Board Of Engineers, Malaysia 2005

COASTAL PROTECTION AGAINST WAVE ENERGY

Ir. Tan King Seng*, MIEM, P.Eng

Ir. Nor Hisham B. Mohd. Ghazali**, MIEM, P.Eng

Mr. Ong Hon Lim***

*Director, Coastal Engineering Division, DID Malaysia

**Deputy Director III, Coastal Engineering Division, DID Malaysia

***Engineer, Coastal Engineering Division, DID Malaysia

Keywords: coastal defence, soft engineering, hard engineering, wave, wave energy,
beach nourishment, mangrove replanting, geotube, breakwaters, revetments, groins,
Labuan blocks, training walls.

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Abstract: Coastal defence is the general term used to cover all aspects of defence against
coastal hazards. Two specific terms are generally used to distinguish between different
types of hazard. The term ‘sea defence’ is normally used to describe schemes which are
designed to prevent flooding of coastal regions under extremes of wave and water levels.
By contrast, the term ‘coast protection’ is normally reserved to describe schemes
designed to protect an existing coastline from further erosion. There are two approaches
to the design of coastal defence schemes. The first is referred to as ‘soft engineering’
which aims to work in sympathy with the nature processes by mimicking natural defence
mechanisms. Such an approach has potential for achieving economics while minimizing
environmental impact. The second is referred to as ‘hard engineering’ whereby structures
are constructed on the coastline to resist the energy of waves and tides.

INTRODUCTION

The popular image of a long, straight, sandy beach with sandy backshore and foreshore,
vegetated sand dunes, and gently sloping near shore zone with rhythmic plunging
breakers may be the ideal image of the zone where the land meets the sea, but is not the
norm along most coasts in Malaysia. Not all coastal areas are sandy. Some coastal areas
have scenic clay or rocky headlands. Others are shallow mud flats with mangrove forests.
For some shores, tidal currents or river discharge dominate sediment transport and the
shoreline character. For other shores, the effects of marine life (coral) may control the
geomorphology. Shore materials include transportable muds, silts, sands, shells, gravels
or bedrock.

Coastlines are continuously undergoing physical changes. Stable coastlines are

dynamically stable which means no nett erosion or accretion happens. Nevertheless,
when erosion occurs, engineering in protection is often necessary. Before embarking
upon any method of coastal protection, it is important to identify and understand both the
short and long term causes of coastal erosion. Failure to do so may result in the design
and placement of shore protection measures which actually accelerate the process that the
protection measure was intended to alleviate. In other cases, whilst the structural works
protect the immediate location, it transfers the problem to adjacent beaches. Although the
most serious incidents of coastal erosion occur during storm, there are many other causes,
both natural and man-induced, which need to be examined.

COASTAL AREA

The beach and nearshore zone of a coast is the region where the forces of the sea react
against the land. The physical system within this region is composed primarily of the
motion of the sea, which supplies energy to the system, and the shore, which absorbs this
energy. Because the shoreline is the intersection of the air, land, and water, the physical
interactions which occur in this region are unique, very complex, and difficult to fully
understand. As a consequence, a large part of the understanding of the beach and
nearshore physical system is simply descriptive in nature. Figure 1 describes a typical
coastal area.

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Figure 1: Typical Coastal Area

Coastal areas are dynamic, changing their profile and planform in both space and time in
response to the natural forcing of waves and currents, sediment supply and removal, the
influence of coastal geological features and the influence of coastal defences, ports and
harbours. Time scale range from micro (for wave by wave events), through meso (for
individual storm events) to macro (for beach evolution over seasons, years and decades).
Similarly space scales have a range of micro (for changes at a point) through meso (e.g.
changes of beach profile) to macro (e.g. changes in planform evolution over large coastal
areas). Hence, protection works require an understanding of the local phenomena. Whilst
it is often that coastal defence works are initiated due to a micro event, the resulting
structure may lead to macro changes that may be adverse to the entire shoreline as a
whole. This is particularly threatening when the hinterland is economically developed.

