Casting, Forming and Joining Processes

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Metal Casting: Casting is basically melting a solid material, heating to a special

temperature, and pouring the molten material into a cavity or mold, which is in
proper shape. In casting, we can make most intricate of shapes, both external and
internal. Casting process can be shown in a flow chart as
Pattern Making: First of all, pattern is a replica or facsimile model of desired
casting which produces a cavity. Molten metal solidifies in this cavity. The
process of making such cavity by using pattern is known as pattern making.

Pattern materials are:

1. Wood
2. Plastic
3. Plaster of Paris
4. Wax

Core Making: Cores are used to produce the internal features of part such as
hole or any opening. Cores are placed in the cavity produced by pattern.

Moulding: Moulding is the process to prepare a mould for receiving mould metal.
Cores are mold parts used to shape internal holes and cavities. They are also
fortification parts of molds where wearing occurs. These parts are made of sand
and organic-inorganic bonders such as cereal meals, dextrin, sodium silicate,
cement etc. Some properties of cores must have are the followings:

1. High-Temperature Resistivity
2. Metal Erosion Resistivity
3. Easiness of Deformation After Casting
4. Gas Insertion Ability
5. Smooth Surfaces
6. Saving Physical Properties During Storage

Melting and Pouring: Melting is used to melt the metal, so that it can flow inside
mould cavity. Molten metal is poured in pouring cup. This is known as sprue and
horizontal portion of this cup and is known as runner. The points through which
metal enters into cavity are known as gate.
Cooling and Solidification: We know, density of solid is more than liquid.
Hence, when molten metal solidifies, the size of solid is less in comparison of
molten metal. This process is known as shrinkage.
Cleaning: When metal is cooled and solidified, we withdraw it. Cleaning is done
to remove the dust or other particles of moulding sand.
Design of Gating System: Bernoulli's theorem plays an important role in
regulating the flow of metal in gating system. According to Bernoulli's theorem,
'the total energy head remains constant at any system'. It is given by

= constant

where, p = Pressure (in N/m 2 or Pa)

v = Velocity of the liquid (in m/s)

h = Potential head (in m)

ρ = Density of the liquid (in kg/m 3 )

g = 9.8 m/s 2 = Acceleration due to gravity

According to continuity law, 'mass of the metal flowing at any section in the would
is constant'.

m = ρ1A1 v1 = ρ2A2 v2

But density remain constant.

So, ρ 1 = ρ 2

A 1 v1 = A 2 v2

Q = A 1 v 1 = A 2 v2

Where, Q = Rate of flow of the metal (in m 3 /s)

A = Area of cross-section of that section, where metal is flowing (in m 2 )

v = Velocity of the metal (in m/s)

Design of Risers: The purpose of riser is to provide liquid metal to compensate
liquid and shrinkage during phase change. The secondary purpose of riser is to
show that whether casting is full or not. So, a riser is designed in such a way that
it stays molten longer than the casting.

The solidification time both for casting and riser given as

 (Chvorinovi rule)

t = Solidification time (in second)

SA = Surface area (in m 2 )

V = Volume (in m 3 )

k = Mould constant

 The freezing ratio x of a mould is defined as the ratio of cooling

characteristics of casting to the riser.

 In order to be able to feed the casting, the riser should solidify last and
hence, its freezing should be greater than unity.

So, we can write it as

 Based on the Chvorinovi's rule, Caine developed a relationship empirically

for the freezing ratio of steel casting. The equation is

where,

For aluminium casting,

Sphere have minimum ratio of surface area to the volume. But it is not used as
riser for casting because hottest metal being at centre of sphere and it is difficult
to use for feeding the casting.
Generally, cylindrical shaped risers are used for casting purpose.
Design of Castings: When designing casting the most important consideration is
the effect of shrinkage during cooling. Other important factors include metal flow,
and porosity. Some general rules are given in the following:

 Avoid sharp corners - they can lead to hot tearing during cooling
 Use fillets cautiously - they lead to stresses as they shrink a radius of 1/8"
to 1" are acceptable.
 Avoid large masses - they will cool more slowly, and can lead to pores and
cavities in the final part. Cores can be used to hollow out these large
volumes. Metal padding `chills' can also be placed inside the mold near
large masses to help increase cooling rates.
 Use uniform cross sections -this will keep the cooling rate relatively uniform
and avoid stresses.
 Avoid large flats - large flat areas tend to warp.
 Allow some give as the part cools - by allowing the shrinkage of one part to
deform another slightly, the internal stresses will be reduced. Figures of 1 -
2% shrinkage are common.
 Put parting lines near corners - this will hide the flash.
 Straight Parting Lines - where possible a straight parting line will allow
easier mold making.
 Use a Draft angle - A small angle of 0.5-2° on the vertical walls will make
the pattern easier to remove.
 Machining Allowances - allow excess material for later machining of critical
dimensions
 Wide Tolerances - because shrinkage occurs as the part cools it will be
very hard to keep tight tolerances.
 Stress Relieve When Needed - Stress relief can reduce the effects of non-
uniform cooling.
 Avoid thin sections - These will be very hard to fill, and will tend to harden
quickly.
 Avoid internal features - These will require extra steps in mold making, and
may create metal flow problems.
Bulk Deformation:
Bulk deformation is a metal-forming process where the deformation is three-
dimensional in nature. The primary use of the term bulk deformation is to
distinguish it from sheet-forming processes. The ratio cross-section area/volume
is small. For most operations, hot or warm working conditions are preferred
although some operations are carried out at room temperature. Bulk deformation
includes metal working processes such as forging, extrusion, rolling, and drawing.
Forging: Forging can be a cold or hot work process. It involves plastically
deforming a workpiece by either hammering or pressing (the distinction between
these two is the rate at which the energy is applied). An advantage of forging is
the highly dense metal structure, and the directional grain alignment that results
from the flow of metal under extreme pressure. According to the degree to which
the flow of the metal is constrained by the dies there are th ree types of forging:
Open-die forging, Impression-die forging and Flashless forging.

