
3.5.4 Microstructure study of specimen

Specimens are going to be polished and etched as explained above. With an unmounted
specimen, even if it is almost level, it is best to fix it on a glass or metal slide by means of
nfl
a piece of plasticine. The prepared surface is made level by means of a suitable leveling
device. The correct procedure is to start with low power examination in order to obtain an
overall picture, and then successively higher magnifications are used to resolve the fine
details. In focusing, the stage is gradually moved towards the objective and when the
u.i
image appears, focusing is completed with the fine adjustment.

It is almost good practice to examine specimens first in the polished condition, as certain
features, such as the presence of inclusions, cracks, porosity, and sometimes even the
different phases, are revealed. This is followed by an examination in the etched condition.
gn
It should always be remembered that the structure of a given specimen exists in three
dimensions, whereas the prepared surface represents a two-dimensional picture in the
plane of the micro-section. This fact should be taken into account in the interpretation of
the geometry of any particular configuration
34
Generally optical microscope is used to take microstructural images of materials. The

magnification given by the objective depends upon its focal length, the shorter the focal
length, the higher the magnification. In addition to magnification, resolving power is also
.in
important.
Thus resolving power depends upon the quality of the lens, and it is useless to increase
the size of the image, either by extending the tube length of the microscope or by using a
higher-power eyepiece, beyond a point where there is a falling off of resolution. The
ac
overall magnification is then obtained simply by multiplying the 'power' of the objective
by that of the eyepiece, e.g. 40X objective used in conjunction with 10X eyepiece will
give an overall magnification of 400X.
The specimen is brought into focus by using first the coarse adjustment and then the fine
et.
adjustment. It should be noted that the lenses supplied are generally designed to work at a
fixed tube length (usually 200 mm), under which conditions they give optimum results.
The dendritic pattern, however, will be clearly apparent, whereas at 500X only a small
area between two dendrite arms would fill the field of view [25].
ibn
nfl
u.i
gn
35
Literature review
Chapter 4
Literature Review
.in
4.1 Introduction
Literatures regarding mechanical properties as hardness and microstructure of aluminium
bronze by certain methods and perform several studies over it. Literature also contains
the information about production of aluminium bronze by centrifugal casting or other
ac
methods.
4.2 Review of literatures

T. Kimura et. al. [26] have published paper on “Sliding wear characteristic evaluation of
et.
copper alloy for bearing”. They experimented on sliding abrasion tester that could be
examined lead bronze, phosphor bronze and aluminum bronze under the high pressure. It
has been found that aluminum bronze alloy is excellent in that as the bearing. It is
possible that it depends on the hardness of the material for wear volume. It has been
ibn
understood to show an excellent sliding wear characteristic in the material that improves
the hardness after the work hardening from initial hardness in the sliding wear above. In
this investigated Aluminum bronze casting; wear resistance is superior to lead bronze
casting and Phosphor bronze casting because hardness of aluminum bronze is better than
lead bronze and phosphor bronze. It is thought that wear loss depends on the hardness of
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the material.
Derek E. Tyler et. al. [27] has included his study in Metal Handbook, Desk Edition,
American Society for Metals. The study shows that most of the aluminum bronzes
contain from 0.75 to 4% Fe to refine grain structure and increasing strength. Alloys
u.i
containing from 8 to 9.5% Al cannot be heat treated unless other elements such as nickel
or manganese in amounts over 2% are added as well. The heat treatable aluminum
bronzes contain to iron, with or without nickel or manganese. These alloys resemble heat
treated steels in structure. Aluminum bronzes increase in yield strength and hardness, but
gn
decrease in tensile strength and elongation, on slow cooling in the mold. During slow
cooling, aluminum bronzes precipitate a hard constitutes rather 565 to 480°C (1050 to
900°F). Aluminum bronzes with 8 to 9% Al are used widely for bushings and bearings in
light-duty or high-speed machinery. Aluminum bronzes congaing 11% Al, either as cast
or heat treated. As aluminum content increase above 11%, hardness increases and
36
Literature review
elongation decreases to low values. Such bronze are well suited for guides and aligning
plates, where wear is excessive. Above 13% Al, aluminum bronzes exceed 300HB in
hardness but brittle.
.in
W.A. Glaeser [28] presents his study in Journal of metals as the name of “Wear
properties of heavy loaded copper-base bearing alloy”. They study that Aluminum bronze
(85%Cu, 4%Fe, 11%Al) have higher yield strength than tin bronze. Corrosion resistance
is excellent. More than 8% Al, the β-phase is in equilibrium with α above 560°C. The
ac
β-phase decomposition into γ2 phase on slow cooling. Precipitation hardening can be
accomplishing with alloy containing more than 8% Al; precipitation hardened aluminum
bronze is rarely used for bearing applications. A small amount of iron is added to
aluminum bronze to improve the strength. The resulting microstructure for alloy C95400
et.
consists of β -matrix with α acicular phase and fine “pepper” phase of iron distributed
through both α phase and β phase. The β-phase is the principal hardening constituent in
the alloy.
Isaac Cenoz [29] has published paper on “Metallography of Aluminium Bronze Alloy as
ibn
Cast in Permanent Iron Die”. They obtained in copper aluminum bronze alloy (Cu-Al10-
Fe2) cast into a permanent die were investigated. The parameters examined were the pre-
heating temperatures of the die (1500C, 2500C and 4000C) and the graphite coating
thickness (0.01mm and 0.10mm). The phases α and γ2 were detected as well as the
metastable phases β’ and γ’. The different cooling rates of the casting resulted in two
nfl
mechanisms of transformation to α grains out of the unstable β phase, one being

