Section 11.

4
C11S04.001: Because f (n) (x) = (−1)n e−x , we see that f (n) (0) = (−1)n if n
0. Thus

x2 x3 x4 x5
P5 (x) = 1 − x + − + − and
2! 3! 4! 5!
x6 −z
R5 (x) = e for some z between 0 and x.
6!

C11S04.002: Given f (x) = sin x and n = 4, we have

f  (x) = cos x f  (0) = 1

f  (x) = − sin x f  (0) = 0

f (3) (x) = − cos x f (3) (0) = −1

f (4) (x) = sin x f (4) (0) = 0

f (5) (x) = cos x

Therefore

x3 x5
P4 (x) = x − and R4 (x) = cos z
3! 5!
for some number z between 0 and x.

C11S04.003: Given f (x) = cos x and n = 4, we have

f  (x) = − sin x f  (0) = 0

f  (x) = − cos x f  (0) = −1

f (3) (x) = sin x f (3) (0) = 0

f (4) (x) = cos x f (4) (0) = 1

f (5) (x) = − sin x

Therefore

x2 x4 x5
P4 (x) = 1 − + and R4 (x) = − sin z
2! 4! 5!
for some number z between 0 and x.

C11S04.004: Given f (x) = (1 − x)−1 and n = 4, we compute

f  (x) = (1 − x)−2 f  (0) = 1

f  (x) = 2(1 − x)−3 f  (0) = 2

f (3) (x) = 6(1 − x)−4 f (3) (0) = 6

1
 f (4) (x) = 24(1 − x)−5 f (4) (0) = 24

f (5) (x) = 120(1 − x)−6

Therefore

x5
P4 (x) = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 and R4 (x) =
(1 − z)6
for some number z between 0 and x.

C11S04.005: Given f (x) = (1 + x)1/2 and n = 3, we compute

1 1
f  (x) = f  (0) =
2(1 + x)1/2 2
1 1
f  (x) = − f  (0) = −
4(1 + x)3/2 4
3 3
f (3) (x) = f (3) (0) =
8(1 + x)5/2 8
15
f (4) (x) = −
16(1 + x)7/2
Therefore

x x2 x3 5x4
P3 (x) = 1 + − + and R3 (x) = −
2 8 16 128(1 + z)7/2
for some number z between 0 and x.

C11S04.006: Given f (x) = ln(1 + x) and n = 4, we find that

f  (x) = (1 + x)−1 f  (0) = 1

f  (x) = −(1 + x)−2 f  (0) = −1

f (3) (x) = 2(1 + x)−3 f (3) (0) = 2

f (4) (x) = −6(1 + x)−4 f (4) (0) = −6

f (4) (x) = 24(1 + x)−5

Therefore

x2 x3 x4 x5
P4 (x) = x − + − and R4 (x) =
2 3 4 5(1 + z)5
for some number z between 0 and x.

C11S04.007: Given f (x) = tan x and n = 3, we find that

f  (x) = sec2 x f  (0) = 1

f  (x) = 2 sec2 x tan x f  (0) = 0

2
 f (3) (x) = 2 sec4 x + 4 sec2 x tan2 x f (3) (0) = 2

f (4) (x) = 16 sec4 x tan x + 8 sec2 x tan3 x

Therefore

x3 x4
P3 (x) = x + and R3 (x) = (16 sec4 z tan z + 8 sec2 z tan3 z)
3 4!
for some number z between 0 and x.

C11S04.008: Given f (x) = arctan x and n = 2, we compute

1
f  (x) = f  (0) = 1
1 + x2
2x
f  (x) = − f  (0) = 0
(1 + x2 )2

6x2 − 2
f (3) (x) =
(1 + x2 )3
Therefore

x3 (6z 2 − 2)
P2 (x) = x and R2 (x) =
3!(1 + z 2 )3

for some number z between 0 and x.

C11S04.009: Given f (x) = arcsin x and n = 2, we compute

1
f  (x) = √ f  (0) = 1
1 − x2
x
f  (x) = f  (0) = 0
(1 − x2 )3/2

1 + 2x2
f (3) (x) =
(1 − x2 )5/2
Therefore

x3 (1 + 2z 2 )
P2 (x) = x and R2 (x) =
3!(1 − z 2 )5/2

for some number z between 0 and x.

C11S04.010: Given f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 5x − 7 and n = 4, we compute

f  (x) = 3x2 − 6x + 5 f  (0) = 5

f  (x) = 6x − 6 f  (0) = −6

f (3) (x) ≡ 6 f (3) (0) = 6

f (4) (x) ≡ 0 f (4) (0) = 0

3
 f (5) (x) ≡ 0

Therefore

P4 (x) = −7 + 5x − 3x2 + x3 = f (x) and R4 (x) ≡ 0.