 Open-die forging: Known as upsetting, it involves compression of a work

between two flat dies, or platens. Force calculations were discussed earlier.
Impression-die forging In impression-die forging, some of the material flows
radially outward to form a flash.
 Flashless forging: The work material is completely surrounded by the die
cavity during compression and no flash is formed.

Forging can be defined as a method of shaping heated metal by compression.

Forging can be done either at room or elevated temperature.
Forging at the room temperature known as cold forging. In cold forging
temperature of material is below its recrystallization temperature.
If forging is carried out above recrystallization temperature then, it is known as
hot forging.

Forging basically involves three different operations:

 Drawing: In this operation, the length of a job is increased by decreasing

its cross-sectional area.
  Upsetting: In this operation, the length of a metal is reduced while
increasing the cross-sectional area.
 Squeezing: This will lengthen the metal, but will not increase the cross-
sectional area.
 Operations of Smith Forging: Some basic operations of smith forging can
be defined as: Swaging, Bending, Cogging, Coining, Heading and Piercing.

Rolling: Rolling is a Bulk Deformation Process in which the thickness of the work
is reduced by compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls. The preheated at
1200 o C cast ingot (the process is known as soaking) is rolled into one of the three
intermediate shapes called blooms, slabs, or billets. Rolling is a process of
forging in which changing the cross-section of a long work piece is done by
applying a compressive force through a set of rolls.
Principle of Rolling: When stock enters in roll then, speed of stock is less than
the speed of rolls (speed of rolls means peripheral speed). At a point between P
and Q the stock speed is same as the roll peripheral speed. Most deformation
takes place in thickness, although there is some increase in width. In all rolling
process temperature uniformity is important.

In rolling,

Volume enters in roll = Volume outs from the roll

Q1 = Q 2

A 1 v1 = A 2 v2

where, A 1 = area in front of roll (in m 2 )

v1 = velocity of metal before the roll (in m/s)
A 2 = area after rolling (in m 2 )

v2 = velocity of metal after rolling (in m/s).

Extrusion: Extrusion is a Bulk Deformation Process in which the work is forced to
flow through a die opening to produce a desired cross-sectional shape.

 Extrusion is performed in different ways therefore different classifications

are available: Direct and indirect extrusion, Hot and cold extrusion ,
Continuous and discrete extrusion.
 Extrusion is similar to drawing process. Main difference between extrusion
and drawing is that in extrusion process we applied compressive force but
in drawing process, force in tensile to obtain reduction in diameter.
 Extrusion produces only compressive and shear forces in stock without any
tensile force which makes high deformation possible without tearing the
metal.

Extrusion Force: Extrusion force is given by

where, k = Extrusion constant; A 0 = Initial area; A f = Final area extrudent part.

Types of Extrusion: The following types of extrusions are given below.

1. Direct Extrusion
2. Forward Extrusion
3. Indirect Extrusion
4. Combined Extrusion
5. Hydrostatic
6. Impact Extrusion

Extrusion Defects: Extrusion defects are classified in the following groups

1. Surface Cracking
2. Extrusion or Pipe Defect
 3. Internal Cracking

Wire and Bar Drawing: Wire and Bar Drawing is a Bulk Deformation Process in
which the cross-section of a bar, rod or wire is reduced by pulling it through a die
opening.
Bar drawing is a single-draft operation. By contrast, in wire drawing the wire is
drawn through a series of dies. Wire drawing is an operation to produce wire of
various sizes within certain specific tolerances.
Defects in Wire Drawing: Some wire drawing defects are given as below: Bulge
Formation, Internal Cracks, Surface Defects, Seams, and Drawing Force.
Sheet Metal Working
Shearing: Shearing is defined as the process in which sheet is cut by subjected,
it to shear stresses on a sheet metal part. A burr is thin edge or ridge. Burr height
increases with increasing in clearance and in ductility of sheet metal.
Shearing Operations: The shearing operations are classified into the following
manner as given below

 Blanking: It is a metal fabricating process, during which a metal work piece

is removed from a metal sheet when it is punched. In this process, slug is
useful part and sheet metal is scrap.
 Piercing: It is general term for cutting openings such as holes and slots in
sheet metal part. In this process,' slug is scrap and sheet metal part is
useful.
 Slitting: Shearing operation can be carried out by means of a pair of
circular blades similar to those that in a can opener, this process is called
slitting.
 Slotting: It is cutting of elongated holes or slots.
 Shaving: It is a finishing or sizing process and very little material is
removed from edges.
 Preformating: Punching a number of similar hole in sheet. They are
arranged in a regular pattern in a sheet.
  Trimming: It is the cutting away of excess material in a flange or flash from
a piece.
 Parting: Shearing the sheet metal into two or more pieces is known as
parting process.
 Notching: Removing pieces (or various shapes) from the edge of a sheet
metal is known as notching process.
 Nibbing: It is a process in which making a contour or other shape by
punching a series of overlapping round or square holes along the edge of
part.
 Lancing: Leaving a tab without removing of any material from the sheet
metal is known as lancing process.

Bending: Bending is defined as the straining of the sheet metal around a straight
edge. Bending operations involve the processes of V-bending and edge bending.

 V-bending: sheet metal is bent along a straight line between a V -shape

punch and die.
 Edge bending: bending of the cantilever part of the sheet around the die
edge.