nucleation and growth producing needle shaped α grains, the other exhibiting a massive
transformation to spherical α grains. These two mechanisms determine the changes in the
size of α grains as a result of changes in the cooling rate in its various ranges. At high or
u.i
low cooling rates α phase precipitates by a process of nucleation and growth to needle-
like grains. At median cooling rates phase α is obtained by a process of massive
transformation, the grains being spherical in shape and of large sizes. The size depends on
increases with rising cooling rates.
gn
B.K. Prasad [30] has published paper on “Dry Sliding Wear Response of Some Bearing
Alloys as Influenced by the Nature of Microconstituents and Sliding Conditions”. Alloys
were prepared by solidifying in the form of cylindrical castings using permanent molds.
They examined microstructure of aluminum bronze and hardness of leaded-tin-bronze,
37
Literature review
aluminum bronze and zinc-based alloy and micro-constituent of aluminum bronze. They
also examined co-relation between microstructure and wear response. Microstructure of
aluminum bronze has phases of primary α like needle structure, Cu-Al precipitates and
.in
fine tiny particles of iron. They suggested that aluminum bronze exhibited maximum
hardness, while that of the leaded-tin bronze exhibited the least, the zinc-based alloy
attaining an intermediate hardness value. The aluminum bronze does not exist any
effective lubricating phase, but the alloy attains excellent hardness at room temperature. It
ac
also exhibits good mechanical properties at elevated temperatures because of the presence
of the fine particles of delta iron and Cu- Al precipitates along with copper-rich solid
solution of aluminum. Micro-cracking practically does not arise in the absence of a crack
sensitive phase.
et.
M. Kaplan et. al. [31] have presented paper on “The effects of production methods
on the microstructures and mechanical properties of an aluminum bronze”. In this study,
an aluminum bronze material (Cu4Ni9Al4Fe) has produced in a sand and die mold, and
then the effects of the mold types on the microstructures and mechanical properties have
ibn
been investigated by using metallographic and mechanical testing methods. Sand mold
casting specimen of which the optical microscope picture exhibits a dendritic structure
which contains grain α Cu and α + β phase. Die mold casting was determined on the
optical microscope picture of the solidification structure of die mold casting specimen
that thin rounded grains appeared along outside of the cross section and that long column
nfl
grains and big rounded grains appeared inside of the cross section although a preheating
is applied to the die mold used for the casting. The microstructure of the casting contains
β phases which are distributed finely at the grain boundaries and in α -Cu main matrix as
it occurred in the sand mold casting. Dendritic structure variation that is formed due to the
u.i
effect of different solidification speed along a line from outside to inside at the
investigated section of die mold casting specimen. The molds type of sand casting and die
casting do not effect on hardness of aluminum bronze material. Hardness range of sand
mold casting is 178-185HB and hardness range of die mold casting is 178-200HB.
gn
Mechanical properties are improved by new phase formations caused to form a harder
and more resistant structure by tightening the main matrix due to the formation of α + β
phase compound and homogenously the distribution of compounds such as FeNiAl9 and
Al + NiAl3 in these phases. It has been observed that the structure of the sand mold
casting contains fine rounded grains along outermost cross section and lengthwise
38
Literature review
inclined column grains towards inside and big grains innermost. It is possible to obtain
fine proper grains with the scientific techniques such as implant techniques, solidification
homogenous by means of cooling speed and the direction control.
.in
Shahzad Alam et. al. [32] have published paper on “Metallurgical and tribological
investigations of aluminum bronze bushes made by a novel centrifugal casting
technique”. They have used to novel combination of moulds was used to cast bushes
possess a chemical composition of 79Cu5Fe10Al5Ni0.25Mn. They studied to examine of
ac
microstructure and hardness of material. A microstructural examination of various
samples was made and the structure of centrifuged cast sample with coarse and acicular α
phase embedded in β phase matrix. The distribution of the α phase is not uniform and this
inhomogeneity may result from centrifuging the metal during solidification. The
et.
microstructure at higher magnification cast by novel centrifugal casting technique that
clearly shows the predominant particles of α phase. The rate of cooling has a strong
influence on the morphology of the precipitated phases. The mechanical properties are
depend upon fine nature of alpha and beta phases and lower porosity levels.
ibn
Dr. Sami A. Ajeel et. al. [33] have published paper on “Study on Improvement of
Casting Conditions for Some Aluminum Bronze Alloys”. They have been studied to
aluminium bronze alloy determine the proper methods of melting and casting in two
different conditions; with treating materials as Albral 2, Logas 50 and deoxidizing tube
E3 and without treating material and determine the effects of these conditions on
nfl
mechanical properties of alloys. Microstructure of aluminum bronze castings for both