C11S04.011: Because f (n) (x) = ex for all n
0, we have f (n) (1) = e for such n. Therefore

e e e ez
ex = e + e(x − 1) + (x − 1)2 + (x − 1)3 + (x − 1)4 + (x − 1)5
2 6 24 120
for some z between 1 and x.

C11S04.012: Given: f (x) = cos x, a = π/4, and n = 3, we compute

√
2
f  (x) = − sin x f  (a) = −
2
√
2
f  (x) = − cos x 
f (a) = −
2
√
2
f (3) (x) = sin x (3)
f (a) =
2
f (4) (x) = cos x

Therefore
√ √  √  √ 
2 2 π 2 π 2 2 π 3 cos z  π 4
cos x = − x− − x− + x− + x−
2 2 4 4 4 12 4 24 4
for some number z between π/4 and x.

C11S04.013: Given: f (x) = sin x, a = π/6, and n = 3. We compute

√
  3
f (x) = cos x f (a) =
2
1
f  (x) = − sin x f  (a) = −
2
√
3
f (3)
(x) = − cos x f (3)
(a) = −
2
f (4) (x) = sin x

Therefore
√  √ 
1 3 π 1  π 2 3 π 3 sin z  π 4
sin x = + x− − x− − x− + x−
2 2 6 4 6 12 6 24 6
for some number z between π/6 and x.

C11S04.014: Given f (x) = x1/2 , a = 100, and n = 3, we compute

4
 1 1
f  (x) = f  (a) =
2x1/2 20
1 1
f  (x) = − f  (a) = −
4x3/2 4000
3 3
f (3) (x) = f (3) (a) =
8x5/2 800000
15
f (4) (x) = −
16x7/2
Therefore
√ 1 1 1 5
x = 10 + (x − 100) − (x − 100)2 + (x − 100)3 − (x − 100)4
20 8000 1600000 128z 7/2
for some number z between 100 and x. The Taylor polynomial of degree 3 shown here can be used to
approximate square roots of numbers near 100 with some accuracy. For example,
√ 1 1 1 16078901
101 ≈ 10 + − + = ≈ 10.049875625.
20 8000 1600000 1600000
Ths error in this approximation is less than 4 × 10−9 . To obtain an accurate upper bound for the error in
such an approximation, use the remainder term.

C11S04.015: Given f (x) = (x − 4)−2 , a = 5, and n = 5, we compute

f  (x) = −2(x − 4)−3 f  (a) = −2

f  (x) = 6(x − 4)−4 f  (a) = 6

f (3) (x) = −24(x − 4)−5 f (3) (a) = −24

f (4) (x) = 120(x − 4)−6 f (4) (a) = 120

f (5) (x) = −720(x − 4)−7 f (5) (a) = −720

f (6) (x) = 5040(x − 4)−8

Therefore

1 (x − 5)6 5040
= 1 − 2(x − 5) + 3(x − 5)2
− 4(x − 5)3
+ 5(x − 4)4
− 6(x − 5)5
+ ·
(x − 4)2 720 (z − 4)8
for some number z between 5 and x.

C11S04.016: Given f (x) = tan x, a = π/4, and n = 4, we compute

f (x) = tan x f (a) = 1

f  (x) = sec2 x f  (a) = 2

f  (x) = 2 sec2 x tan x f  (a) = 4

f (3) (x) = 2 sec4 x + 4 sec2 x tan2 x f (3) (a) = 16

f (4) (x) = 16 sec4 x tan x + 8 sec2 x tan3 x f (4) (a) = 80

5
 f (5) (x) = 16 sec6 x + 88 sec4 x tan2 x + 16 sec2 x tan4 x

Therefore

 π  π 2 8  π 3 10  π 4
tan x = 1 + 2 x − +2 x− + x− + x−
4 4 3 4 3 4
1  π 5
+ x− · (16 sec6 z + 88 sec4 z tan2 z + 16 sec2 z tan4 z)
120 4
for some number z between π/4 and x.

C11S04.017: Given f (x) = cos x, a = π, and n = 4, we compute

f (x) = cos x f (a) = −1

f  (x) = − sin x f  (a) = 0

f  (x) = − cos x f  (a) = 1

f (3) (x) = sin x f (3) (a) = 0

f (4) (x) = cos x f (4) (a) = −1

f (5) (x) = − sin x

Therefore

(x − π)2 (x − π)4 sin z

cos x = −1 + − − (x − π)5
2 24 120
for some number z between π and x.