Deep Drawing: Deep drawing is a sheet metal forming process in which a sheet
metal blank is radially down into a forming die by the mechanical action of the
punch. Deep drawing are classified into the following groups

 Ironing: It is the operation in which the thickness of the shell wall is

reduced and its surface is made smoothen.
 Redrawing: When the ratio of blank diameter and the final cup diameter is
too large, the drawing operation is performed more than one stage. After
the first one, the successive drawings are known as redrawing operation.
 Reverse Drawing: In this operation or process, a bending is to be
subjected on a drawn cup in the opposite direction to its original drawn
direction. This helps in strain softening.
Defects in Deep Drawing: Defects in deep drawing divided into the following
types: Earing, Buckling, Surface Scratch, and Bulging.
Clearance: Clearance c is the distance between the punch and die and is about
10% greater than the stock thickness. Two measures of the severity of a deep
drawing operation are used: Drawing ratio and Thickness-to-diameter ratio.
Powder Metallurgy (P/M): It is a processing technology in which parts are
produced by compacting and sintering metallic and/or non-metallic powders.
Therefore, P/M is a typical example of an additive manufacturing process. P/M
parts can be mass produced to net shape or near net shape, eliminating or
reducing the need for subsequent machining.
Powder Metallurgy process: After the metallic powders have been produced and
classified, the conventional P/M process sequence consists of three major steps:
(1) blending and mixing of powders, (2) compaction, and (3) sintering, and a
number of optional and finishing secondary operations.
Powder Production: The various methods used to power production. Some basic
methods are defined as: Atomization, Mechanical Comminution Method, Chemical
Method, Electrolytic Deposition, Crushing, and Agglomeration.
Blending: The purpose of mixing is to provided homogeneous mixture and to
incorporate the lubricant. The mixing is done in rotating containers called
blenders.

Mixing: combining powders of different chemistries..

Compaction: Blended powers are pressed in dies under high pressure to form
them into the required shape. The work part after compaction is called a green
compact or simply a green, the word green meaning not yet fully processed.
Compaction is the step in which blended powders are pressed into shape in dies.
The presses are used driven by mechanically or hydraulically.
Sintering: Compressed metal powder is heated in a controlled-atmosphere
furnace to a temperature below its melting point, but high enough to allow
bounding of the particles.
Finishing operations: A number of secondary and finishing operations can be
applied after sintering, some of them are:

 Coining: It is a press working operation on a sintered part to press detail

into its surface.
 Forging: In this process, desired shape is given to sintered part at elevated
temperature.
 Machining: Making threads, holes or slot on sintered part is called
machining.
 Sizing: In this process, the dimensional accuracy of sintered part is
improved.
 Heat Treating: This process is used to improve hardness of sintered part.
 Stream Treating: In this process, sintered part obtained a oxide casting on
its surface.
 Plating: This operation is used to obtain sceptic surface finish and colour.
  Joining: In this process, two sintered parts are joined by typical joining
method like welding, brazing etc.
 Repressing: Repressing increases the density and improves the properties
of a sintered part.
 Impregnation: The powder metallurgy part has tiny capillary pores all over
which can be filled by oil or other lubricant, this process is called
impregnation.
 Infiltration: The pores can also filled by a metal of lower melting point than
sintered part by heating the sintered parts when metal is placed against it.
It increases strength and density of sintered part. Sintered steel parts are
infiltrated by copper or bronze.

Welding
Welding is a material joining process for a permanent combining of two (or more)
parts that involves melting and subsequent solidification of the material from two
parts thus forming a strong joint between them. The assemblage of parts is called
a weldment.
There are two groups of welding processes according to the state of the base
material during the welding process: Liquid-state welding (fusion welding), and
Solid-state welding.

Fusion welding
Fusion welding is by far the more important category. In fusion welding, the base
material is heat to melt.
Oxy-Fuel Gas Welding: Oxy-Fuel gas Welding (OFW) is a welding process that
uses a fuel gas combined with O 2 to produce a flame. This flame is the source of
heat that is used to melt the metals at the joint. If fuel gas is acetylene (C 2 H2 )
then, it is known as oxy-acetylene gas welding. In this process, heat is generated
in two pair of chemical reaction. The first reaction occurs at inner core of the
flame is:
This produces one-third of the total heat generated in the flame. Secondary
reaction is:

Secondary reaction produces about 2/3rd of the total heat. The temperature
developed in flame about 3200°C as the result of these reactions.
Arc Welding: In this process, heat is obtained from electrical energy. Electric arc
is generated by touching the tip of a coated electrode against the work piece and
the withdrawing it quickly to a sufficient distance to maintain the arc. In this
welding method, the temperature is generated about 6500°C.

Shielded Metal Arc Welding:

According to our requirement, we use AC or DC supply or straight or reverse
polarity. Generally, it is used in construction, in ship building, on pipe lines and for
maintenance work.

Submerged Arc Welding:

In this welding process, arc is shielded by a granular flux, consisting of lime,

silica, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride and other compounds. The flux is fed
into the weld zone by gravity flow through nozzle. The flux layer completely
covers the molten metal, it prevents spatter and spark which reduce radiation and
fume characteristic of the SAW process.
Gas Metal Arc Welding: It is also known as Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding. The
weld area is shielded by an effectively inert atmosphere of argon, helium,
CO 2 and various other gas mixtures. The consumable bare wire is fed
automatically through a nozzle into weld area or arc.
Deoxidizers are usually present in the electrode metal itself which also prevent
oxidation of molten weld puddle.

