MANUAL

OF

AUTOMOBILE ENGG. LAB

Dr.Jagtar Singh Associate Professor

Mech. Engg.
Navinder Singh Technician (Mech Engg.)

DEPARTMENT MECHANICAL ENGG.

SANT LONGOWAL L INSTITUTE OF
ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY LONGOWAL
(SANGRUR)
 CONTENTS

S.No. Name of experiment Page No.

1) Study of major parts of an automobile engine. 2

2) Study and working principle of two strokes Petrol Engine. 6

3) Study and working principle of four stroke Engine. 9

4) Study and operation of cooling system. 11

5) Study, operation and maintenance of Lubrication System. 13

6) Study of Intake and Exhaust components of an Engine 16

7) Study, operation and adjustment of Steering system. 18

8) Study, repair and maintenance of hydraulic brake system. 22

9) Study and maintenance of Components of lighting system 23

10) Study and maintenance of Battery. 26

11) Study, operation and maintenance of Ignition system. 29

12) Study, operation and maintenance of clutch. 33

13) Study, operation and maintenance of gearbox. 38

2
Exp. No.-1
Aim: - Study of major parts of an engine of an automobile.
Equipment Required: - Model of four-stroke petrol engine.
Introduction: The main working parts of compression ignition engine are playing important role
to generate efficient power. The engines vary greatly in size, power, and design. But parts from
functional aspects are similar and described hereafter.
1. Cylinder: - The heart of the engine is the cylinder where the fuel is burnt and the power
is developed. The inside of the cylinder is formed by the liner of sleeve. The inside
diameter of the cylinder is called the bore. In the most of the engines the piston bears
directly on the walls. Forming parts of the cylinder blocks, but in some, and particularly
in engines with large cylinders, removable lines are used. Liners are of two types:-
a) Dry Liners
b) Wet Liners
a) Dry Liners: - A dry liner is one which is in contact with metal block over its whole
length are nearly its whole length. The water jackets are provided in the cylinder blocks.
b) Wet Liners: - Ones, which is supported by the blocks over narrows, belts only and is
surrounded by cooling water between the belts.
2. Cylinder head: It closes on the end of the cylinder and often contains the valves through
which air and fuel are admitted and exhaust gases discharged.
The cylinder head is usually a one-piece casting bolted to the top of the cylinder
block. In between the head is given copper asbestos gasket to make gas tight joint.
3. Piston: The other end of the working space of the cylinder is closed by the piston that
transmits to the crankshaft the power developed by the burning of the fuel. The distance
that the piston travels from one end of the cylinder to the other is called the stroke.
4. Connecting Rod: One end, called the small end of the connecting rod is attached to the
wrist pin located in the piston. The other end, or the big end has a bearing for the crank
pin, the continuously rotating crank during crank pin the working stroke and versa during
other strokes.
5. Crankshaft: The crankshaft runs under the action of piston through the connecting rod
and crank pin located between crank web and cheeks and transmits the work from the

3
 piston to the driven shaft. The parts of crankshaft supported by and rotating in the main
bearing are called the journals.
6. Crank web: These are masses for balancing purpose.
7. Main bearing; The crankshaft is supported and is turning in these main bearings.
8. Crank pin and bearing: This is a bearing between the big end of the connecting rod and
crank pin.
9. Fuel nozzle: Fuel is delivered into the combustion space by an injection system
consisting of a pump, fuel line and the injector, also called the fuel injection nozzle and
spray nozzle. Fuel is delivered by this nozzle in a fine spray under pressure in diesel
engines. In petrol engine it is replaced by spark plug.
10. Piston Rings: The piston rings lubricated with engine oil produce gas – tight seal
between the piston and the cylinder liner.
These are also called compression rings; conduct the heat away from the piston head to the
cylinder block. The material for the piston rings must be elastic and must have a fairly high
ultimate strength.
11. Piston pin or wrist pin: It connects to the piston to the upper end of the connecting rod.
Each end of the piston pin fits into the bored in piston base. The center of the pin fits in
connecting rod small end. This arrangement allows the rod to swing back and forth on
piston pin.
12. Intake valve: Fresh air enters through this valve operated by a cam.
13. Exhaust valve: The products of combustion after doing work on the piston are removed
via this valve. The Valves are mounted in the cylinder head.
14. Camshaft: It is driven from the crankshaft by a timing gear on a chain. It operates the
intake valve through the cams, cams followers, push rods and rocker arms.
15. Cam: The profiles are made to give desired motion to follower. High carbon steel or
medium carbon case hardened steel is used.

16. Valve springs: These made from spring steel serve to close the valves.
17. Cylinder block or crankcase: Crankcase holds together the cylinder, piston and
crankshaft. It is called the cylinder block.
18. Flywheel: It takes care of the fluctuation or the cyclic variations in speed. It stores energy
during the power stroke and release during the other strokes thus giving a fairly constant
output torque.