CAUSES OF COASTAL EROSION

Malaysia has a long coastline with a total length of 4809 km. A breakdown of this
distance by states is given in Table 2. The coasts of Malaysia are varied in character and
configuration. Approximately 30 percent of Malaysia’s coasts are retreating through
shoreline erosion and only 10 percent are accreting. This distribution was determined
through the National Coastal Erosion Study, 1985 and updated recently by Coastal
Engineering Division, DID Malaysia in May 2005. Despite protection works being
completed, new areas of critical erosion have been identified.

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Some erosion in coastal areas in Malaysia is man-related. A larger part is a natural

phenomenon. Natural causes of erosion are those which occur as a result of the response
of the beach to the effects of nature. Man-induced erosion can be attributed to the lack of
understanding or appreciation of coastal processes. However, good coastal zone
management can pre-empt this. Coastal erosion can occur due to the construction of
projects that are of economic importance to man. Hence, impact studies are a crucial
element in any coastal development to ensure existing resources can be sustainable. A
summary of the causes of coastal erosion is as shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Causes of coastal erosion

Natural Man-Induced
a. Sea level rise a. Land subsidence from removal of
subsurface resources
b. Variability in sediment supply to the b. Interruption of material in transport
littoral zone
c. Storm waves c. Reduction of sediment supply to the
littoral zone
d. Wave and surge overwash d. Concentration of wave energy on
beaches
e. Deflation e. Increase water level variation
f. Longshore sediment transport f. Change natural coastal protection
g. Sorting of beach sediment g. Removal of material from the beach

MECHANISMS OF EROSION

Waves in the ocean often appear as a confused and constantly changing sea of crests and
troughs on the water surface because of the irregularity of wave shape and the variability
in the direction of propagation. This is particularly true while the waves are under the
influence of the wind. The direction of wave propagation can be assesses as an average of
the directions of individual waves. The sea surface is difficult to describe because of the
interaction between individual waves. Faster waves overtake and pass through slower
ones from various directions. Waves sometimes reinforce or cancel each other by this
interaction and often collide with each other, to be transformed into turbulence and spray.

The action of waves on beaches depends on the type of wave and the beach material. For
simplicity, wave types are generally categorized as storm waves or swell waves and
beach material as sand and mud. The maximum height of a wave traveling in deep water
is limited by a maximum wave steepness for which the wave form can remain stable.
Waves reaching the limiting steepness will begin to break and in doing so will dissipate a
part of their energy. When a wave moves into shoaling water, the limiting steepness
which it can attain decreases, being a function of both the relative depth d/L and the
beach slope, m perpendicular to the direction of wave advance. A wave of given
deepwater characteristics will move toward a shore until the water becomes shallow
enough to initiate breaking. Where the bed slope is small (as on sandy beaches), the

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breaking commences well offshore. The breaking process is gradual and produces a surf
zone in which the wave height decreases progressively as waves approach the shore.
Where the bed slope is steeper (1:10), the waves break by plunging. For very steep slopes
the waves break by surging up on to the shore. The breaker will impact on the beach,
dissipating its remaining energy in the uprush of water up the beach slope. The water’s
velocities reduce to zero then form backwash, flowing down the beach.

Breaking waves have been classified as spilling, plunging or surging depending on the
way in which they break. Spilling breakers break gradually and are characterized by
white water at the crest. Plunging breakers curl over at the crest with the mass of water at
the crest plunging forward. Surging breakers build up as if to form a plunging breaker but
the base of the wave surges up the beach before the crest can plunge forward.