Metal transfer in this process by four modes:

1. Spray transfer
2. Globular
3. Short circuiting
4. Pulsed spray

Fluxed Cored Arc Welding: It is similar to gas metal arc welding except that the
electrode is tubular in shape and is filled with flux (flux-cored). This is used for
steel, stainless steel and nickel alloys.
Electro Gas Welding: Electro gas welding is used primarily for welding the edges
of sections vertically in one pass with pieces placed edge to edge (butt joint). The
weld metal is deposited into cavity between the two pieces to be joined.
Non-consumable Electrode: The non-consumable electrode basically are used
in the following arc welding process which defined as
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding: It is also known as Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)
welding. The filler metal is supplied from a filler wire because, tungsten electrode
is not consumed in this operation, a constant and stable arc gap is maintained at
constant current level.
Electro-Slag Welding: It is similar like electro gas welding. The main difference
is that the arc is started between electrode tip and the bottom of the part to be
welded. Flux is added then is melted by the heat of the arc. When molten slag
touches the tip of electrode, the arc is extinguished. Then, heat is produced by
electrical resistance of the molten Slag.
Atomic Hydrogen Welding: In this welding process, arc in a shielding
atmosphere of hydrogen. The arc between two tungsten or carbon electrodes.
Plasma Arc Welding: It is similar to gas tungsten arc welding. A concentrated
plasma arc is produced and aimed at the weld area. A plasma is ionised hot gas,
composed of nearly equal number of electron and ions.
Thermit Welding: In this welding process, heat is produced by exothermic
reaction between metal oxides and metallic reducing element.
Electron Beam Welding: In this welding process, heat is generated by high
velocity narrow-beam electrons. When they strike to work piece, their kinetic
energies change into the heat.
Laser Beam Welding: In this welding process, a high power laser beam as the
source of heat is used to make a weld.
Resistance Welding: In this welding process, heat is generated by means of
electrical resistance across the two components to be joined.
Resistance Spot Welding: In this welding process, the tips of two opposing solid
cylindrical electrodes touch a lap joint of two sheet metals and resistance heating
produces a spot weld.
High Frequency Resistance Welding: High frequency resistance welding, is
similar like seam welding but supply is replaced by a high frequency current up to
450 kHz.
Resistance Projection Welding: In this welding process, high resistance at the
joint is developed by embossing one or more projections on one of the surface to
be welded.
Resistance Seam Welding: It is similar to resistance spot welding but electrode
is replaced by roller electrodes.
Flash Welding: Flash welding is also known as flash butt welding. Heat is
generated from the arc as end of the two members begin to make cont act and
develop an electrical resistance at the joint.
Stud Welding: Stud welding is also known as stud arc welding. Stud which is a
small part of threaded rod or hanger serves as one of the electrode while being
joined to another component which is usually a flat plate.

Percussion Welding: In this welding process, current is supplied by a capacitor.

Solid state welding:

It is the non-conventional welding process. In solid-state welding, two parts are
jointed together under pressure or a combination of pressure and heat. If heat is
applied, the contact temperature is below the melting point of the base metal.

 Forge welding: Forge welding is a welding process in which the

components to be joined are heated to hot working temperatures and then
forged together by hammer or other means.
 Cold Welding: Cold welding is a solid state welding, this method uses
pressure at room temperature to produce coalescence of metals with
substantial deformation at the weld.
 Diffusion Welding: It is a welding process in which the strength of the joint
results primarily from diffusion (movement of atoms across the interface)
and secondarily from plastic deformation of the faying surfaces.
 Explosion Welding: Explosion Welding is a solid-state welding process in
which rapid coalescence of two metallic surfaces is caused by the energy
of a detonated explosive.
 Friction welding: It is a solid-state welding process in which coalescence
is achieved by frictional heat combined with pressure. The heat is
generated by the friction between the two components surfaces, usually by
rotation of one part relative to the other. Then the parts are driven toward
each other with sufficient force to form a metallurgical bond.
Welding Defects: After welding some defects are found which make the strength
of joint weak. Such defects are called welding defects. Some welding defects are
given below.

1. Porosity
2. Slag Inclusions
3. Incomplete Fusion
4. Incomplete Penetration
5. Under Filling
6. Under Cutting
7. Inclusions
8. Lamellar Tears
9. Cracks

Brazing
It is a joining process in which a filler metal is melted and distributed by capillary
action between the faying (contact) surfaces of the metal parts being joined.

Base material does not melt in brazing, only the filler melts.
In brazing, the filler metal has a melting temperature (liquidus) above 450°C, but
below the melting point (solidus) of base metals to be joined.

Advantages of brazing :

 Brazing can be used to join a large variety of dissimilar metals.

 Pieces of different thickness can be easily joined by brazing.
 Thin-walled tubes & light gauge sheet metal assemblies not joinable by
welding can be joined by brazing.
 Complex & multi-component assemblies can be economically fabricated
with the help of brazing.
 Inaccessible joint areas which could not be welded by gas metal or gas
tungsten arc spot or seam welding can be formed by brazing.

Soldering
 Soldering is similar to brazing and can be defined as a joining process in which a
filler metal with melting point (liquidus) not exceeding 450°C is melted and
distributed by capillary action between the faying surfaces of the metal parts
being joined.
As in brazing, no melting of the base metals occurs, but the filler metal wets and
combines with the base metal to form a metallurgical bond.
Filler metal, called Solder, is added to the joint, which distributes itself between
the closely fitting parts.

Adhesive bonding

 Adhesive bonding is a process of joining materials in which an adhesive

(liquid or a semi solid state material) is placed between the faying surfaces
of the workpiece / parts (adherents) to be joined. Either heat or pressure or
both are applied to get bonding.
 Three essential steps are required to follow to make an adhesive joint
including (a) preparation of the surfaces, (b) application of the adhesive on
to the mating surfaces, and (c) assembly of workpieces / parts and curing
the joint.
 Adhesives are broadly classified into two groups: structural adhesives and
non-structural adhesives. Structural adhesives are having high load
carrying capacity while the non-structural adhesives are having low load
carrying capacity.