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19. Bedplate: The lower portion of the crankcase, which is bolted the foundation, is called
the bedplate.
20. Cooling water jackets: Normally the cooling water enters the jackets in the cylinder
head, which is comparatively hotter and passes on the jackets of the cylinder. The
purpose is to keep the combustion space walls cool.

5
Exp. No.-2
Aim: - Study and working principle of two stroke Petrol Engine.
Equipment Required: - Model of two-stroke petrol engine.
Theory: - The two stroke engine was developed by Sir Duglad Clerk in 1881 and further
improved by Joseph Day in 1891. The cycle of operations Viz. suction, compression, expansion
and exhaust can be completed in two strokes of the piston or one revolution of the crankshaft
(Two strokes are overlapping with each other.)
Construction: - The main engine components are: -
1. Piston with a deflector
2. Cylinder block with three ports – Intake, Transfer and exhaust ports.
3. Crank case
4. Connecting rod
5. Crank wheel and flywheel
6. A carburetor
7. Intake and Exhaust manifolds
Working Principle of two stroke petrol engine
The working principle of a two-stroke petrol engine is discussed below: -
First stroke:
To start with let us assume the piston to be at its bottom dead center position (BDC). The
arrangement of ports is such that (Connected to crankcase) the piston performs two jobs
simultaneously
As the piston starts rising from its dead center position, it closes the transfer port. The
charge (Mixture of air and petrol), which is slightly compressed. At the same time with the
upward movement of the piston, vacuum is created in the crank case (which is gas tight). As soon
as the inlet port is uncovered. The fresh charge is sucked in the crankcase. The charging is
continued until the crankcase and space in the cylinder beneath the piston is filled with the
charge. At the end of this stroke, the piston reaches the Top Dead Center (TDC) position.
Second Stroke: -
Slightly before the completion of the compression stroke, the compressed charge is ignited by
means of a spark plug.
Pressure is exerted on the crown of the piston due to the combustion of the charge and the
piston is pushed in the downward direction producing some useful power. The downward

6
movement of the piston will first close the inlet port and then it will compress the charge already
sucked in the crankcase.
Just at the end of power stroke, the piston uncovers the exhaust port and the transfer port
simultaneously. The expanded gases escaping through the exhaust port and at the same time the
fresh charge which is already compressed in the crank case, rushes into the cylinder through the
transfer port and thus the cycle is repeated again.
The fresh charge, coming into the cylinder also helps in the exhausting the burnt gases
out of the cylinder through the exhaust port. This is known as scavenging. A little amount of fresh
mixture also is lost in this process.
The scavenging of the brunt gases can be improved by providing a ridge in the piston
crown, nearer to the transfer port. This ridge that it can sweep the brunt gases, near the cylinder
head before driving them out through the exhaust port.

7
8
Exp. No.-3
Aim: - Study and working principle of four stroke Engine.
Equipment Required: - Model of four-stroke engine.
Theory: - In 1862, Beau de Rochas, a Frenchman wrote a paper describing the fundamental
principles for efficient operation of a combustion engines, which were demonstrated un a
practical engine by Otto, a German engineer. This laid the foundation of four-stroke cycle engine,
which is used till today in all four-stroke spark ignition engines.

Working Principle of Four stroke engine

The working principle of a four-stroke engine is discussed below: -
1.) Suction stroke or induction stroke: The inlet valve is open and exhaust valve
is close. The piston connected with the connecting rod moves downward or
outward thereby sucking the new charge of explosive mixture through inlet port
from the carburetor. During this stroke the pressure inside the cylinder remains
below atmospheric pressure, which depends upon the throttle opening and engine
speed.
2.) Compression stroke: Both the valves are in closed position. The piston moves
upward or inward by the movement of the flywheel thereby compressing the
charge into the combustion head of the cylinder. In petrol engine the compression
ratio is usually between 6 and 9. The pressure at the end of the stroke is about 6
to 8 kg / cm2. The compression ratio is of the total volume and the clearance
volume of the cylinder.
3.) Ignition or explosion or working strokes: Both the valves are in closed
position. Just before the end of the compression stroke, ignition takes place in the
charge by means of an electric spark, thereby raising the temperature and
pressure inside the cylinder. The explosion is completed while the piston is at rest
or just moves downward, thereby expanding the hot gases and moving the piston
downward or outward. The movement of the piston turns the crankshaft thereby
propelling the vehicle against the external resistances. During this stroke the
flywheel also stores the momentum lost during the idle strokes.
4.) Exhaust stroke: In this stroke the inlet valve is in closed and exhaust valve is in
open position. The piston again moves upward or inward by the momentum of
the flywheel, thereby discharging brunt gases through the exhaust valve. The
exhaust pressure always remains slightly above the atmospheric pressure, which
depends upon the resistance created by the exhaust valve and silencer.

9
Therefore it is seen that crankshaft faces four strokes in every two revolutions. Out of four strokes
the ignition or working stroke is only the useful stroke and remaining three strokes are ideal
strokes. Therefore the engine based on the four-stroke principal gives economy.