cases non-treated and treated of aluminum bronze are studied in sand mould and metal
mould. When shows the structure of without treating aluminum bronze materials in metal
mould. It shows large size of alpha phases (α) with white colour and small amount of γ2
u.i
within β phase. These structures occur due to the decrease in aluminum and iron contents,
absence of nickel content and increase in the cooling rate due to used a metal mould. In
addition, the structure involves some inclusions and oxidation due to absence of the
treating of molten metal. The structure of non treated aluminum bronze in sand mould,
gn
the increase in alpha phase size, small shrinkage cavities and inclusions exist between
alpha dendrites due to lower cooling rate. Treated aluminium bronze castings produced in
metal and sand moulds are absence of inclusions and oxidations with the homogeneity of
the phases was obtained. Hardness values of treated aluminum bronze alloys were better
than that for non-treated due to minimizing the losses of alloying elements, such as Al, Fe
39
Literature review
and Ni and due to minimizing the castings defects such as porosities, inclusions and
cavities.
B.K. Prasad [34] has presented paper on “Sliding wear behavior of bronzes under
.in
varying material composition, microstructure and test conditions”. They studied
mechanical properties and microstructure behavior of aluminum bronze composition of
9.9Al, 1.2Fe and remains Cu elements and leaded-tin bronze. The alloy melts were
solidified in cast iron moulds in form of long cylindrical castings. Microstructure of
ac
aluminum bronze, revealed primary α phase dendrites surrounded by copper-aluminum
compound and iron particles. The α phase, a solid solution of aluminum in copper is soft
and provides ductility and compatibility to alloy system. The copper-aluminum
compound and iron particles are hard and impart strengthening. The alloy does not
et.
contain any solid lubrication and crack sensitivity phase like lead in the leaded-tin
bronzes. The alloy leaded-tin bronze attained higher density but less hardness as 70-79
HV, inferior strength and lower elongation as compared to aluminum bronze as HV162.
O. I. Sekunowo et. al. [35] have published paper on “Mechanical Characterisation of

ibn
Aluminium Bronze-Iron Granules Composite”. The microstructure and mechanical
properties of cast aluminum bronze reinforced with iron granules (millscale) were
investigated in this paper. Cast samples of the composite made from metal mould contain
millscale in varied amount from 2-10 wt %. The different microstructures of aluminum
bronze are developed by addition of iron particles. Two major phases are revealed under
nfl
the optical microscope as comprising of lamellar kappa (κ) phase precipitates and needle-
like alpha (α) phase within the aluminium-bronze matrix. It is observed that the
microstructure in 2 wt% contains alpha (α) phase of the aluminium-bronze in which the
alpha grains appear to have absorbed the aluminum thereby preventing the precipitation
u.i
of other phase out of solution. The presence of iron particulates actually aided the
nucleation of a few fine lamellar kappa precipitates that shown the effect of 4 wt. % iron
particulates addition on the aluminum bronze microstructure. The amount of the fine
lamellar kappa phase transformed within the matrix increased compared to 2 wt. % iron
gn
mill-scale addition. The presence of more iron in the system must have provided
increased nucleation sites for the transformation. In addition, the preponderance of iron in
solution effectively suppressed the formation of gamma phase within the matrix. Increase
in iron mill-scale addition into the alloy (6 wt. %), appears to have drastically reduced the
kinetics of kappa phase transformation which gave rise to coarse precipitates. Matrices
40
Literature review
containing iron millscale up to 8 wt. % and 10 wt. % as respectively resulted in clustering

of the kappa grains within the alpha matrix. The micro-hardness induced in the composite
is determined by the proportion of hard and fine lamellar kappa (κ) precipitates present in
.in
the matrix of each specimen. The preponderance of fine kappa precipitates in higher
amounts above the soft needle-like alpha grains that were induced at 4 wt.% iron addition
support modest increase in hardness from 73.5-88.7HRB.
Uyime Donatus et. al. [36] have presented paper on “Mechanical Properties and
ac
Microstructures of Locally Produced Aluminium-Bronze Alloy”. They have studied the
feasibility mechanical properties of the produced dual-phase aluminum bronze alloy using
local technique. Sand casting was used and was found to be effective based on its
advantages of low cost, ease of use and flexibility in the production of dual-phase
et.
aluminum bronze alloy with pre-selected composition of 11 % Al content. They produced
aluminum bronze rods of composition of 89Cu10.823Al0.0242Fe. The mechanical
properties of the as-cast aluminum bronze sample with its ultimate tensile strength being
230.4MPa, high hardness of 38.4Rc.This could be attributed to the presence of sparse
ibn
distribution of suspected α precipitates in a predominant β matrix in microstructure which
cause high strength and hardness of aluminum bronze material.
Mustafa Yasar [37] has published paper on “Investigation of wear behaviors of C95200-
C95300 Cu-Al-Fe alloy”. They have investigated of microstructure and hardness of
C95200-C95300 material. They have examined microstructure of C95200 alloy and show
nfl
that black regions in the SEM represents primary α structure and white grain boundaries
are β phase. It is completely compound of α at room temperature. They have also
examined microstructure of C95300 alloy and in the SEM represents white regions at the
grain borders along with primary α phase are β phase. C95300 has β structure at room
u.i
temperature and two phases. Hardness value of C95200 and C95300 were found to be
103 Brinell and 138 Brinell, respectively.
ZHANG Weiwen et. al. [38] have published paper on “Mechanical properties and
gn
tribological behavior of a cast heat resisting copper based alloy”. They have examined
microstructure and hardness of C95500 alloy. The microstructure of C95500 is
characterized by α phase is a copper based substitutional solid solution and the main
solution element is aluminum. Kappa (κ) phases are basically Fe rich and Ni rich
intermetallic compounds. Aluminum can only partly dissolve in copper. With the increase
41
Literature review
of Al content, intermediate compounds are formed and the increase in hardness of Cu