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TABLE 2: DISTRIBUTION OF COASTAL EROSION AREAS IN MALAYSIA

State Length of Length of Coastline Total Length

Coastline Having Erosion of Coastline

Category 1 Category 2 Category 3
CRITICAL EROSION SIGNIFICANT EROSION ACCEPTABLE EROSION Having Erosion
(km) (km) (km) (km) (km) (%)

Perlis 20 4.4 3.7 6.4 14.5 72.5%

(3) (1) (4) (8)

Kedah 148 31.4 2.2 9.9 43.5 29.4%

(16) (1) (3) (20)

Pulau Pinang 152 42.4 19.7 1.1 63.2 41.6%

(9) (5) (1) (15)

Perak 230 28.3 18.8 93.1 140.2 61.0%

(4) (2) (4) (10)

Selangor 213 63.5 22.3 66.1 151.9 71.3%

(10) (7) (3) (20)

N. Sembilan 58 3.9 7.7 12.9 24.5 42.2%

(2) (4) (1) (7)

Melaka 73 15.6 15.1 6.0 36.7 50.3%

(5) (2) (2) (9)

Johor 492 28.9 50.3 155.6 234.8 47.7%

(9) (9) (11) (29)

Pahang 271 12.4 5.2 107.8 125.4 46.3%

(11) (3) (8) (22)

Terengganu 244 20.0 10.0 122.4 152.4 62.5%

(6) (6) (10) (22)

Kelantan 71 5.0 9.5 37.6 52.1 73.4%

(3) (3) (5) (11)

W.P. Labuan 59 2.5 3.0 25.1 30.6 51.9%

(2) (2) (2) (6)

Sarawak 1,035 17.3 22.3 9.6 49.2 4.8%

(8) (10) (7) (25)

Sabah 1,743 12.8 3.5 279.2 295.5 17.0%

(5) (2) (12) (19)

TOTAL: 4,809 288.4 193.3 932.8 1,414.5 29.4%

(93) (57) (73) (223)

( ) are the numbers of area of erosion Source: Coastal Engineering Division, DID Malaysia, 2005

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Wave Energy and Power

The total energy of a wave system is the sum of its kinetic energy and its potential energy.
The kinetic energy is that part of the total energy due to water particle velocities
associated with wave motion. Potential energy is that part of the energy resulting from
part of the fluid mass being above the trough: the wave crest. According to the Airy
theory, if the potential energy is determined relative to SWL, and all waves are
propagated in the same direction, potential and kinetic energy components are equal, and
the total wave energy in one wavelength per unit crest width is given by

E = Ek + Ep = ρgH2L/16 + ρgH2L/16 = ρgH2L/8 ……………(Eq 1)

Subscripts k and p refer to kinetic and potential energies. Total average wave energy per
unit surface area, termed the specific energy or energy density, is given by

Ë = E/L = ρgH2/8……………………………………………..(Eq 2)

Wave energy flux is the rate at which energy is transmitted in the direction of wave
propagation across a vertical plane perpendicular to the direction of wave advance and
extending down the entire depth. The average energy flux per unit wave crest width
transmitted across a vertical plane perpendicular to the direction of wave advance is

Р = ËnC = ËCg………………………………………………(Eq 3)

Energy flux Р is frequently called wave power and

n = ½ {1+ (4πd/L)/sinh(4πd/L)}

If a vertical plane is taken other than perpendicular to the direction of wave advance,
P = E Cg sin Ф, where Ф is the angle between the plane across which the energy is being
transmitted and the direction of wave advance.

For deep and shallow water, equation 3 becomes

Рo = ½ ËoCo (deep water)………………………………......(Eq 4)
Р = ËCg = ËC (shallow water)………………………………(Eq 5)

An energy balance for a region through which waves are passing will reveal that, for
steady state, the amount of energy entering the region will equal amount leaving the
region provided no energy is added or removed from the system. Therefore, when the
waves are moving so that their crests are parallel to the bottom contours,
ËonoCo = ËnC

or since no = ½

½ ËoCo = ËnC……………………………………………….(Eq 6)

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Currents

The various types of currents in the sea, which may be important to the coastal processes
in one way or the other, are described in the following:-

a) Currents in the open sea

Tidal currents are formed by the gravity forces of the sun, the moon, and the planets.
These currents are of oscillatory nature with typical periods of around 12 or 24 hours, the
so-called semi-diurnal and diurnal tidal currents. The tidal currents are strongest at large
water depths away from the coastline and in straits where the current is forced into a
narrow area.