10
Exp. No.-4
Aim: Study, operation and maintenance of cooling system

Introduction: Fuel is burnt inside the cylinder of an internal combustion engine to produce
power. The temperature produced on the power stroke of an engine can be as high as 1600 degree
Celsius and this is greater than the melting point of engine parts.
For example, melting point of cast iron is 1100 degree Celsius, of steel
1450 degree Celsius and that of aluminum alloy 660 degree Celsius. The cylinder and cylinder
head are made of caste iron and piston in most cases is made of aluminum alloy. It is estimated
that about 40% of the total heat produced is passed to the atmosphere via the exhaust, 30% is
removed by cooling system and only about 30% is used to produce useful power.

Construction: The main parts of the cooling system are as follows:

1) Water pump: It is a centrifugal type pump. It has a casing and an impeller, mounted on a
shaft. The casing is usually made of caste iron. Water pump is mounted on a front end of the
cylinder block between the block and the radiator. When the Impeller rotates, the water between
the impeller blades is thrown outward by centrifugal force and thus water goes to the cylinder
under pressure. The pump outlet is connected by a hosepipe to the bottom of the radiator. The
impeller shaft is supported on one or more bearings. There is seal, which prevents the leakage of
water.

2) Radiator: Radiator is a device for cooling the circulating water in the engine. It holds a large
volume of water in close contact of large volume of air, so that heat is transferred from the water
to the air easily. Hot water flows into the radiator at the top and cold water flows out from the
bottom tubes or passages carry the water from the top to the bottom, passing it over a large metal
surface. Air flows between the tubes or through the cells at right angle to the downward flowing
water. This helps in transferring the heat from the water to the atmosphere.

3) Thermostat valve: It is a control valve used in the cooling system to control the flow of water
when activated by a temperature signal. It is special types of valve, which closes the inlet passage
of water connected to the radiator. The thermostat is placed in the water passage between the
cylinder head and the top of radiator. Its purpose is to close this passage when the engine is cold,
so that water circulation is restricted.

4) Water jackets: Water jackets are cored out around the engine cylinder so that water can
circulate freely around the cylinder as well as around the valve opening.

5) Fan: The fan is usually mounted on the water pump shaft. The same belt that drives the pump
and the dynamo drives it. The purpose of the fan is to provide strong draft of air through the
radiator to improve engine cooling.

Air-cooling:

Air-cooled engine are engines are those engines, in which heat is conducted from the working
components of the engine to the atmosphere directly. In such engines, cylinders are generally are
not grouped in a block.

The cylinder of air-cooled engines has fins to increase the area of contact of air for speedy
cooling. The cylinder is normally enclosed in a sheet metal casing called cowling. The flywheel

11
has blades projecting from its face, so that it acts like a fan drawing air through a hole in the
cowling and directing it around the finned cylinder.

Water-cooling:

Engines, using water as cooling medium is called water-cooled engines. The liquid is circulated
round the cylinder to absorb heat from the cylinder walls. In general, water is used as cooling
liquid. The heated water is conducted through a radiator, which helps in cooling the water.

Cooling system troubles:

Due to defective cooling system, several adverse effects are noticed such as
1) Over heating
2) Slow warm-up of the engine.

Overheating is mostly due to

a) Accumulation of rust and scale in the radiator and water jacket
b) Defective hosepipe
c) Defective thermostat
d) Loose fan belt
e) Defective water pump.

Care and maintenance of cooling system:

1) Clean and fresh water should be filled in the radiator.

2) Lime free water should be used in radiator as far as possible for prevention of scale formation.
3) Rotten or soft hose pipe should not be used in the system
4) Oil and grease should always be kept away from the belt. Greasy belts should be wiped clean
with a rag.
5) The bearing of the water pump should be lubricated regularly.
6) Very hot engines should never be filled with cold water, to avoid fracture in the cylinder wall
and the cylinder head.

12
Exp.No. -5
Aim: Study parts of Lubrication System.
Requirement: Cutting model of four-stroke diesel Engine.

Purpose of lubrication: - when a metal surface is made to slide over another surface friction take
place. If all parts (surface) are allowed to work with each other enormous amount of friction will
be produced. With the increase in friction, temperature will rise and if allowed to run like that the
parts will seize.
As such some arrangement has to be made to control friction and temperature so that
engine keeps on running. Adding lubricating oil in between surface does this.