Machining and Machine Tool Operations

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Metal Cutting and Tools

Cutting tools that are made from wrought high speed steels are shaped to the
required geometries by machining.
Tool Geometry: A cutting tool has one or more sharp cutting edges. The cutting
edges are used to separate a chip from the parent work material. A cutting tool
has special geometry for a specific machining process. The tools are classified
as: (i) Single point cutting tool (ii) Multi-point cutting tool. A single point cutting
tool has only one cutting edge and a multi-point cutting tool has one or more
cutting edge.

Geometry of Single Point Cutting Tool

Rake Angle: Rake angle is defined as angle between the face of the tool called
the rake face and the normal to the cutting direction.
Side Relief and End Relief or Clearance Angle : The purpose of relief angles
are increasing tool life and reducing the chances of tool breakage. Clearance
angle is defined as the angle between the machined surface arid the underside of
the tool, called flank face.
Lead Angle: This angle is determined by the tool holder which must be chosen
for each particular job. Positive lead angle performs two main functions

1. Thins the chip

2. Protect the insert

Tool Nomenclatures: Tool nomenclatures are deperulson the following systems.

ASA system: The tool angles in coordinate system are given in the following
order
ORS system: The tool designation under ORS is given in the following order
  Relationship between these angles are given below tan α = tan α s sin λ +
tan α b cos λ tan α b = cos λ tan α + sin λ tan i tan α s = sin λ tan α – cos λ tan
i tan i = tan α b sin λ – tan α s cos λ

The relationship between lead angle and side cutting edge angle is given by
λ = 90 ° – ψ s
Geometry of Turning Process: The mechanism of turning process as shown in
the given figure
From give Fig. (a), t 1 = f cos ψ s

ω = d/cos ψ s

where, ψ = Side cutting edge angle

 Cutting speed is given by v = πDN

where, N = Number of jobs revolution per unit time

D = Initial diameter of the job

D = Depth of cut,

t 1 = Uncut chip thickness, f = Feed

 For orthogonal cutting, tan α b cos ψ s = tan α s sin ψ s

 The normal rake angle can be expressed in terms of other tool angles as

From given Fig. b, F t = F t cos ψ s

FR = F t sin ψ s

where, t c = Cutting force; F t = Feed force; F R = Radial force

Power consumption in cutting operation is given by

W c = Fc y

Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting

This analysis is based on Merchant's thin shear plane model, considering the
minimum energy principle. This model is applicable at very high speeds which are
generally practised in production.

Let, F t = Thrust force (perpendicular to the job piece)

Fc = Cutting force (in the direction of cutting velocity)

Fs = Force along the shear force

Fn = Force normal to the shear force

N = Force acting normal to the rake face

F = Frictional force along the tool rake face.

 All the forces that are acting on chip can be represented with the help of a
circle. This circle L is known as Merchant force circle

From above Fig. (e), F s = F c cos φ – Ft sin φ

Fn = F c sin φ + F t cos φ

= F s tan (φ + β – α)

F = F c sin α + F t cos α

N = F c cos α – Ft sin α

 Coefficient of friction

where, β = Friction angle φ = Shear angle

 The area of shear plane A s is given by where, w = Width of

cut t = uncut chip thickness

 Shear force acting on shear plane = Shear stress × Area

where, τ = Average shear stress in the shear plane

 Mean normal stress in the shear plane

Fs = R cos (θ + β – α)
and

Shear Angle Relationship

Merchant consider that τ would have the value of yield shear stress for the job
material and that  would have the usual for any dry sliding friction. For
determining the value of φ, Merchant assumed the minimum energy princi ple
applied in metal cutting so that the deformation process adjust itself to a minimum
energy condition.

Hence,

For minimum value,

Putting

Chip Thickness Ratio: The ratio of uncut chip thickness to chip thickness is
known as chip thickness ratio or cutting ratio and developed by r. The chip
thickness ratio diagram can be shown below
where, AD = t c = Chip thickness

AC = t = Uncut chip thickness

 If the chip thickness is t c and length is l c , then where, t = Uncut chip

thickness l = Length of uncut chip
 To obtain exact size of uncut chip length l, we may introduce a small cut
parallel to the axis on the work piece so that the uncut chip size is given
by l = πD where, D = diameter of the job before matching is done on it.
Velocity Ratio: Cutting velocity is more than the chip velocity. The mass of
removal material is constant before and after machining.

From velocity triangle, v t = vc t c

Shear strain is denoted by γ and expressed as

γ = tan φ + cot (φ - α)
Tool Life: Tool life T is the cutting time at the end of which a given tool may be
termed impossible on the basis of a selected tool failure criterion. Taylor
established a relationship between tool life cutting velocity which is given by

vT n = C

where, v = Cutting speed

T = Tool life in minutes

n = A exponent which depends on cutting condition

C = Constant.

 Depth of cut and feed rate also influence the tool life so that where, Taylor
equation can be modified as

vT n d xf y = Constant

where, d = Depth of cut

f = Feed rate (in mm/rev) in turning.

 Design power rating of electric motor of the main drive,

where, n m = Efficiency of machine tool.

Machinability

 Tool life: Larger tool life, better machinability.

 Surface finish: Good finish, more machinable material.
 Cutting forces: Smaller cutting force, more machinable material.
Machinability index

where, v t = Cutting speed of metal for 1 min tool etc.

vs = Cutting speed of standard.

Variation of velocity with respect to time for different material.