C11S04.018: Given f (x) = sin x, a = π/2, and n = 4, we compute

f (x) = sin x f (a) = 1

f  (x) = cos x f  (a) = 0

f  (x) = − sin x f  (a) = −1

f (3) (x) = − cos x f (3) (a) = 0

f (4) (x) = sin x f (4) (a) = 1

f (5) (x) = cos x

Therefore

1 π 2 1  π 4 cos z  π 5
sin x = 1 − x− + x− + x−
2 2 24 2 120 2
for some number z between π/2 and x.

C11S04.019: Given f (x) = x3/2 , a = 1, and n = 4, we compute

6
 f (x) = x3/2 f (a) = 1
3 1/2 3
f  (x) = x f  (a) =
2 2
3 −1/2 3
f  (x) = x f  (a) =
4 4
3 3
f (3) (x) = − x−3/2 f (3) (a) = −
8 8
9 −5/2 9
f (4) (x) = x f (4) (a) =
16 16
45 −7/2
f (5) (x) = − x
32
Therefore

3 3 1 3 (x − 1)5 45
x3/2 = 1 + (x − 1) + (x − 1)2 − (x − 1)3 + (x − 1)4 − ·
2 8 16 128 120 32z 7/2
for some number z between 1 and x.

C11S04.020: Given f (x) = (1 − x)−1/2 , a = 0, and n = 4, we compute

f (x) = (1 − x)−1/2 f (a) = 1

1 1
f  (x) = (1 − x)−3/2 f  (a) =
2 2
3 3
f  (x) = (1 − x)−5/2 f  (a) =
4 4
15 15
f (3) (x) = (1 − x)−7/2 f (3) (a) =
8 8
105 105
f (4) (x) = (1 − x)−9/2 f (4) (a) =
16 16
945
f (5) (x) = (1 − x)−11/2
32
Therefore

1 x 3x2 5x3 35x4 x5 945

√ =1+ + + + + ·
1−x 2 8 16 128 120 32(1 − z)11/2

for some number z between 0 and x.

C11S04.021: Substitution of −x for x in the series in Eq. (19) yields

∞
x2 x3 x4 x5 (−1)n xn
e−x = 1 − x + − + − + ··· = .
2! 3! 4! 5! n=0
n!

This representation is valid for all x.

C11S04.022: Substitution of 2x for x in the series in Eq. (19) yields

7
 ∞
4x2 8x3 16x4 32x5 (2x)n
e2x = 1 + 2x + + + + + ··· = .
2! 3! 4! 5! n=0
n!

This representation is valid for all x.

C11S04.023: Substitution of −3x for x in the series in Eq. (19) yields

∞
9x2 27x3 81x4 243x5 (−1)n 3n xn
e−3x = 1 − 3x + − + − + ··· = .
2! 3! 4! 5! n=0
n!

This representation is valid for all x.

C11S04.024: Substitution of x3 for x in the series in Eq. (19) yields

∞
  x6 x9 x12 x15 x3n
exp x3 = 1 + x3 + + + + + ··· = .
2! 3! 4! 5! n=0
n!

This representation is valid for all x.

C11S04.025: Substitution of 2x for x in the series in Eq. (22) yields

∞
8x3 32x5 128x7 512x9 (−1)n (2x)2n+1
sin 2x = 2x − + − + − ··· = .
3! 5! 7! 9! n=0
(2n + 1)!

This representation is valid for all x.

C11S04.026: Substitution of x/2 for x in the series in Eq. (22) yields

∞
x x x3 x5 x7 x9 (−1)n x2n+1
sin = − + − + − ··· = .
2 2 3! · 8 5! · 32 7! · 128 9! · 512 n=0
(2n + 1)! · 22n+1

This representation is valid for all x.

C11S04.027: Substitution of x2 for x in the series in Eq. (22) yields

∞
  x6 x10 x14 x18 (−1)n x4n+2
sin x2 = x2 − + − + − ··· = .
3! 5! 7! 9! n=0
(2n + 1)!

This representation is valid for all x.

C11S04.028: Substitution of 2x for x in the series in Eq. (21) yields

 ∞

1 − cos 2x 1  (−1)n (2x)2n x4 2x6 x8 2x10 2x12
2
sin x = = 1− = x2 − + − + − + ··· .
2 2 n=0
(2n)! 3 45 315 14175 467775

This representation is valid for all x.