. Main parts of lubricating systems:

a) Oil pump
b) Oil filter
c) Pressure regulating valve
d) Oil level indicator
e) Oil sump
f) Oil strainer
g) Oil pressure gauge

a) Oil Pump: - There are various types of oil pumps used in engines. These are as under:

Plunger type: This pump works as a hand pump. The plunger moves up and down in the
barrel. When the plunger moving up partial, vacuum is created in the cylinder. Due to this
the inlet valve opens and oil gets sucked in. On the return stroke when the plunger moves
down, the pressure in the barrel built up which classes the inlet valve and opens the outlet
valves and oil goes in engine galleries.
Rotor type: This type of oil pump is now widely used in automobiles .It is similar to gear
pump except that in this to two gears mesh internally. The oil enters the pump through inlet
port, as pump in the spaces between rotor lobes .The rotation reduces the clearance between
the lobes and the oil is discharged under pressure as the lobes of the rotor lobes are moving
out of mesh. The oil is then transported from inlet to the outlet of the rotors move into mesh
at the outlet port. This type of pump is about 25% more efficient and compact than the gear
type pump. This is also quieter running since there are comparatively lesser teeth in mesh for
each revolution. Because of these advantages, its uses are on increase in the automobile
engines.
b) Gear pump: - This is the type once almost universally used in the automotive engines. Its
construction is very simple in that it consists of two spurs, or for quieter running, helical
gears only which are in mesh with each other. One gear mounted on a stub shaft and is
driven on the where as the other gear is the driving gear, itself being driven directly by the
cam shaft through the same gear which drives the distributor shaft. The oil is transported
from the inlet to the outlet side in gear spaces between the gear teeth and is discharged
through the out-let port. Since the teeth start to mesh at the outlet port, the oil is driven out
under pressure.
c) Oil filter: It is used to clean the oil, different types of filter are used as cartridge type (it
consists of metallic casing and a filter in it) oil passes through it, edge type (it consists of
number of disks and centrifugal type filters cleans the oil by passing the oil through
centrifugal jets.

13
d) Pressure regulating valve: - It is the safety valve, which maintains the constant pressure
as fixed by the manufacturer.
e) Oil level indicator: It shows the level of oil in engine, a dip is used to check the level of
oil; it has three marks for full, half and lowers level of oil.
f) Oil sump: It is the lowest parts of crankcase. It contains oil; it is made of steel pressing.
g) Oil strainer: It is simply a wire mess screen to filter the oil preliminary.
h) Oil pressure gauge: It shows the pressure of oil on the parts where lubrication takes
place.

14
15
 Exp. No.-6

Aim: Study of intake and Exhaust components of an Engine

Requirement: Four stroke petrol and diesel engines.

Introduction: The opening efficiency, good performance and durability of an

Engine depends mainly upon its intake and outlet. Air cleaner is more important parts in intake
system.

Oil wetted mesh air cleaner

It consists of a copper mesh or a nylon wire rated with oil to catch the dust particles from the air,
which are made to pass through it. This type however gets clogged with dust quickly, thus
seriously affecting the airflow through it and rendering it inefficient in removing the fine particles
of dust from the air.

Dry air cleaner

This type of air cleaner contains three main parts, viz. pre-cleaner, main housing and cleaning
element. These are sealed into one unit. The main housing contains the cleaning elements, usually
of multiword netting but some are made of nylon hair or paper. The air from the atmosphere
enters from the pre cleaner passes through the cleaning element and goes to the inlet manifold.
The paper filter element is cleaned after 50-100 hours of service.

Oil Bath Air Cleaners

The main difference between a dry and oil bath cleaner is that in the latter type, oil is used for
cleaning air. Water bath cleaner were also in use in earlier times but now the oil bath cleaner has
come into more common use. This type of cleaner operators on the principle of having the air
laden with dust enter the intake stack, pass down the inlet passage over the oil surface, where
some of the oil is picked up atomized and carried up into separating screen. As the air passes
through a screen (filter) most of the remaining dirt is attached to the oil wetted surfaces and
drains back into the sump. The air outlet is on the side through which the clean air enters the
cylinders. In the bottom a removable cup is fitted for convenient cleaning and servicing. This cup
has one level mark. Oil bath air cleaners are always mounted vertically to the engine, thus the oil
remains in the cup at the bottom of the cleaner. It is off ten mounted either in front of the radiator
or by the side of engine. This type of air cleaner is fitted in B-275 international, escort, MF- 1035,
Hindustan and Zetor tractors.

SUPERCHARGES

A supercharger is a device for increasing the air pressure in to the engine so that more fuel
can be burnt and the engine output increased. The pressure inside the manifold of a
supercharger engine will be greater than the atmospheric pressure; supercharged air is
provided either by positive displacement rotary blowers or by centrifugal blowers. Theses
may be driven (a) by the engine itself, (b) from a separate power source such as an electric

16
motor and (c) from an exhaust gas tribune. This is an auxiliary unit and only high horsepower
range engines are provided with superchargers (viz. HD-9 allis Chalmer).

9.4 INLET MANIFOLD

The inlet manifold is required to deliver into the cylinders either a mixture of fuel and air
from the carburetor or only air cleaners.
The inlet manifolds are made in one or two pieces either from cast iron or aluminum alloy.
They are also bolted from separate castings into a single unit. The manifold flangers are
connected to the cylinder block or cylinder head by means of asbestos-copper gaskets, studs
and nuts.

9.5 EXHAUST SYSTEM

The exhaust system collects exhaust gases from the engine and expels them out. The system
consists of: (i) exhaust valve, (ii) exhaust port (iii) exhaust manifold, (iv) turbo charger
(auxiliary unit) and (v) muffler.