Economics of Machining: The economics of machining means minimum cost is
used during machining process. For total minimum cost,

where, C m = Machine cost in /time, T c = Tool changing time

C = Total cost, C e = Cost of tool/grind.

 For maximum production rate, Optimum speed,

Optimum time,

 For maximum profit rate, Profit rate = R = Selling price,

T n = idle time/component (vopt ) production rate > (v opt ) profit rate >
(vopt ) minimum unit cost

Machining Time on Lathe in Turning: The machining time on lathe in turning

depends on the following groups, which are described as
Cutting Speed: It is defined as distance travelled by cutting tool along
circumference of the work piece in one minute. It is expressed in m/min. It is
given by

where, D = Diameter of job (in mm); N = rpm of the work piece.

Feed: It is the distance that tool bit advances along work piece for each revolution
of the spindle (or work piece itself). It is expressed in terms of mm/rev. It is
denoted by f.
Depth of Cut: This is the distance that tool bit moves into the work. It is denoted
by t.

where, D = Original diameter of work piece

d = Diameter of work piece after machining.
Machining Time: If feed rate is f and work piece rotates at N rpm. Then, distance
travelled by tool in one revolution = f, and distance travelled by tool in N
revolution = f N.
Time taken by tool to travel this distance is one minute because rotational speed
is given in rev/min.

Speed of tool = f N
If l is length of work piece then time taken in turning = l / (f N) min.

Material Removal Rate (MRR): The quantity of material removed in unit time is
known as material removal rate.

The unit of material removal rate is mm 3 /min. Length of material removed in one
minute from work piece feed = f mm. Material removed from work piece in one
minute

So, MRR = πD avft mm 3

Operating Conditions in a Shaping Machine: Various conditions for operating
in a shaping machine are explained ahead
Machining Time for in Plan or Slab Milling: The time for machining in a plan or
slab milling can be describe by the following diagram

L 3 (over travel) approximately taken as 1 to 5 mm. L 2 = BC

By theorem of intersecting chord in a circle, BN × BC = PB × AB

where, AP = Diameter of cutter = D, AB = Depth of cut = d

Then, BN × BC = (D – d) × d

OB is perpendicular to CN.

Then, BN = BC ⇒ BC 2 = (D – d) × d

Time for machining

where, n = Number of passes; f = Feed rate.

Machining Time for Face Milling: For symmetrical face milling, L 2 = CM = OM –
OC
Here, the length approach is cleared by Fig. (b).
Grinding: The grinding process is defined as a machining process to produce
high surface finish with tight tolerance. This process is used for machining of hard
materials.

The basic purposes of grinding are

 Machining for hard materials

 Production of high quality surface with close tolerance.
 Removal of excess material from the surface of work piece.

Properties of Abrasive Grains: Various types of properties of abrasive grains

are defined as below
Friability: The ability to fracture of abrasive grain under pressure known as
friability. By this ability, when cutting edges becomes dull, the grain breaks -off
and exposes new cutting edges.
Hardness: Hardness of abrasive grain is defined as ability to scratch or penetrate
the work piece during operation.

Size: Size of the screen through which the grain will pass.
Bond: The bond material is used to hold abrasive particle together. The bonding
materials are metal, resin/plastic, rubber shellac silicates, vitrified etc.

Grade: The grade of the wheel is a measure of ability to retain grit.

Structure: Structure is spacing between abrasive grains or the dense of the
wheel.
Grinding Wheel Wear: Grinding wheel wear can be defined as the following
groups.
Attrious Wear: The cutting edges become dull and developing a wear flat that
similar to flank wear in cutting tool.
Dressing: It is a process of sharpening the abrasive elements of the wheel. It is
done by star dressers, diamond dresser and dressing sticks.
Truing: It is the process of aligning the periphery of grinding wheel so that it r uns
concentric with its axis of rotation. Truing and dressing occurs simultaneously
with regard conventional wheels.

Grinding Processes

 Surface grinding: Used for grinding flat surfaces.

 Cylindrical grinding: This process is used for grinding external and
internal cylindrical surfaces.
 Centred grinding: This is used for grinding axially symmetric surfaces,
they are centred or centreless.
 Centreless grinding: Centre less grinding is high speed, low cost
operation. In this process, two wheels are used, first one is grinding wheel
and second one is governing wheel.

Jigs: Jigs are used to hold work piece and guide to tool into a predetermined
position on the work piece.
 Fixture: A fixture is work holding device that is bolted or otherwise fastened to
the machine.
Principle of Location: In this method, the work piece is located by means of six
pins which restrict the work piece in nine of its degree of freedom.
Principle of Least Point: In this technique, only minimum locating point should
be used to secure location of the work piece in anyone plane.
Principle of Extreme Position: Locating points should be taken as far away from
another as possible on anyone work piece surface.
Principle of Mutually Perpendicular Planes: Locating points are in such a way
that their positions are mutually perpendicular planes to each other.

Metrology and Inspection

 51 upvotes
 15 comments

Metrology: Metrology is defined by the International Bureau of Weights and

Measures (BIPM) as "the science of measurement embracing both experimental
and theoretical determinations at any level of uncertainly in any field of science
and technology."
Limits, Fits and Tolerances: Assembly parts (either hole or shaft) should come
within certain range of dimensions. This acceptable variation is called tolerance
larger size is called upper limit and lower size is called lower limit.
Distance from the basic size where the tolerance zone is situated is called
fundamental deviation.