C11S04.029: Given f (x) = ln(1 + x) and a = 0, we compute:

f (x) = ln(1 + x) f (a) = 0

8
 1
f  (x) = f  (a) = 1
1+x
1
f  (x) = − f  (a) = −1
(1 + x)2
2
f (3) (x) = f (3) (a) = 2
(1 + x)3
6
f (4) (x) = − f (4) (a) = −6
(1 + x)4
24
f (5) (x) = f (5) (a) = 24
(1 + x)5
120
f (6) (x) = − f (6) (a) = −120
(1 + x)6

Evidently f (n) (a) = (−1)n+1 (n − 1)! if n
1. (For a proof, use proof by induction. We omit the proof to
save space.) Therefore the Taylor series for f (x) at a = 0 is

∞ ∞
(−1)n+1 (n − 1)!xn (−1)n+1 xn x2 x3 x4 x5
= =x− + − + − ··· .
n=1
n! n=1
n 2 3 4 5

This representation of f (x) = ln(1 + x) is valid if −1 < x  1.

C11S04.030: Given f (x) = 1/(1 − x) and a = 0, we compute:

1
f (x) = f (a) = 1
1−x
1
f  (x) = f  (a) = 1
(1 − x)2
2
f  (x) = f  (a) = 2
(1 − x)3
6
f (3) (x) = f (3) (a) = 6
(1 − x)4
24
f (4) (x) = f (4) (a) = 24
(1 − x)5
120
f (5) (x) = f (5) (a) = 120
(1 − x)6
720
f (6) (x) = f (6) (a) = 720
(1 − x)7

Evidently f (n) (a) = n! if n
0. Therefore the Taylor series for f (x) at a = 0 is

∞ ∞
n!xn
= xn = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + · · · .
n=0
n! n=0

This representation of f (x) = 1/(1 − x) is valid if −1 < x < 1.

9
C11S04.031: If f (x) = e−x , then f (n) (x) = (−1)n e−x for all n
0. With a = 0, this implies that
f (n) (a) = (−1)n for all n
0. Therefore the Taylor series for f (x) at a is

∞
(−1)n xn x2 x3 x4 x5 x6
=1−x+ − + − + − ··· .
n=0
n! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6!

This representation of f (x) = e−x is valid for all x.

C11S04.032: Given f (x) = sin x and a = π/2, we compute:

f (x) = sin x f (a) = 1

f  (x) = cos x f  (a) = 0

f  (x) = − sin x f  (a) = −1

f (3) (x) = − cos x f (3) (a) = 0

f (4) (x) = sin x f (4) (a) = 1

f (5) (x) = cos x f (5) (a) = 0

f (6) (x) = − sin x f (6) (a) = −1

Evidently f (n) (a) = 0 if n is odd, whereas f (n) (a) = (−1)n/2 if n is even. After simplifications we find the
Taylor series for f (x) at a to be

(−1)n  π 2n 1 π 2 1  π 4 1  π 6
∞
x− =1− x− + x− − x− + ··· .
n=0
(2n)! 2 2 2 24 2 720 2

This representation of f (x) = sin x is valid for all x.

C11S04.033: Given f (x) = ln x and a = 1, we compute:

f (x) = ln x f (a) = 0

1
f  (x) = f  (a) = 1
x
1
f  (x) = − f  (a) = −1
x2
2
f (3) (x) = f (3) (a) = 2
x3
6
f (4) (x) = − f (4) (a) = −6
x4
24
f (5) (x) = f (5) (a) = 24
x5
120
f (6) (x) = − f (6) (a) = −120
x6

10
We have here convincing evidence that if n
1, then f (n) (a) = (−1)n+1 (n − 1)!. (To prove this rigorously,
use proof by induction; we omit any proof to save space.) Therefore the Taylor series for f (x) = ln x at
a = 1 is

∞ ∞
(−1)n+1 (n − 1)!(x − 1)n (−1)n+1 (x − 1)n
=
n=1
n! n=1
n

1 1 1 1 1
= (x − 1) − (x − 1)2 + (x − 1)3 − (x − 1)4 + (x − 1)5 − (x − 1)6 + · · · .
2 3 4 5 6

This representation of f (x) = ln x is valid if 0 < x  2.

C11S04.034: Given f (x) = e2x and a = 0, we compute:

f (x) = e2x f (a) = 1

f  (x) = 2e2x f  (a) = 2

f  (x) = 4e2x f  (a) = 4

f (3) (x) = 8e2x f (3) (a) = 8

f (4) (x) = 16e2x f (4) (a) = 16

f (5) (x) = 32e2x f (5) (a) = 32

f (6) (x) = 64e2x f (6) (a) = 64

It’s clear that f (n) (a) = 2n if n
0. Therefore the Taylor series for f (x) = e2x at a = 0 is

∞
2n xn 4x3 2x4 4x5 4x6 8x7 2x7
= 1 + 2x + 2x2 + + + + + + + ··· .
n=0
n! 3 3 15 45 315 315

C11S04.035: Given f (x) = cos x and a = π/4, we compute:

√
2
f (x) = cos x f (a) =
2
√
2
f  (x) = − sin x f  (a) = −
2
√
2
f  (x) = − cos x f  (a) = −
2
√
2
f (3) (x) = sin x f (3) (a) =
2
√
2
f (4) (x) = cos x (4)
f (a) =
2
√
2
f (5) (x) = − sin x f (5) (a) = −
2

11
 √
2
f (6) (x) = − cos x f (6) (a) = −
2
It should be clear that

√
(n) 2
f (a) = if n is of the form 4k or 4k + 3, whereas
2
√
2
f (n) (a) = − if n is of the form 4k + 1 or 4k + 2.
2
Therefore the Taylor series for f (x) = cos x at a = π/4 is
√ √  √  √  √ 
2 2 π 2 π 2 2 π 3 2 π 4
− x− − x− + x− + x− − ··· .
2 2 4 2! · 2 4 3! · 2 4 4! · 2 4

This representation of f (x) = cos x is valid for all x.

C11S04.036: Given f (x) = 1/(1 − x)2 and a = 0, we compute:

f (x) = (1 − x)−2 f (a) = 1

f  (x) = 2(1 − x)−3 f  (a) = 2

f  (x) = 6(1 − x)−4 f  (a) = 6

f (3) (x) = 24(1 − x)−5 f (3) (a) = 24

f (4) (x) = 120(1 − x)−6 f (4) (a) = 120

f (5) (x) = 720(1 − x)−7 f (5) (a) = 720

f (6) (x) = 5040(1 − x)−8 f (6) (a) = 5040

It should be clear that f (n) (a) = (n + 1)! for n
0. (Prove this by induction; we omit the proof to save
space.) Therefore the Taylor series for f (x) at a = 0 is

∞ ∞
(n + 1)!xn
= (n + 1)xn = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 + 5x4 + 6x5 + 7x6 + 8x7 + · · · .
n=0
n! n=0

This representation of f (x) is valid for −1 < x < 1.

1
C11S04.037: Given f (x) = and a = 1, we compute:
x

1
f (x) = f (a) = 1
x
1
f  (x) = − f  (a) = −1
x2
2
f  (x) = f  (a) = 2
x3
6
f (3) (x) = − f (3) (a) = −6
x4
12
 24
f (4) (x) = f (4) (a) = 24
x5
120
f (5) (x) = − f (5) (a) = −120
x6
720
f (6) (x) = f (6) (a) = 720
x7

Clearly f (n) (a) = (−1)n · n! for n
0. Therefore the Taylor series for f (x) at a = 1 is

∞ ∞
(−1)n n!(x − 1)n
= (−1)n (x − 1)n
n=0
n! n=0

= 1 − (x − 1) + (x − 1)2 − (x − 1)3 + (x − 4)4 − (x − 1)5 + (x − 1)6 − (x − 1)7 + · · · .

This representation of f (x) is valid for 0 < x < 2.

C11S04.038: Given f (x) = cos x and a = π/2, we compute:

f (x) = cos x f (a) = 0

f  (x) = − sin x f  (a) = −1

f  (x) = − cos x f  (a) = 0

f (3) (x) = sin x f (3) (a) = 1

f (4) (x) = cos x f (4) (a) = 0

f (5) (x) = − sin x f (5) (a) = −1

f (6) (x) = − cos x f (6) (a) = 0

Therefore the Taylor series for f (x) at x = a is

(−1)n  π 2n−1  π 1  π 3 1  π 5 1  π 7
∞

x− =− x− + x− − x− + x− − ··· .
n=1
(2n − 1)! 2 2 3! 2 5! 2 7! 2

This representation of f (x) = cos x is valid for all x.

C11S04.039: Given f (x) = sin x and a = π/4, we compute:

√
2
f (x) = sin x f (a) =
2
√
2
f  (x) = cos x 
f (a) =
2
√
2
f  (x) = − sin x f  (a) = −
2
√
2
f (3) (x) = − cos x f (3) (a) = −
2

13
 √
2
f (4) (x) = sin x f (4) (a) =
2
√
2
f (5) (x) = cos x (5)
f (a) =
2
√
2
f (6) (x) = − sin x f (6) (a) = −
2

Therefore the Taylor series for f (x) = sin x at a = π/4 is

√ √  √  √  √  √ 
2 2 π 2 π 2 2 π 3 2 π 4 2 π 5
+ x− − x− − x− + x− + x− − ··· .
2 2 4 2! · 2 4 3! · 2 4 4! · 2 4 5! · 2 4

This representation of f (x) = sin x is valid for all x.