9.6 EXHAUST MANIFOLD

The exhaust manifold collects exhaust gases from the exhaust passage. It is usually made of
cast iron. The exhaust manifolds are designed to avoid the overlapping of exhaust strokes as
much as possible, thus keeping the back pressure to a minimum. Dividing the exhaust
manifolds into two or more branches so that no two cylinders will exhaust into the same
branch at the same time often does this.

9.7 TURBOCHARGER

This muffler reduces the noise of the exhaust gases by reducing the pressure of the used
gases by slow expansion and cooling. On the other hand, the muffler must not cause any
appreciable restriction to the flow of oil that could raise the backpressure excessively. The
muffler contains a number of chambers through which the gas flows. The gas is allowed to
expand from the first passage into a much larger second one and then to a still larger third one
and so on, to the tail (outlet) pipe of the muffler.

9.9 CARE OF INLET AND EXHAUST SYSTEM

The following steps are required for the proper care of the inlet and exhaust system.

1. The inlet and exhaust manifolds should be checked for air leaks and the nuts and
connections tightened at regular intervals.
2. A clogged muffler exhaust pipe or tail pipe will cause a backpressure on the pistons and a
loss of power. Therefore, it must be cleaned every time during service. Sometimes the
engine overheats due to excessive carbon deposit.

17
Exp. No.-7

Aim: Study, operation of Steering system.

Requirement: An old working steering gear box of Gypsi.

Function: - It is the system, which provides directional change in the performance of an

automobile. The function of a steering system is top convert the rotary movement of the
steering wheel in to angular turn of the front wheels.

FIFTH WHEEL STEERING SYSTEM: -

It is single pivot steering system in which the front axle along with the wheels moves to right or
left. The movement to the whole axle and wheel assembly is affected by mean of a steering and a
wheel, which is placed between the chassis frame and axle. The fifth acts as a turntable. The axle
assembly is connected with the frame by means of a pine, which serves as a pivot around which
the axle assembly moves. The fifth wheel contains a ring gear mounted at its rim and is moved by
means of a steering. Movement of the steering wheel tends the front axle and wheel assembly to
move away.

ACKERMAN STEERING SYSTEM: -

It is double pivot steering system. This divided axle steering system works upon the Ackerman
principle in which a line intersecting each steering king pine and tie rod end would intersect at or
near the differential.
In this type of steering system the front axle is fixed with the frame through the springs
in conventional suspension system. The stub axle are pivoted with the axle beam by means of
king pines. The steering knuckle arm is attached to stub axle by means of which the wheel is
turned through the steering. Steering knuckle arms on both stub axles are connected through tie
rod.

COMPONENTS OF STEERING SYSTEM: -

The steering system is composed of the following elements: -

1. Steering wheel
2. Steering column
3. Steering gear
4. Pitman or drop arm
5. Steering knuckle
6. Stub axle

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STEERING WHEEL: -

It is circular wheel mounted at the steering shaft and acts as a control to steer the vehicle. A horn
push bottom is fitted at its hub. In modern cars, the push bottom has been replaced by a push ring,
which is placed inside the steering wheel. The steering hub some times contain trafficator switch,
lighting switch or selector lever for controlling automatic transmission.

STEERING COLUMN: -

It is a hollow shaft enclosed by casing. At its upper end steering wheel is attached and at the
lower end steering gear is employed.

STEERING GEAR: -

The steering box enable the driver to exert a large force on the road wheel with minimum effort
applied at the steering wheel it also changes the rotary motion of the steering wheel into lateral
movement of the tie rod.
Steering wheel ratio vary from 12:1 on the to 35:1 on heavy commercial vehicles

The steering gear can be classified as under.

1. Worm and wheel

2. Warm and sector
3. Warm and roller
4. Screw and nut
5. Cam and lever
6. Rack and pinion.

PITMAN OR DROP ARM: -

It is a lever, which is attached to the steering sector shaft. It converts rotary motion of steering
shaft in to straight-line motion through the steering gear and sector shaft. It swings like the
pendulum of a clock when the steering wheel is rotated. It creates a pulling and pushing effect at
the steering knuckle through drag link or pull and push rod resulting in turning of the road
wheels.

STEERING KNUCKLE: -

It is the arm sometimes known as steering spindle, which is integrated with the stub axle of its
movement around the pivot, which is known as the kingpin. The steering effort is conveyed to the
steering knuckle by mean of steering linkage for turning the road wheel to the right or left
direction. Each stub axle has its own steering knuckle arm, which is connected with each other
through tie road.

POWER STEERING: -

The power steering system is operated by fluid under pressure. The fluid used is oil of viscosity
rating SAE 5W or SAE10W or higher depending upon atmospheric condition.