(Al) matrix is limited. Hardness of aluminum bronze C95500 is found to be at ambient
temperature and 500 0C to be 87HRB and 75HRB, respectively. Microstructure at
elevated temperature is spheroidization tendency of α phase is serious and Kappa (κ)
.in
phase, which is hard and brittle, is dissolved at high temperature. They have examined
that the softening of the matrix and the dissolution of strengthening phase in C95500 lead
to be decrease in deformation resistance and decrease in mechanical properties of C95500
ac
at elevated temperature.
4.3 Summary
Literature survey summaries study of microstructure and mechanical properties of
aluminum bronze produced by other manufacturing processes, variance in centrifugal
aluminum bronze was not studied yet.
4.4 Objective of dissertation

et.
casting parameter and its effect on microstructure and mechanical properties of
ibn
 Analyses of microstructure of aluminum bronze produced by vertical centrifugal
casting process.
 To establish correlation between microstructure and mechanical property
(hardness). Process variables were two pouring temperature (11500C and 12500C)
and three mould rotational speed like 1050 RPM, 1150RPM, 1250 RPM.
nfl
u.i
gn
42
Experimental procedure
Chapter 5
Experimental Procedure
.in
5.1 Introduction
In the experimental procedure, hollow cylinder of aluminum bronze was cast by vertical
centrifugal casting at different rotational speed and with different pouring temperatures.
Microstructures of centrifugally cast samples were examined by optical microscope and
ac
hardness of centrifugally cast samples was measured by Rockwell hardness tester.
5.2 Plan of experiments

The castings of aluminium bronze were cast on the run order generated as shown in Table
is assigned to mold rotation speed.

et.
5.1. In orthogonal array, first column is assigned to pouring temperature; second column
Aluminium bronze casting produced by centrifugal casting with the following parameters:
1. Pouring Temperature
ibn
2. Mold Rotation speed
Table 5.1 Experimental design to obtain results from combinations of parameters
Sample
Pouring Temperature 0C Mold Rotation Speed (RPM)
No.
AB1 1100 1050
nfl
AB2 1100 1150

AB3 1100 1250
AB4 1250 1050
AB5 1250 1150
AB6 1250 1250
u.i
Table 5.1 shows the selected parameters as pouring temperature and mold rotation speed
to produce various casting as per varying the levels of given factors. Here these 2
parameters are taken as 2 factors; pouring temperatures have 2 levels as the higher and
lower value of pouring temperature from ASM International standard. This will tend to
gn
produce 6 no. of different casting samples.

To measure Rockwell hardness of particular centrifugally cast aluminium bronze sample
as per ASTM E18 standards and preparation of metallography specimens as per ASTM
E3 standard.
43
5.3 Experimental Setup

5.3.1 Specifications of induction furnace
Induction furnaces have become the most widely used means for melting iron and,
.in
increasingly, nonferrous alloys as well. The key to the ready acceptance of induction
furnaces has been its excellent metallurgical control coupled with its relatively low
pollution operation compared to cupola furnaces. Induction furnaces are very efficient
and are made in many sizes. Induction furnaces are relatively simple, and small quantities
ac
can be melted quickly. The melting time is relatively short, allowing metal to be delivered
at small, regular intervals. A wide range of metals can be melted, although little refining
of the metal is possible.
The basic principle of induction furnaces is that a high voltage in the primary coil induces
et.
a low-voltage, high current across the metal charge, which acts as a secondary coil.
Because of electrical resistance in the metal, this electrical energy is converted into heat,
which melts the charge. Once the metal is in its molten state, the magnetic field produces
a stirring motion.
ibn
The power and frequency applied determine the stirring rate. This is controlled to ensure
complete melting of the charge and adequate mixing of alloy and fluxing materials, and to
minimize temperature gradients in the charge. Excessive stirring, on the other hand, can
increase lining damage, increase oxidation of the alloys, generate excess slag, and
increase inclusions and gas pickup [39].
The aluminum bronze alloy was melted in an induction furnace. Specification of furnace
nfl
is listed below. Figure 5.1 shows the photograph of an induction furnace.