Hole Basis System and Shaft Basis System: If H type of hole appears, the
system is called hole basis system and if h type of shaft is present it is called
shaft basis system.
Maximum and Minimum Material Limit: Large size shaft and small size hole will
have more material. So, these limits are called maximum material limit. Lower
size shaft and large size hole will have less material. So, these limits are called
minimum material limit.Broadly there are three types of fits.
Clearance Fit: If lower limit of hole is larger than the upper limit of shaft. It is
considered as clearance fit.
Transition Fit: This type of fit appears when there is overlap in the tolerance
zones. Physically, it indicates that when a part is selected randomly from hole and
a shaft lot. Some of the assemblies can be made without the application of force
and for some of the assemblies force will be required.
Interference Fit: If maximum size of hole is smaller than the minimum size of
shaft then force has to be applied to make the assembly. Such fits are called
interference fits.
Allowance: It is defined as the difference between maximum material limit of hole
and shaft. Depending upon the type of fit either it is equal minimum clearance or
maximum interference.
Design of Limit Gauges: Gauges (GO and NOGO) are designed to check both
holes and shafts that whether they come within their tolerance limit or not. The
gauges used for shafts are called ring gauges and gauges used for checking
holes are plug gauges.

Gauge tolerance (work tolerance)

Wear tolerance work tolerance

Comparator: Comparators are used for measuring the dimensions from a

reference value.
Pneumatic Comparator: Pneumatic comparator work on the principle that of an
air jet. Upon decreasing the stand-off distance, the pressure on the back ground
of jet will increase. This pressure is called back pressure and can be directly
related to the measurement.
 These comparators can be further divided into three groups.

1. Flow type
2. Differential type
3. Back pressure type

Computer Integrated Manufacturing

 61 upvotes
 12 comments
Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) is the terminology used to describe the
complete automation of a manufacturing plant. All of the processes function under
computer control with digital information tying them together.

Different computer controlled processes is as follows:

 CAD, computer-aided design

 CAM, computer-aided manufacturing
 CAPP, computer-aided process planning
 CNC, computer numerical control machine tools
 DNC, direct numerical control machine tools
 FMS, flexible machining systems
 ASRS, automated storage and retrieval systems
 AGV, automated guided vehicles
 use of robotics and automated conveyance
 computerized scheduling and production control
 a business system integrated by a common data base.

The heart of CIM is CAD/CAM. Computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-

aided manufacturing (CAM) systems reduce cycle times in the business.
CAD/CAM is a high technology integrating tool between design and
manufacturing.
  CAD creates similar geometries for quick retrieval.
 CAD also allows designers to portray the electronic drawings or images in
two dimensions, like a standard blueprint, or as a three dimensional
component which can be rotated as it is viewed on a computer screen.
 Software programs can analyze and test CAD designs before a prototype is
made.
 The software allows engineers to predict stress points on a part and the
effects of loading. Once the part has been designed electronically, the
graphics can be used by CAM programmers to program the tool path to
machine the part from the raw material.
 The CAM program is then integrated with a CNC machine and the cutting
program is produced.
 The CAD graphics can also be used to design tools and fixtures.
 It can also be used for inspections by coordinate measuring machines
(CMM).
 The more a CAD design is used, the more time is saved in the overall
process.

CIM Hardware comprises the following:

 Manufacturing equipment such as CNC machines or computerized work

centres, robotic work cells, DNC/FMS systems, work handling and tool
handling devices, storage devices, sensors, shop floor data collection
devices, inspection machines etc.
 Computers, controllers, CAD/CAM systems, workstations / terminals, data
entry terminals, bar code readers, RFID tags, printers, plotters and other
peripheral devices, modems, cables, connectors etc.

CIM software comprises computer programmes to carry out the following

functions: Management Information System, Sales, Marketing, Finance, Database
Management, Modeling and Design, Analysis, Simulation, Communications,
Monitoring, Production Control, Manufacturing Area Control, Job
Tracking,Inventory Control, Shop Floor Data Collection, Order Entry, Materials
Handling, Device Drivers, Process Planning, Manufacturing Facilities Planning,
Work Flow Automation, Business Process Engineering, Network Management,
and Quality Management.

Major Elements of a CIM System:

 Marketing: The need for a product is identified by the marketing division.
The specifications of the product, the projection of manufacturing quantities
and the strategy for marketing the product are also decided by the
marketing department. Marketing also works out the manufacturing costs to
assess the economic viability of the product.
 Product Design: The design department of the company establishes the
initial database for production of a proposed product. In a CIM system this
is accomplished through activities such as geometric modeling and
computer aided design while considering the product requirements and
concepts generated by the creativity of the design engineer. Configuration
management is an important activity in many designs. Complex designs are
usually carried out by several teams working simultaneously, located often
in different parts of the world. The design process is constrained by the
costs that will be incurred in actual production and by the capabilities of the
available production equipment and processes. The design process creates
the database required to manufacture the part.
 Planning: The planning department takes the database established by the
design department and enriches it with production data and information to
produce a plan for the production of the product. Planning involves several
subsystems dealing with materials, facility, process, tools, manpower,
capacity, scheduling, outsourcing, assembly, inspection, logistics etc. In a
CIM system, this planning process should be constrained by the production
costs and by the production equipment and process capability, in order to
generate an optimized plan.
 Purchase: The purchase departments is responsible for placing the
purchase orders and follow up, ensure quality in the production process of
the vendor, receive the items, arrange for inspection and supply th e items
to the stores or arrange timely delivery depending on the production
schedule for eventual supply to manufacture and assembly.
 Manufacturing Engineering: Manufacturing Engineering is the activity of
carrying out the production of the product, involving further enrichment of
the database with performance data and information about the production
 equipment and processes. In CIM, this requires activities like CNC
programming, simulation and computer aided scheduling of the production
activity. This should include on-line dynamic scheduling and control based
on the real time performance of the equipment and processes to assure
continuous production activity. Often, the need to meet fluctuating market
demand requires the manufacturing system flexible and agile.
 Factory Automation Hardware: Factory automation equipment further
enriches
 Finance: Finance deals with the resources pertaining to money. Planning
of investment, working capital, and cash flow control, realization of receipts,
accounting and allocation of funds are the major tasks of the finance
departments.