19
 The principle of working of all the power steering systems is same. The slight movement of
the steering wheel actuates the valve so that the fluid under pressure from the reservoir enters on
the appropriate side of the cylinder, thereby applying pressure on one side of piston to operate the
steering linkage, which steers the wheel in the appropriate direction.
WHEEL ALINGNMENT: -

This relate to the relative position of the wheel for obtaining true and free rolling movement over
the road. The smooth operation of steering depend much upon on the while alignment.
Wheel alignment is the mechanics of adjusting the interrelated factors, which influence steering.
The important alignment factors are as under: -

1. Caster
2. Camber
3. Toe-in

CASTER: -

The king pin or the steering axis is tilted forwards or backward from the vertical. The backward
tilt from the vertical is known as positive caster and forward tilt as negative caster. The caster
measured in degrees is kept between 2 degree and 7 degree. Increased amount of caster and play
in steering linkage leads to excessive front –wheel wobble.

CAMBER: -

To fulfill the condition for center ---point steering, the front wheel are generally tilted outward
from the top and inwards at the bottom. This is done by making the stub axles pointing
downwards. The angle between the vertical line and the tyre centerline is termed as camber. The
camber is negative if the wheel tilts inwards at the top and is positive if it tilts outwards at the top.
The camber is measured in degrees.

TOE-IN: -

The adjustment for gathering the wheels inwards at the front is known as toe-in . It means that the
distance between the front wheels at the front is less than the distance at the back. Toe-in wheel
have the tendency to run inward. Positive cambered wheels have tendency to roll outward. When
toe-in and camber are properly combined, it results in rolling the wheel in a straight line.

20
21
22
Exp. No.-8

Aim: - Study and operation of hydraulic brake system.

Requirements: working model of a hydraulic brake system

Introduction: brakes are an important safety system in all transport vehicle it may defined as that
force which stops any motion brakes are apply to slow down or stop the motion of vehicles there
are many types of brakes as hand brake, mechanical brake, hydraulic brake vacuum servo assisted
hydraulic brake and air brake. Now a day’s hydraulic and power brake are mostly used in
automobile.

Construction and operation of mechanical brake system:

A fixed brake plate attached to the axle housing. A fulcrum is this fixed plate at the bottom. Two
brake shoes are fixed to it these shoes are lined on the outer side asbestos or fiber material. A
revolving cam is fixed to the top of the brake plate when the cam rotates these two brake shoes
expand. A spring connects both the brake shoes and brings them closer. The cam is shown linked
by mean of camshaft & a lever. The lever is operated with rod by mean of a pedal. When the
pedal is pressed, the cam rotates by slight amount because of the links. This pushes the ends of
the brake shoes outward. These brake shoes press against the inner portion of the brake drum thus
the rotating wheel is fully stopped. When the brake pedal is released, the spring brings both shoes
closer. The pressure on the inner portion of the brake drum is removed. The wheel is thus relieved
of the grip of the brake shoes. This is how a mechanical brake is operates.
There is one fulcrum for each brake shoe. The mechanical brake linked to all the
four wheel of the vehicle by means of proper links. When the pedal is operated the cam on all
four wheels is simultaneously rotated. Now the brake shoes on all the four wheels are also in
operation. These simultaneously grip the brake drum in all four wheels. When the brake pedal is
released, the springs in these brake shoes bring the brake shoes closer the grip on the inner
portion of the brake drum is thus relieved. The wheels are now free to rotate.

CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF HYDRAULIC BRAKE SYSTEM:

In the hydraulic brake system five cylinders filled with a liquid. The cross-section of each
cylinder is 1 cm sq. A certain force say 10 kg is applied at the central main cylinder. The liquid in
the entire cylinder supports these weights. This shows that the pressure at the central main
cylinder is the same as that in the other entire four cylinders. This is the principle of hydraulic
brake system.
In hydraulic brake system there is one master cylinder and four-wheel cylinders.
Every wheel cylinder contains two pistons, which move outward. The hydraulic fluid flows from
the master cylinder to the four-wheel cylinder with the help of suitable pipes.
Springs are used to hold the brake shoes on all four wheels. When the
brake pedal is pressed the piston in the mater cylinder forces the liquid out of the cylinder. This
liquid presses the two pistons in the wheel cylinder outward. These two pistons push the brake
shoes outward. The brake shoes in turn press against the brake drums. The wheels are thus
stopped.
When the brake pedal is released, the master cylinder is pushed backward. This is
done by a spring fitted in the master cylinder. The springs of the brake shoes bring the shoe
closer. At this time the two pistons in the wheel cylinder also comes closer. The liquid in the
wheel cylinder pushed outwards through the pipes. It returns through the pipes to the master
cylinder. This is how the hydraulic system of the four wheels operates.

23
Exp. No.-9

Aim: Study and maintenance of lighting system components.

Requirement: A working model of electrical system of an automobile.