u.i
gn
Figure 5.1 Induction furnace
44
(1) Inputs Volts = 415 Volts

(2) Outputs kw = 25 kw
(3) Frequency = 10000 Hz
.in
5.3.2 Vertical centrifugal casting machine
Characteristics
The range of application of vertical centrifugal casting machines is considerably wider.
Castings that are not cylindrical or even nonsymmetrical can be made using vertical
ac
centrifugal casting machines. This uses vertical rotating molds to feed molten metal
uniformly into the mold cavity. Figure 5.2 shows the photograph of vertical centrifugal
casting machine.
et.
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Figure 5.2 Vertical centrifugal casting machine
Specifications
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(1) Mould
Size: Outer Diameter = 140 mm
Inner Diameter = 90 mm
Thickness = 25 mm
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Length = 80 mm
Material: M.S.
(2) Shaft
Diameter = 35 mm
Material: EN8
45
(3) Motor drive

Specification: 1.5 KW / 2HP with 1500 RPM, 3-Phase AC supply
The motor is used to rotate the mould at required speed of rotation. The speed of mould
.in
rotation can be controlled by using variable frequency drive (VFD). The variable
frequency drive (VFD) is as shown in figure 5.3.
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et.
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Figure 5.3 Variable frequency drive (VFD)
5.4 Experimental procedure

In this section all the details about the preparation and characterization of casting samples
and specimen for testing process has been describe. In the present work, the vertical
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centrifugal casting technique has been utilized to prepare the samples of aluminium
bronze.
5.4.1 Determination of casting Weight:

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The casting made by vertical centrifugal casting machine was cylinder. The weight of the
casting sample to be made was determined using following equation.
W = π/4 * (D2-d2) *L * ρ
Where,
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D = Outer Diameter of casting, (mm).

d = Inner Diameter of casting, (mm).
L = Length of casting, (mm).
ρ = Density of casting (kg/mm3).
46
By using the above equation the weight of material to be poured in mold is determined
about 2.1kg which can produce the casting with desired dimensions.
5.4.2 Preparation of casting
.in
First of all, the inner diameter of the mould was pre-heated by induction heater as shown
in figure 5.4 with slow rotation of the mould. The mould temperature was maintained
between 250 to 300 0C. The mould temperature can be critical for the coating adhesion to
the mould, coating strength as well as casting surface quality.
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et.
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Figure 5.4 Induction heater for preheating of mould
Once the mould was heated sufficiently, liquid coating of DYCOTE was applied on the
mould inside diameter by spraying. The mould wash thickness is usually between 0.5 and
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0.3 mm (0.02 and 0.12 in), depending on the application. The spraying method is
preferred for most processes because it gives more uniform coating thickness, smoother
coating finish and more consistent coating quality.
Copper alloy particular aluminium bronze having 11 % aluminium & 4 % iron contents
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were selected in this study. The exact chemical composition is shown in test certificate as
mentioned in chapter 1. This alloy was in the form of ingot when it was used as raw
material for melting process.
The ingot pieces of aluminium bronze, flux Albral 2, degassing agent LOGAS 50 tablet
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and deoxidizing tube E1 are shown in the figure 5.5.
47
.in
Figure 5.5 Ingots, flux, degasser and deoxidant for aluminium bronze casting
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According to weight; some pieces of ingots were put in the crucible of induction furnace
for melting. As the ingots were heated sufficiently and start to melt; the flux was added
about 1% of all quantity of material and 0.25 to 0.5% was added before the pouring stage,
this quantity was used according to the world specifications.
et.
Figure 5.6 shows temperature measuring device “Micro Temperature Detector” which
indicates the temperature of molten alloy.
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Figure 5.6 Micro temperature detector

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After getting temperature nearer to pouring temperature; first degassing was done by
pieces of (Logas 50) were added and submerged into the furnace crucible to remove gases
from the molten metal. Then after 5 to 10 min deoxidation treatment was done by putting
a deoxidizing tube E1 in crucible to reduce the oxides and to increase fluidity to the
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molten metal.
In the degassing and deoxidizing treatment LOGAS 50 or tube E1 was plunged in the
crucible as shown in the figure 5.7.
48
.in
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Figure 5.7 Degassing and deoxidizing treatment
et.
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Figure 5.8 Dross removing process
Figure 5.8 shows dross removed from the molten aluminium bronze. After removed slag
from molten metal and as the temperature of molten metal reached slightly above the
desired pouring temperature; the molten aluminium bronze was poured in to rotating
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mould.
Figure 5.9 shows the casting cylinders which were extracted from vertical centrifugal
casting.
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Figure 5.9 The casting cylinders extracted from vertical centrifugal casting
49
5.4.3 Sample preparation for microstructure study:

Preparation of material samples should be done by polishing and etching, so that the
structure can be examined using optical microscope. The methodology adopted as per
.in
ASTM E3 standard for samples preparation for the purpose involved polishing of sample
different grades with emery paper such as 1000, 1200, 1500 grits, (1/0, 2/0, 3/0, 4/0)
grades in descending order. Care should be taken to continue polishing on a specific
grade of emery paper until the scratches/polishing marks created by the previous paper
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should be totally removed. Also, the direction of polishing on polishing paper was kept
normal to that of the previous one. Polishing on emery papers was followed by cloth
polishing using alumina diamond paste. In this case, the device used was a polisher with a
rotating wheel. The wheel was covered with a polishing cloth and it rotated at a controlled
et.
speed with the help of an electrical motor and regulator as shown figure 5.10. This step
should be followed by polishing using 3 micron diamond paste and nylon as wheel
covering. The final stage of polishing to obtain mirror-like surface, then the mirror-like
surface of specimen should rinsed well with water and acetone in order to clean the
specimen surface. The specimens were then etched in a solution containing 100 ml
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distilled water, 5 gm ferric chloride and 20 ml hydrochloric acid (5 gm FeCl3 + 20 ml HCl
+ 100 ml H2O). Figure 5.11 shows optical microscope. Microstructures were observed in
optical microscope at Foundry lab of Mechanical Engineering Department. In this optical
microscope focus is adjusted by moving the object lens along a vertical axis for bring it
closer to check the specimen with different magnification range 10X, 20X and 50X.
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Figure 5.10 Double polishing machine
50
.in
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Figure 5.11 Optical microscope
et.
5.4.4 Preparation of hardness measurement specimen
According to ASTM standard E18, Specimen for hardness measurement should be taken
from the as cast sample. For hardness test same specimen is used which should prepared
for microstructural examination. The sample should be polished metallographically prior
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to their hardness measurement as shown in figure 5.12. The material’s hardness should be
obtained through the Rockwell hardness tester on B-scale (RB) using a steel ball 1/16” in.
indenter as shown in figure 5.13. Hardness values should be taken at five different points
on the specimen’s by applying a minor and major indenter load of 10kg and 100kg
respectively for a dwell time of 10 seconds. Calibration of the testing machine is done
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using the standard block (92 ± 2). The samples were placed on anvils, which act as a
support for the test samples.
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Figure 5.12 Specimen for microstructure examination and hardness measurement
51
.in
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et.
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Figure 5.13 Rockwell hardness tester
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52
Result and discussion
Chapter 6
Result and Discussion
.in
6.1 Results
Results section covers two different sub sections as microstructure images and hardness
measurement.
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6.1.1 Microstructure of aluminium bronze
Microstructural images which are taken from an optical microscope were used for
microstructural study of aluminium bronze. Microstructure images were taken from inner,
middle and outer surfaces of each cast samples.
et.
Microstructure of aluminum bronze contains several phases as α phase; α + γ2 phase and
iron particles which are precipitated in α phase. The light areas are α matrix, the dark
regions are the so-called "retained β" or β phase and the fine dots dispersed in the alloy
are inter-metallic iron particles. The α matrix is a relatively soft Cu-based substitutional
solid solution of F.C.C. structure. The β phase is a Cu3Al-based solid solution with a
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B.C.C. structure, stable only above 565 °C. The dark β ' phase between the α matrix is the
super-cooled β phase resulting from the interrupted eutectoid transformation in α + γ2
phase. The α + γ2 phase found in the present study are hard and brittle Fe3 Al-based solid
solutions [40].
Due to the transformation of the β’ phase present in the as cast structure to produce
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structures of aluminium bronze pearlite (α + γ2) in a matrix of α dominance, this structure

has no clear area of stress concentration but rather has lamellar or alternate layers of γ2
and α with the latter predominating the structure [36].
All these phases can be seen in the microstructure images of each sample. Their shape
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and sizes are different according to different casting conditions that can be seen by clear
observation.
Figure 6.1 to 6.6 show microstructural images of cast samples AB1 to AB6 respectively,
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which were taken from the inner, middle and outer section of sample. Images are
arranged by optical zooming conditions such as 10X, 20X and 50X.
53
INNER MIDDLE OUTER
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10X
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et.
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20X
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50X
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Figure 6.1 Cast sample AB1 produced at pouring temperature 1150 0C

and 1050 RPM (A: primary α, B: Cu-Al compound, arrow: Fe particles)
54
INNER MIDDLE OUTER
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10X
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et.
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20X
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50X
gn

55
INNER MIDDLE OUTER
.in
10X
ac
et.
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20X
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50X
gn

56
INNER MIDDLE OUTER
.in
10X
ac
et.
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20X
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50X
gn

57
INNER MIDDLE OUTER
.in
10X
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et.
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20X
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50X
gn

58
INNER MIDDLE OUTER
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10X
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et.
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20X
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50X
gn

59
6.1.2 Results of hardness measurement

The value of hardness for each cast sample is measured in Rockwell hardness in B scale
series (HRB series). The value of hardness at inner, middle and outer section of casting
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samples for each sample are as shown in table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Results of hardness measurement
SAMPLE POURING Avg. Value of hardness (HRB)