Wind generated currents are caused by the direct action of the wind shear stress on the
surface of the water. The wind generated currents are normally located in the upper layer
of the water body.

Storm surge current is the current generated by the total effect of the wind shear stress
and the barometric pressure gradients over the entire area of water affected by a specific
storm.

b) Currents in the neashore zone

Shore-parallel currents
The longshore current is the dominating current in the nearshore zone. The longshore
current is generated by the shore-parallel component of the stresses associated with the
breaking process for obliquely incoming waves, the so-called radiation stresses, and by
the surplus water which is carried across the breaker-zone towards the coastline.

Shore-normal currents
Rip currents
At certain intervals along the coastline, the longshore current will form a rip current. It is
a local current directed away from the shore, bringing the surplus water carried over the
bars in the breaking process, back into deep water. The rip opening in the bars will often
form the lowest section of the coastal profile; a local setback in the shoreline is often seen
opposite the rip opening. The rip opening travels slowly downstream

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EROSION CONTROL MEASURES

The consequences of coastal erosion can be limited by controlling erosion of coastal land
or by controlling the use of coastal zone. There are two approaches towards coastal
defence. The first one is soft engineering, which does not include hard structures and
describes the more holistic approach to coast and flood defence. Whereas the other
approach is hard engineering which include hard concrete/armor structures. Concerning
about the environment (adjacent coastal area in which hard structures have been build)
and the reflective wave problems of hard structures has led to the development of soft
engineering measures. Water waves may be either partially or totally reflected from man
made barriers. Reflection of waves implies a reflection of wave energy as opposed to
energy dissipation. Consequently, multiple reflections and absence of sufficient energy
dissipation within a coastal area can result in a build up of energy which appears as wave
agitation and surging in the coastal area.

There is a wide range of coastal works that might be employed to tackle a particular
situation, each of which may perform a number of different functions. They will also
have differing engineering lifespan as well as capital and maintenance cost. An overview
of the various types of coastal defence and their application is shown.

Source: Coastal Engineering Processes, Theory And Design Practice

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Hard Engineering
The most common method in coastal protection is to construct rock mounds that serve as
a physical barrier to wave energy. Such massive structures depend on their mass and the
interlocking of the armor rocks to dissipate wave energy. These are described below.

a. Breakwaters
Breakwaters are built to reduce wave action in an area in the lee of the structure. Wave
action is reduced through a combination of reflection and dissipation of incoming wave
energy. When used for harbors, breakwaters are constructed to create sufficiently calm
waters for safe mooring and loading operations, handling of ships, and protection of
harbor facilities. Breakwaters also built to improve maneuvering conditions at river
mouth entrances and to help regulate sedimentation by directing currents and by creating
areas with different levels of wave disturbance.

Breakwaters can be classified into two main types: sloping-front and vertical-front
structures. Sloping-front structures are in most cases rubble-mound structures armored
with rock or concrete armor units, with or without wavewall superstructures. Vertical-
front structures are in most cases constructed of either sandfilled concrete caissons or
stacked massive concrete blocks placed on a rubble stone bedding layer. In deep water,
concrete caissons are often placed on a high mound of quarry rock for economical
reasons.

Breakwaters at Sungai Marang rivermouth, Terengganu

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b. Revetments

Revetments are onshore structures with the principal function of protecting the shoreline
from erosion. Revetment structures are flexible and typically consist of armor rock or cast
concrete blocks. Revetments rest on the surface being protected and dependent on it for
support. They are relatively light structures and are well suited to locations free of heavy
wave attack. Properly designed and constructed revetments are long life structures and
require little maintenance. Almost all concrete armor units revetment depend on their
interlocking design for stability. Voids within the revetment permit quick drainage over
the surface of the slope and hence reduces wave run-up. However, it has been observed
recent years by DID, revetments cause wave reflection and flanking erosion, reducing the
beach width and sandy shores.