The components of the lighting system are:

1. Head lamps
2. Side or parking lamps
3. Rear red lamps
4. Flashing indicator front lamps
5. Flashing indicator rear lamps
6. Brake signal lamp
7. Interior lighting lamp
8. Instruments panel lamp
9. Oil pressure low warning indicator lamp
10. Lamp for battery discharge (red)
11. Lamp for turn indicators or flashing lamps
12. Lamp for head light (high beam indicator)
13. Lamp for electrical type oil pressure gauge
14. Lamp for rear number plate illuminator

And the other components operated by electricity

1. Electric horn
2. Wind screen spray equipment
3. Wind screen wipers
4. Flashing light actuating unit
5. Radio equipment
6. Fuel level gauge
7. Cooling water temperature gauge
8. Oil-pressure warning light
9. Cigarette lighter
10. Lubricating engine oil level indicator

Electric circuit: The electric circuit diagram with typical switches. The current is taken
from battery through the ammeter and passes through a fuse. Finally it goes to the
distribution board. From the board the lead from C is taken to the lamp. Between the
lamp and point C there is a switch. The switch (5) controls the lamp. Similarly the
connection taken from E has a separate parallel connection for the horn. Once the switch
(7) is on, the horn produces sound. In the electrical connection for a car, the wires are in
various colures. These colors are recognized internationally in the motorcar industry.

Fuses
The dynamo, ignition system and lamp wiring system have cables of different sizes. The
different sizes take the full working current for this system. The fuse protects the short
circuit against excessive currents.

24
 The fuses are of the cartridge type. It made of very fine lead alloy .it
fuses at a lower current value than that of the circuit system. The fuse wire is soldered
with nickel-plated bras end caps. The whole unit is enclosed in a glass tube.

Cable colours

Brown (battery circuit): The lines from the battery to the ammeter and to control box;
connection to the lighting and ignition switches.

White (ignition circuit): - When the ignition is switched on, the electric petrol pump, solenoid
starter switch, etc., all come into operation. All these wires are in white colors.

Yellow (dynamo circuit): - The line from the terminal to the regular unit control box terminal
and to the ignition warning light is yellow in colors. This applies to the complete dynamo circuit.

Green (auxiliary circuits): - Auxiliary circuits such as the stop lamp, fuel gauge, direction
indicators wind screen wipers, etc. all are green.

Blue (head lamp circuit): - The lines connecting the headlamps from the lighting switch are all
blue in colors.

Red (side and tail lamp circuit): - The line from the panel light switch to the side head light
and the dipswitch control is red. The line connecting the sidelights and rear lights is also red.

Black (earth circuits): - if a component is not earthed internally a cable is connected out side
the metal chassis. The cable is given a black colors. The earthlings of the fuel tank, fuel gauge,
cigarette lighter, and control box and ignition warning light are all black in colors.

Head lamp
When a vehicle is moving, the headlamp provides light on the road; the headlamp is in shape of
parabola. A mirror is placed along the parabola from the inside. The source of light is placed at
the point of focus of parabola. Then the lights are reflected in the parabolic mirror these lights
travel parallel to the symmetrical axis.
In practice the horizontal rays of the parabolic mirror are modified to
cover the road width. For this a circular glass lens is molded such that it has a series of vertical
flutings. These flutings refract and disperse the light beam side ways. They produce a flat oval-
shaped beam on the road.

Electric horn
In a simple type of high frequency horn, there is laminated magnet core the winding is over this
core .the armature is attached to a central spindle. The spindle is supported at one end by a guide
spring. The spring I s supported at the other end by a diaphragm. There is a second
diaphragm called the tone disc. This disc is fixed only at it center.
There is a contact breaker is in a series with the solenoid. When the horn
switch is pressed the current flows through the contact breaker and solenoid. The circuit is
completed through an earthed terminal. When this circuit is completed, laminated core is
magnetized. The magnet attracts armature. The armature then moves towards the magnet. There
is a protruding plate on the armature. This plate separates the contact points. Immediately after,
magnetic flux collapses. The armature then returns to its normal position due to the action of
spring. This cycle of operation is takes place at a high frequency. Therefore vibrations develop in
the armature and diaphragm. This develops the sound of the horn.

25
Windscreen wipers

Windscreen wipers are operated by a small electric motor. This motor is mounted on the engine
side of the bulkhead. The armature shaft has a
Worm thread, which is cut on the driving end. The worn thread is connected with the speed
reduction gear this arrangement reduces the speed of the armature shaft to the usable limit .
The rotaing gears acts as a crank unit. This unit is connected by a flexible cable the crank
unit converts the rotary movement of the motor in ti a push –pull movement. This movement
operates wiper blade .

26
Exp. No.-10

Aim: Study and maintenance of Battery.

Requirement: Battery in working condition.

Introduction: Battery is an important source of energy in operation of electric device and other
electric system of an automobile. It converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
There are many types of batteries but lead acid battery is most common for engines, tractors and
automobiles.