RPM
No. TEMP. 0C INNER MIDDLE OUTER
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AB1 1150 1050 88 88.8 90
AB2 1150 1150 90.4 90.6 91.6
AB3 1150 1250 91.2 91.6 92
AB4 1250 1050 90.8 91.2 92
AB5 1250 1150 92.2 92.6 93
et.
AB6 1250 1250 93.2 93.4 94
Hardness of each casting sample

95
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94
93
92
AB1 1150 1050
Hardness HRB
91
AB2 1150 1150
90
89 AB3 1150 1250
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88 AB4 1250 1050

87 AB5 1250 1150
86 AB6 1250 1250
85
INNER MIDDLE OUTER
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Position of sample
Figure 6.7 Hardness (HRB) of each casting sample
From the figure 6.7 it can be noted that at inner section of casting sample value of
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hardness is found very less and at outer section it found very high. It also can be seen that
in sample AB1 hardness is found very less and in sample AB6 it is found very high.
Result of hardness shows that increase in mould rotation results into increase in hardness.
In case of lower temperature, compared to 1150 0C pouring temperature, 1250 0C pouring
temperature has higher hardness at same mould rotation speed.
60
6.2 Relationship between microstructure and hardness of aluminium

bronze
Figure 6.1 to 6.6 show the microstructure characteristics of the alloys. Various
.in
microconstituents of aluminum bronze were observed to be primary α phase, Cu-Al
compound and fine particles iron region marked by A, B and arrow, respectively as
shown in figure 6.1 to 6.6. By direct observation of microstructure images and comparing
it with hardness values of each casting sample as given in table 6.1, it can be noted that as
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the grain structure become finer, as the α phase decreases and needles becomes smaller
the amount of hardness values are increases.
The presence of sparse distribution of suspected α precipitates in a predominant α + γ2
matrix which causes high strength (hardness) and low ductility as can be seen in
particular microstructure.
et.
After observing all images of each sample it is clear that sample AB1 is having coarse
grain structure compare to other. It is also seen in the table that AB1 is having less
hardness compare to other. So it can be said that due to coarse structure casting is having
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less hardness. Sample AB2 and AB3 are having much more fine structure than AB1 but
here AB2 is less fine than AB3. This is also seen in table that hardness of AB2 is higher
than AB1 and less than AB3. Similar trend is also found in the case of cast sample AB4,
AB5 and AB6.
Among all casting samples, sample AB6 have most fine grain structure and also it can be
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noted from table that sample AB6 have highest hardness.
6.3 Effect of pouring temperature and mold rotation on hardness of

aluminium bronze
The values of hardness for each cast sample at different mold rotations in vertical
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centrifugal casting machine and with different pouring temperature for inner, middle and
outer sections of samples are shown in figures 6.8 and figure 6.9. Due to higher
solidification rate at higher rotation of mold gives higher values of hardness.
The properties vary with respect to the direction of centrifugal force. The segregation of
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hard particles towards one side of the specimen significantly improved mechanical
properties. So, at outer section of casting the hardness is seen very high.
61
CONSTANT POURING TEMP. 1150 0C

93 92
.in
91.6
92 INNER
91.2
91 91.6
90 90.4 90.6 MIDDLE
HRB 90
89
88 88.8 OUTER
88
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87
86
1050 1150 1250
RPM
95
et.
Figure 6.8 The value of hardness at constant pouring temp. 1150 0C
CONSTANT POURING TEMP. 1250 0C