SAUH Revetment, Haji Sirat, Selangor. Basalton Revetment, Pulau Besar, Melaka

5/24/2005 38

Flex-Slab Revetment, Pantai Klebang, Rock Revetment, Kg Pasir Pandak, Kuching,

Melaka Sarawak

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c. Groins

Groins are built to stabilize a stretch of natural or artificially nourished beach against
erosion that is due to primarily to a net longshore loss of beach material. Groins function
only when longshore transport occurs. Groins are narrow structures, usually straight and
perpendicular to the preproject shoreline. The effect of a single groin is accretion of
beach material on the updrift side and erosion on the downdrift side; both effects extend
some distance from the structure. Consequently, a groin system (series of groins) results
in a saw-tooth-shaped shoreline within the groin field and a differential in beach level on
either side of the groins.

Single groin at Sg Ranca-ranca, Wilayah Persekutuan Labuan

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d. Labuan Blocks

Some innovation form of coastal protection structures have surfaced in recent years.
These innovations come in different shape, design and cost. Labuan Blocks are concrete
mass blocks designed by the engineer of JPS. They are cast insitu, often with locally
available material and therefore have a relatively low capital cost. Because they are
portable and removable they can be easily transported to any places, reducing the cost of
coastal erosion control project. Labuan Blocks can be placed as sloping “mattresses” or
as near vertical cubic blocks.

Labuan Blocks as sloping “mattresses”-Taman Robina, Seberang Perai Utara, Pulau

Pinang

Labuan Blocks (backshore) are generally preferred to rock revetment (foreshore) in

coastal environments being less reflective of wave energy and more stable. Sand is also
better able to accumulate on Labuan Blocks, potentially softening their appearance.
The purpose of Labuan Blocks is to provide short term (3-5 years) protection from
backshore erosion by absorbing wave energy along the dune face. Their application is
restricted to the upper part of sandy beaches, since they are not sufficiently durable to
withstand regular direct wave action. As they are concrete structures placed at backshore,
they will tend to trap wind blown sand and sediment transport and allow the growth of
vegetation under favourable conditions. This only applies to sloping structures.

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e. Training Walls

Training walls are structure built to direct flow. Typical training wall objectives might be
to improve mooring conditions in an estuary or to direct littoral drift away from an area
of potential deposition. Damage to tidal control gate and erosion of beach profile can be
stopped or at least stopped by training walls.

Training walls at Pantai Layang-layangan, Wilayah Persekutuan Labuan

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Soft Engineering
The term ‘soft’ is loosely used to indicate either a less reflective protection material or
the incorporation of ecosystem barrel techniques in coastal erosion control. Some
examples of these soft engineering methods are described as below.

a. Beach Nourishment

Beach nourishment is also known as beach replenishment, beach feeding or beach

recharge. Beach nourishment is a soft structure solution used for prevention of shoreline
erosion. Material of preferably the same, or larger, grain size and density as the natural
beach material is artificially placed on the eroded part of the beach to compensate for the
lack of natural supply of beach material. The beach fill might protect not only the beach
where it is placed, but also downdrift stretches by providing an updrift point source of
sand.

It is entails finding a suitable source of material that is compatible with, but not
necessarily identical to the material on the beach to be nourished. It is often the most
satisfactory means of protecting a shoreline as it provided the necessary reservoir of
material that allows a beach to respond to wave and achieved equilibrium. The period for
re-nourishment of the beach is about 5-10 years.

Before Sand Nourishment, Teluk Cempedak, Kuantan, Pahang (2003)

After Sand Nourishment, Teluk Cempedak, Kuantan, Pahang (2004)

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b. Mangrove Replanting

Wave energy reaching typically flat mangrove-fringed coasts is usually low allowing silt
sized material to remain at or near the shore. Short fetches and depth limited wave
approach directions of mangrove-fringed coasts limit wave energy reaching the shore. In
Malaysia, coastal bunds have been built since the 1930’s to protect agriculture land.
Mangrove will attenuate and dissipate wave energy before it reaches the coastal bund and
the agriculture land within. The limit of wave penetration is dependent on how thick the
mangrove belt is. The same applies to other types of coastal forests.