√
C11S04.040: Given f (x) = 1 + x and a = 0, we compute:

f (x) = (1 + x)1/2 f (a) = 1

1 1
f  (x) = (1 + x)−1/2 f  (a) =
2 2
1 1
f  (x) = − (1 + x)−3/2 f  (a) = −
4 4
3 3
f (3) (x) = (1 + x)−5/2 f (3) (a) =
8 8
15 15
f (4) (x) = − (1 + x)−7/2 f (4) (a) = −
16 16
105 105
f (5) (x) = (1 + x)−9/2 f (5) (a) =
32 32
945 945
f (6) (x) = − (1 + x)−11/2 f (6) (a) = −
64 64

If n
1, the coefficient of xn in the Taylor series for f (x) is therefore

(−1)n+1 · 1 · 3 · 5 · · · (2n − 3) (−1)n+1 · 1 · 3 · 5 · · · (2n − 3) · 2 · 4 · 6 · · · (2n − 2) (−1)n+1 · (2n − 2)!

= = .
n! · 2n n! · 2n · (n − 1)! · 2n−1 n! · (n − 1)! · 22n−1
Therefore the Taylor series for f (x) at x = a is

∞
(−1)n+1 · (2n − 2)!xn x x2 x3 5x4 7x5 21x6 33x7 429x8
1+ =1+ − + − + − + − + ··· .
n=1
n! · (n − 1)! · 2 2n−1 2 8 16 128 256 1024 2048 32768
√
This representation of f (x) = 1 + x is valid for −1 < x < 1. Numerical evidence suggests that it is not
valid if x = ±1.

C11S04.041: Given f (x) = sin x and a = 0, we compute:

f (x) = sin x f (a) = 0

14
 f  (x) = cos x f  (a) = 1

f  (x) = − sin x f  (a) = 0

f (3) (x) = − cos x f (3) (a) = −1

f (4) (x) = sin x f (4) (a) = 0

f (5) (x) = cos x f (5) (a) = 1

f (6) (x) = − sin x f (6) (a) = 0

Therefore Taylor’s formula for f (x) at a = 0 is

x3 x5 x2n+1 sin z
f (x) = x − + − · · · + (−1)n + (−1)n+1 x2n+3 (1)
3! 5! (2n + 1)! (2n + 3)!

for some number z between 0 and x. Because | cos z |  1 for all z, it follows from Eq. (18) of the text that
the remainder term in Eq. (1) approaches zero as n → ∞. Therefore the Taylor series of f (x) = sin x at
a = 0 is

∞
(−1)n x2n+1 x3 x5 x7
sin x = =x− + − + ··· ,
n=0
(2n + 1)! 3! 5! 7!

and this representation is valid for all x.

C11S04.042: Assuming that termwise differentiation of these series is legitimate (it is), we have

x2 x4 x6 x8 x10
Dx cos x = Dx 1 − + − + − + ···
2! 4! 6! 8! 10!

x3 x5 x7 x9
= −x + − + − + · · · = − sin x
3! 5! 7! 9!
and

x3 x5 x7 x9 x11
Dx sin x = Dx x− + − + − + ···
3! 5! 7! 9! 11!

x2 x4 x6 x8 x10
=1− + − + − + · · · = cos x.
2! 4! 6! 8! 10!

C11S04.043: Given f (x) = cosh x, g(x) = sinh x, and a = 0, we compute:

f (x) = cosh x f (a) = 1

f  (x) = sinh x f  (a) = 0

f  (x) = cosh x f  (a) = 1

f (3) (x) = sinh x f (3) (a) = 0

f (4) (x) = cosh x f (4) (a) = 1

f (5) (x) = sinh x f (5) (a) = 0

15
 f (6) (x) = cosh x f (6) (a) = 1

Evidently f (n) (a) = 1 if n is even and f (n) (a) = 0 if n is odd. Therefore the Maclaurin series for f (x) = cosh x
is

∞
x2n x2 x4 x6 x8
=1+ + + + + ··· . (1)
n=0
(2n)! 2! 4! 6! 8!

The remainder term in Taylor’s formula is

sinh z 2n+1
x
(2n + 1)!

where z is between 0 and x. The remainder term approaches zero as n → +∞ by Eq. (18) of the text.
Therefore the series in Eq. (1) converges to f (x) = cosh x for all x. Similarly,

g(x) = sinh x g(a) = 0

g  (x) = cosh x g  (a) = 1

g  (x) = sinh x g  (a) = 0

g (3) (x) = cosh x g (3) (a) = 1

g (4) (x) = sinh x g (4) (a) = 0

g (5) (x) = cosh x g (5) (a) = 1

g (6) (x) = sinh x g (6) (a) = 0

It is clear that g (n) (a) = 0 if n is even, whereas g (n) = 1 if n is odd. Therefore the Maclaurin series for
g(x) = sinh x is

∞
 x2n+1 x3 x5 x7 x9
=x+ + + + + ··· . (2)
n=0
(2n + 1)! 3! 5! 7! 9!