CAD:
Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computer systems to assist in the
creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design.

 CAD involves creating computer models defined by geometrical parameters

which can be readily altered by changing relevant parameters. CAD
systems enable designers to view objects under a wide variety of
representations and to test these objects by simulating real -world
conditions.
 CAD part is used in almost all the branches of engineering but CAM
technology is specially used in Mechanical/ Automobile/
Aeronautic/Electrical/ Electronics/ Civil/ Production engineering.
 It is an integration of Mechanical and Computer technology to aid in the
design process like Modeling, Assembly, Drafting, Die Design, Tool Design,
Sheet metal, analysis of products.

Main Application of CAD

 Solid Modeling: This process is used to create solid components of

desired shape by joining and cutting different solid volumes. The final solid
 volume created is called solid model. it is replica of actual productand we
can see, rotate, the model like a real product. This process is used in
automobile, plastic, aluminium, home appliances and engine design field.
 Surface Modeling: This process is used to create surfaces of desired
shape by using special operations. We can trim, stitch; join different
surfaces to create a final shape model. The final shape is called surface
model. This process is used for body design, shape design in automobile,
aerospace, ship design fields.
 Assembly: This process is used to assemble the models created in solid/
surface modeling to create the final assembly. This is used to see the
actual fitment of all models and see the actual working of assembly. This
process is used to assemble the models in automobile, plastic, aluminium,
home appliances and engine design field.
 Drafting Detailing: This process is used to create the 2D drawings of
componets. This can be used for 3D to 2D conversion and 2D to 2D
conversion. it is used to create drawings of the models in automobile,
plastic, aluminium, home appliances, engine design field.
 Core Cavity Generation: This process is used to create the
Core/Cavity/Sliders for the product designed in solid/ surface modeling. It is
used to create dies for plastic, aluminium, sheetmetal, forging etc.
componets. Software helps the engineer to give allowances, selecting
parting lines and mould boxes according to the standards.
 Tool Design: This process is used to create different parts and
components used in a tool for production of Plastic, Aluminium etc.
components. Along with Core and Cavity this tool consist of injection
mechanism, ejection mechanism, cooling system, guiding system etc.
 Data Migration: This technique is used to transfer CAD data (3D Model)
from one Software to other Software by direct interface or by intermediate
files like IGES, STEP, VDA, Parasloid Files. On the same model we can do
different operations from different softwares like CATIA, Pro/E, NX, Solid
Edge, Solid Works etc. It gives the designer freedom to think beyond the
capabilities of softwares.
  Reverse Engineering: This process is used to convert the real component
into a 3D CAD Model. Different types of instruments i.e laser scanner, white
light scanner, CMM Machine etc. are used to measure or Decode the shape
of real model.

CAM
Computer aided Manufacturing (CAM) is assistance of computer in manufacturing
planning and processes like planning different operations to be done on product,
sequencing all the operations and finally control the machine parameters like
Feed, Speed, Depth of cut etc.

 CAM uses CAD data to control automated machinery. CAM systems are
associated with computer numerical control (CNC) or direct numerical
control (DNC) systems.
 These systems differ from older forms of numerical control (NC) in that
geometrical data is encoded mechanically.
 Since both CAD and CAM use computer-based methods for encoding
geometrical data, it is possible for the processes of design and manufacture
to be highly integrated.
 Computer-aided design and manufacturing systems are commonly referred
to as CAD/CAM.

Benefits of CAM:

 Improve productivity.
 Lead time reduction.
 Reduce engineering personal requirements.
 Improve accuracy of product.
 Reduce training time for routine drafting tasks and NC part programming.
 Fewer errors in NC part programming.
 Provide the potential of using more existing parts and tooling.
 Helps ensure design is appropriate to existing manufacturing techniques.
 Saves material and machining time by optimizing algorithm.
  Provides operational results on the status of work in progress.
 Makes the management of design personnel on project more effective.
 Assistance in inspection of complicated parts.
 Better communication interfaces and greater understanding among
engineers, designers, drafters, management and different project groups.

Basic CAD/CAM procedure: Common procedure followed in CAD/CAM is

explained below:

 First of all a 3D Model according to the engineering inputs, customer

requirement and product necessities is created in the modeling section of
the software.
 Then the model is analyzed by putting loads and checking the result s in the
analysis section of software.
 If the models are not passing in the analysis then model is modified again
in the modeling section of software.
 After analysis final model is ready within the software which is called
masterpiece. (If the die of model is required then it can be created in the
mould section of software where all the tools of die design are available.)
 The model is then sent to the Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)
section of software where different kind of machines, parameters like fe ed,
speed, depth of cut, stock, stepover, cutter information, cutting pattern,
coolant on/off etc.
 All the parameters like feed, speed, depth of cut, stock, Stepover, cutter
information, cutting pattern, coolant on/off etc. for the particular operation
are filled in the CAM section of software. These all instructions are used by
the computer to produce a step by step program to operate the machine.
 The software will virtually manufacture the model. We can visualize and
check/Solve the problems in CAM section.
 After properly verifying the manufacturing operation on computer a list of
instructions including all the points to be followed by cutter, feed, speed,
 depth of cut, coolant on/off etc. is created by computer. This list is called
CNC program.
 This CNC program is sent to the computer of CNC machine. This machine
sends these instructions to the actual machine. The same operations are
performed on the real work piece and real copy of the model is generated
in the end.
 This real component is exact replica of the model created in the CAD/CAM
software in computer.