The objective of mangrove replanting is to maintain or restored the mangrove line and
prevent it from retreat. It will also encourage mangrove line advance. This can be
accomplished by forcing a reduction in wave and current scour in front of and at the
existing mangrove line, and forcing an increase in the sedimentation rate.

Mangrove replanting at Sg Chenaam, Pulau Pinang

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c. Geotube

Geotube is define as a large tube (greater than 2.5m in circumference) fabricated from
high strength woven geotextile in lengths greater than 6m, used in coastal and river
applications and typically filled hydraulically with a slurry of sand and water. An apron
of geotextile is also designed together with geotube to protect the foundation of the main
geotube from the undermining effects of scour. Scour can be present at the base of the
geotube due to wave and current action. Scour aprons are typically anchored by a small
tube at the water’s edge or by sandbags attached to the apron.

Geotube breakwaters are soft structures that are better able to conform to a mangrove
forest environment. In the unlikely event that some small boats hitting the Geotube, it
would be like running aground on a sandbar thereby posing no dangers to the boat.

Geotube at Tanjung Piai, Pontian, Johor.

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CONCLUSIONS

The consequences of coastal erosion can be kept within acceptable limits. Two general
approaches to that end are available. Erosion itself can be limited by various structural
measures such as revetments, breakwaters, groins, Labuan blocks or erosion can be
permitted by soft engineering and limiting activities in coastal area like land use zoning,
set backs and relocation.

Modern design practice places much emphasis on attempting to hold a healthy beach on
the shoreline as the primary means of protection. A sufficiently substantial beach can
accommodate the dynamic changes that are the result of differing climatic conditions.
Soft engineering are generally more environmental friendly than traditional hard
protection works. However, where human life may be at risk and high density, high value
conurbations exist the use of hard elements of a defence may be unavoidable.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are indebted to the Director General and the Director of the Coastal
Engineering Division, Department of Irrigation and Drainage, Malaysia for their support
and permission to publish this paper and photographs. The authors would like to extend
thanks and appreciation to all; direct or indirect contributions of current engineers and
staff of the selected DID offices in the various coastal districts based on whose
observation and records, the cases cited herein were documented. Notwithstanding, the
contents and opinions herein are those of the authors and should not under any
circumstances be construed as the official stand of the Department of Irrigation and
Drainage, Malaysia.

REFERENCE

US Army Corps of Engineers, 1984. Shore Protection Manual Volume I & II

Dominic Reeve, Andrew Chadwick, Christopher Fleming, 2004, Coastal Engineering,

Processes, Theory and Design Practice

Stanley Consultants, Inc, Moffatt & Nichol, Engineers, Jurutera Konsultant (S.E.A) Sdn.
Bhd, 1985, National Coastal Erosion Study Final Report Volume I

US Army Corps of Engineers, 2002. Coastal Engineering Manual

Infrastructure Development Institute-Japan, 2003, Guidelines for Coastal Management

The National Committee on Coastal and Ocean Engineering, 1998, Coastal Engineering
Guidelines for working with the Australian coast in an ecologically sustainable way

Karsten Mangor, 2001, Shoreline Management Guidelines

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Dover District Council, 2005, Website http://www.dover.gov.uk/coast/coastal-

erosion.asp

Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran Negeri Pahang, 2005, Inception Report prepared by J.K.
Bersatu Sdn Bhd: Pelan Pengurusan Persisiran Pantai Bersepadu (Integrated Shoreline
Management Plan, ISMP) Bagi Kawasan Pahang Selatan.

Unit Pelaksanaan Projek Persekutuan Kelantan, 2005, Inception Report prepared by RPM
Engineers Sdn Bhd: Detailed Design of Coastal Protection Works at Pantai Sabak,
Kelantan.

Hisham, Arman, 2003, Emergency Measures In Coastal Protection Methods And

Performance

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