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94 94
93.4 INNER
93 93.2
93 MIDDLE
HRB 92 92.6
92.2 92
91 OUTER
91.2
90 90.8
89
1050 1150 1250
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RPM
Figure 6.9 The value of hardness at constant pouring temp. 1250 0C
In case of present experiment as the pouring temperature increased, fine grain structure of
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casting formed [41]. The grain structure becomes fine due to the reduction in DAS
(Dendritic Arm Spacing) [42]. This results in increase in hardness. Hardness is high at
pouring temperature 1250 °C compare to 1150 °C pouring temperature.
Aluminium bronze is categorized as Group-I (narrow freezing range) copper alloys [4],
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due to this reason 1250 °C pouring temperature has high hardness (due to fine
microstructure) compared to 1150 °C.
By increasing the pouring temperature, results in increasing the fluidity. As there is rise in
the pouring temperature, there is increase in the time of solidification which results in
grain structure that is fine. There is a grain-fine effect which cause increases the hardness.
62
A higher rotation is recommended for higher hardness. The increase would be due to a
higher centrifugal force acting on the solidifying metal and resulting in equiaxed
structure.
.in
As shown in the figures for particular pouring temperature as the mold rotation speed is
increases; the value of hardness is increase due to higher solidification rate at high
rotational speed.
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et.
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63
Conclusion
Chapter 7
Conclusion
.in
From the thorough analysis of investigational results of hardness and microstructural
study of aluminum bronze (CuAl11Fe4) alloy based on analysis of results, following
conclusions can be drawn.
 Mold rotation speeds & pouring temperature are key variable of centrifugal
ac
casting of Aluminium bronze.
 The best combination of pouring temperature at 1250°C and mould rotation speed
at 1250 RPM to produce Al-Bronze having excellent microstructural and
mechanical properties.
et.
 The presence of acicular α phase and eutectoid mixture of α+γ2 with iron particles
controls the mechanical properties of aluminium bronze.
 As the microstructure of aluminium bronze become finer or as the grains become
finer and as the needles of α phase become smaller in the phase α+γ2 that will
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result into higher values of hardness(mechanical properties).
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u.i
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64
Future scope
Chapter 8
Future Scope
.in
 Influence of heat treatment on the microstructure and mechanical properties of
aluminum bronze.
 Effect of addition of elements such as boron, titanium and phosphorus on
the microstructure and mechanical properties of aluminum bronze.
ac
 Image analysis will be used to find out for size of grain size & α phase and
γ2 phase, also for volume fraction.
 Microstructural investigation will be correlated with other mechanical properties
like tensile strength and impact strength.
et.
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65
Reference
Chapter 9
Reference
.in
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New York..
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18. Sufei Wei; ASM Handbook, Volume 15: Casting ASM Handbook Committee, 2008
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Volume 15: Casting; ASM Handbook Committee; 1998 ASM International;
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20. R.L. Dobson; ASM Handbook, Volume 15: Casting; ASM Handbook Committee;
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Machine Company; p.640.
21. Peter Beeley; “Foundry Technology”; 2nd edition, p.641
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22. http://ztest.net/attachment.php?aid=3405
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CASTING”, Indian Institute of Technology – Bombay, India }
24. Geogre E. Dieter; “Mechanical Metallurgy”, SI Metrix Edition,
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25. Material Testing Laboratory Manual, Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of
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alloy for bearing”; Journal of Wear, Vol. 263, 2007, p. 586–591.
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Copper Alloys”; ASM International Handbook Committee, Vol. 2, p.837.

28. W.A. Glasser; “Wear properties of heavy loaded copper-base bearing alloy”; Journal
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Die”; Association of metallurgical engineering of serbia, MJOM Volume 16(2), 2010,

p.115-122.
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No.6, 2007, p.711-727.
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38. Zhang Werwen, Xia Wei, Wen Li-ping, WU Yuarr biao, Pan Guoru; “Mechanical
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68

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Mechanical property and microstructural

investigation of aluminium bronze by

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

U. V. PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

In a manner sufficiently satisfactory to warrant its acceptance as a partial

fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the Degree of

Advanced Manufacturing Techniques

Prof. V. B. Patel Dr. P.H. Shah

Guide Principal & Dean

External Examiner Internal Examiner

(Enrollment No. : 12014051005)

I sincerely convey my gratitude to my guide and Head of Mechanical Engineering

make my study more delightful and memorable.

III Acknowledgement III

VII List of tables XI

1.2 Classification & designation of copper alloys 2

1.2.1 Classification of copper alloys 2

1.2.2 Designation of copper alloys 3

1.3 Properties of copper alloys 4

1.3.1 Good castability 4

1.3.2 In built corrosion protection

1.5 Copper alloys as bearing application 5

1.7 Aluminium bronze 7

1.7.2 Phase diagram of aluminum bronze 10

1.7.3 Microstructure of aluminum bronze 12

1.7.5 Application of aluminum bronze 15

1.7.6 Chemical composition of aluminum bronze 16

Chapter 2 Centrifugal Casting Technique

2.2 Centrifugal casting machines 18

2.2.1 Horizontal centrifugal machine 18

2.2.2 Vertical centrifugal machine 19

2.2.3 Incline centrifugal machine 19

2.3 Centrifugal casting processes 19

2.3.1 True centrifugal casting 19

2.3.2 Semi centrifugal casting 20

2.3.3 Centrifuge mold casting 20

2.4 Process variables in casting technique 22

2.5 Mold heating and coating techniques 26

2.6 Advantages of centrifugal casting techniques 27

and vertical machine

Chapter 3 Hardness Measurement and Metallography

3.3 Vickers hardness 30

3.4 Rockwell hardness 30

3.5.4 Microstructure study of specimen 34

Chapter 4 Literature Review

4.2 Review of literatures 36

4.4 Objective of dissertation 42

Chapter 5 Experimental Procedure

5.2 Plan of experiments 43

5.3 Experimental setup 44

5.3.1 Specification of induction furnace 44

5.3.2 Vertical centrifugal casting machine 45

5.4 Experimental procedure 46

5.4.2 Preparation of casting 47

5.4.4 Preparation of hardness measurement 51

Chapter 6 Result and Discussion

6.1.2 Results of hardness measurement 60

6.2 Relationship between microstructure and hardness 61

6.3 Effect of pouring temperature and mold rotation on 61

hardness of aluminium bronze

Chapter 8 Future Scope 65

Sr. No. Table Name Page

Table 3.1 The Rockwell hardness scales 31