This series converges to g(x) = sinh x for all x by an argument very similar to that given for the hyperbolic
cosine series.
Next, substitution of ix for x yields

(ix)2 (ix)4 (ix)6 x2 x4 x6

cosh ix = 1 + + + + ··· = 1 − + − + · · · = cos x.
2! 4! 6! 2! 4! 6!

Similarly, sinh ix = sin x. This is one way to describe the relationship of the hyperbolic functions to the
circular functions. A more prosaic response to the concluding question in Problem 43 would be that if the
signs in the Maclaurin series for the cosine function are changed so that they are all plus signs, you get the
Maclaurin series for the hyperbolic cosine function; the same relation hold for the sine and hyperbolic sine
series.

C11S04.044: First,

16
 1 x 
cosh x = e + e−x
2

1 x2 x3 x4 x5 1 x2 x3 x4 x5
= 1+x+ + + + + ··· + 1−x+ − + − + ···
2 2! 3! 4! 5! 2 2! 3! 4! 5!

x2 x4 x6 x8
=1+ + + + + ··· .
2! 4! 6! 8!

Similarly,

1 x 
sinh x = e − e−x
2

1 x2 x3 x4 x5 1 x2 x3 x4 x5
= 1+x+ + + + + ··· − 1−x+ − + − + ···
2 2! 3! 4! 5! 2 2! 3! 4! 5!

x3 x5 x7 x9
=x+ + + + + ··· .
3! 5! 7! 9!

C11S04.045: Given f (x) = e−x , its plot together with that of

x2 x3
P3 (x) = 1 − x + −
2! 3!
are shown next.
20

15

10

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

The graphs of f (x) = e−x and

x2 x3 x4 x5 x6
P6 (x) = 1 − x + − + − +
2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
are shown together next.

20

15

10

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

17
C11S04.046: The graphs of f (x) = sin x and P3 (x) = x − 16 x3 are shown together next, on the left; the
graphs of f and P5 (x) = x − 16 x3 + 120
1
x5 are shown together on the right.
1.5 1.5

1 1

0.5 0.5

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3
-0.5 -0.5

-1 -1

-1.5 -1.5

C11S04.047: Given f (x) = cos x, two of its Taylor polynomials are

x2 x4 x2 x4 x6 x8
P4 (x) = 1 − + and P8 (x) = 1 − + − + .
2! 4! 2! 4! 6! 8!

The graphs of f and P4 are shown next, on the left; the graph of f and P8 are on the right.
3 3

2 2

1 1

-4 -2 2 4 -4 -2 2 4

-1 -1

C11S04.048: Given f (x) = ln(1 + x), two of its Taylor polynomials are

x2 x2 x3 x4
P2 (x) = 1 − and P4 (x) = 1 − + − .
2 2 3 4

The graphs of f and P2 are shown together next, on the left; the graphs of f and P4 are on the right.

0.5 0.5

-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6

-0.5 -0.5

-1 -1

1
C11S04.049: Given f (x) = , two of its Taylor polynomials are
1+x

P3 (x) = 1 − x + x2 − x3 and P4 (x) = 1 − x + x2 − x3 + x4 .

18
The graphs of f and P3 are shown together next, on the left; the graphs of f and P4 are on the right.
4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6

1
C11S04.050: Given f (x) = , two of its Taylor polynomials are
1 − x2
P3 (x) = 1 + x2 and P6 (x) = 1 + x2 + x4 + x6 .

The graphs of f and P3 are shown together next, on the left; the graphs of f and P6 are on the right.
2 2

1.5 1.5

1 1

0.5 0.5

-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6

C11S04.051: The graph of the Taylor polynomial

x x2 x3 x4
P4 (x) = 1 − + − +
2! 4! 6! 8!
of f (x) and the graph of g(x) are shown together, next.

10

-15 -10 -5 5 10 15

C11S04.052: Given: α = tan−1 (1/5).

1
5 + 15 5
Part (a): tan 2α = 1 = 12 .
1 − 25
55
+ 12
12 120
Part (b): tan 4α = 25 = 119 .
1 − 144
π  1 − 120 1
Part (c): tan − 4α = 119
120 =− .
4 1 + 119 239

19
 π  1 π 1 1 1 π
Part (d): tan − 4α = − ; − 4α = − arctan ; 4 arctan − arctan = .
4 239 4 239 5 239 4
C11S04.053: We begin with the formula

tan A + tan B
tan(A + B) = .
1 − tan A tan B
Let A = arctan x and B = arctan y. Thus
x+y x+y
tan(arctan x + arctan y) = , so that arctan x + arctan y = arctan
1 − xy 1 − xy

(if xy < 1). Thus

7
1 1 10 7
arctan + arctan = arctan 9 = arctan .
2 5 10
9

Therefore
65
1 1 1 7 1 72 π
arctan + arctan + arctan = arctan + arctan = arctan 65 = arctan 1 = .
2 5 8 9 8 72
4

C11S04.054: The first six terms of the series in (27) give a = arctan 15 ≈ 0.1973955598 with ten-place
accuracy. The first two terms of that series give b = arctan 239 1
≈ 0.0041840760 with ten-place accuracy.
Then 16a − 4b ≈ 3.141592653 is in error in only the last digit as an approximation to π ≈ 3.141592654.
If we use instead the approximation

x3 x5 x7 x47 x49
arctan x = x − + − + ··· − + ,
3 5 7 47 49
1
then substitution of x = yields (to the number of digits shown)
5
a ≈ 0.19739555984988075837004976519479029349010164238671
1
and substitution of x = yields (again, to the number of digits shown)
239
b ≈ 0.00418407600207472386453821495928545274104806530763.

Then

16a − 4b ≈ 3.14159265358979323846264338327950288487743410695687;

—compare this with

π ≈ 3.14159265358979323846264338327950288419716939937510582

(also accurate to the number of digits shown here). The error in this last approximation is less than 7×10−37 .

C11S04.055: Prove that

xn
lim =0
n→∞ n!
for every real number x.

20
Proof: Suppose that x is a real number. Choose the integer k so large that k > |2x|. Let L = |x|k /k!.
Suppose that n = k + 1. Then

|x|n |x|k+1 |x|k |x| L L

= = · < = n−k
n! (k + 1)! k! k + 1 2 2

because |2x| < k < k + 1 and n − k = 1. Next, assume that

|x|m L
< m−k
m! 2
for some integer m > k. Then

|x|m+1 |x|m |x| L 1 L

= · < m−k · = m+1−k
(m + 1)! m! m + 1 2 2 2

because |2x| < k < m. Therefore, by induction,

|x|n L
< n−k
n! 2
for every integer n > k. Now let n → +∞ to conclude that

xn
lim = 0.
n→∞ n!

C11S04.056: Suppose that 0 < x  1. Then because

1 (−1)n+1 tn+1
= 1 − t + t2 − t3 + · · · + (−1)n tn + ,
1+t 1+t
we have
 x  x

1 (−1)n+1 tn+1
dt = 1 − t + t2 − t3 + · · · + (−1)n tn + dt;
0 1+t 0 1+t

 x  x
t2 t3 tn+1
ln(1 + t) = t − + − · · · + (−1)n + Rn (1)
0 2 3 n+1 0

where
 x
(−1)n+1 tn+1
Rn = dt.
0 1+t

Now
 x
xn+2
|Rn |  tn+1 dt = ,
0 n+2

and therefore Rn → 0 as n → +∞. Thus upon evaluation of Eq. (1), we find that

x2 x3 x4 xn+1
ln(1 + x) = x − + − + · · · + (−1)n + Rn ,
2 3 4 n+1
but because Rn → 0 as n → +∞, we may now conclude that

21
 ∞
(−1)n+1 xn
ln(1 + x) =
n=1
n

if 0  x  1.

C11S04.057: By Theorem 4 of Section 11.3, S is not a number. Thus attempts to do “arithmetic” with
S are meaningless and may lead to all sorts of absurd results.

C11S04.058: Replacement of x with −x in the result in Problem 56 yields

∞
(−1)n+1 (−x)n (−x)2 (−x)3 (−x)4
ln(1 − x) = = −x − + − + ···
n=1
n 2 3 n

∞
x2 x3 x4 xn
=− x+ + + + ··· = − .
2 3 4 n=1
n

Therefore

1+x
ln = ln(1 + x) − ln(1 − x)
1−x

x2 x3 x4 x5 x2 x3 x4 x5
= x− + − + − ··· + x + + + + + ···
2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5

 2xn
x3 x5 x7 x9
=2 x+ + + + + ··· =
3 5 7 9 n
n odd

if 0  x  1.

C11S04.059: Results: With x = 1 in the Maclaurin series in Problem 56, we find that

50
(−1)n+1
a= ≈ 0.68324716057591818842565811649.
n=1
n

1
With x = 3 in the second series in Problem 58, we find that


49
2
b= ≈ 0.69314718055994530941723210107.
n=1
n · 3n
n odd

Because |a − ln 2| ≈ 0.009900019984, whereas |b − ln 2| ≈ 2.039 × 10−26 , it is clear that the second series of
Problem 58 is far superior to the series of Problem 56 for the accurate approximation of ln 2.

22