Main components of battery: 1. Plate 2. Separator 3. Electrolyte 4. Container and

5. Terminal wires.
There are two types of plates positive and negative all the plates are rectangular in shape all the
positive plates are connected together to form a positive group and all the negative plates are
joined together to form a negative group. Positive plates are made of lead and antimony and
negative plates are made of spongy lead.
Separators are used to act as insulators between the plates to prevent them from touching each
other for avoiding short-circuiting. Usually separators are of wood, rubber and cellulose fiber.
Electrolyte is the chemical solution used in a battery for chemical reaction. Usually
this consists of about 35% sulphuric acid and 65% distilled water by weight with a specific
gravity of 1.280 in fully charged condition .the specific gravity is measured by hydrometer. The
electrolyte level should be 12-14 mm above the top edge of the plates.
Container is usually made of hard rubber. The tops are covered with rubber material and sealed
with waterproof compound. There are few opening on the top for refilling the cell with electrolyte
and for testing purpose.
Terminal wires are two in numbers, one connects the positive terminal and other connects the
negative terminal with the electric circuit.
The battery on tractor engine consist of three or six cells, each developing about 2.2volts.

Acid water test :In this two wires of dc mains are connected to a glass. There is a lamp
connected to one wire. Some water is now poured in the glass. a small amount of common salt is
also added. Now the two terminals of the mains are inserted few centimeters apart. If the switch is
put on, the lamp will now burn. In one terminal, a few bubbles of gas will appear. This terminal is
termed as the negative lead. The other terminal is taken as the positive lead. These two terminals
are permanently marked to show which terminal is positive & which is negative.

Battery testing:

Checking specific gravity of electrolyte:

A battery with a hydrometer. The hydrometer is placed inside one cell through the plug. it
contains a graduated float. The float indicates the specific gravity of the acid in the cell. The
procedure is as follows. First press & release the rubber bulb. Now draw a small quantity of acid
inside the hydrometer. The float is able to float in the acid with in the hydrometer tube.
Depending upon the specific gravity of the electrolyte, the float will give some value. See this in
the insert. The reading of the electrolyte in the float should be taken at the eye level.
The readings of the specific gravity of the electrolyte are given below. they change with
the temperature.

27
Climate below 90'F(32'C)

1.270 to 1.190--cell is fully charged

1.190 to 1.210--cell is about half discharged
1.110 to 1.130--cell is fully discharged

Climate frequently above 90'F(32'C)

1.210 to 1.230--cell is fully charged

1.130 to 1.150--cell is about half discharged
1.050 to 1.070--cell is fully discharged

Heavy discharge test: -

Usually this test is used for finding out the voltage of each cell. The cell tester. It consist of a
voltmeter with a scale reading of 2-0-2 V. this voltmeter is of the high-grade moving coil type. a
load resistor is connected in parallel to the voltmeter. This carries a current of 150 A at 1.5 V. this
happens when it is connected across two volt cell. This tester is firmly held in contact with the
cell connector for about 10sec. the readings of the voltmeter would indicate the following:
1.6-1.4V--battery is fully charged
1.4-1.2V--battery is half charged
1.2-0.4V--battery is quarter charged

If the battery is good, the reading of each cell will be approximately the same. the diff. in the
readings of two cells should not be more than 0.1V.

Battery maintenance:
The battery top would be kept clean. it should be kept dry to prevent surface current leakage.
Filler caps should be free from dust, oil, battery acid or water. Similarly, cable connections should
be kept clean.
The vent plugs should be removed & the acid level inspected once every month. suppose
the level is low. Then a small quantity of distilled water should be poured in till the proper level is
reached.

Given below are the service details that should be carried out:

1. Check if the cable connections are loose. The remedy is to tighten the connections.
2. Check if the cable connections are corroded. If they are so, clean the terminals & clips by
scraping with emery cloth. Smear Vaseline on the outside.
3. Check whether the battery casing is cracked or distorted. If it is so, replace it with a new one.
Tray bolts should hold down the battery. It should not be kept loose. The tray holding the
battery should be clean.

28
29
 Exp No.-11
Aim: Study, operation and maintenance of Ignition system.
Requirement: Model of ignition system.
Introduction: The internal combustion engine generates power by burning a mixture of
air and fuel in its cylinders. In the gasoline engine, electric sparks must be generated to
ignite the air-fuel mixture after the pistons in the cylinders have compressed it. In the
diesel engine, on the other hand, the air in the cylinders is highly compressed. This causes
it to become so hot, that when the fuel is sprayed into they cylinders, it ignites
spontaneously.
Since, in the gasoline engine, the combustion process is started by the high-tension sparks
generated at the spark plugs, some method must be used to provide the plugs with the
necessary high-voltage current. This is done in one of two ways:
(i) Magneto ignition.
(ii) Battery ignition.
Since the magneto both generates the necessary EMF (electro- magnetic force) and raises
it to a higher voltage, no battery is necessary in a magneto ignition system. For this reason, the
magneto ignition system is widely used in small gasoline engines, such as those for motorcycles
and lawn movers, portable engines and scooters etc.
The battery ignition system raises the battery voltage to 10 kV or more by means of an
ignition coil, and supplies this high voltage to the spark plugs via a distributor and high-tension
cords for spark generation. Modern automotive gasoline engines use this battery ignition system.

Functions of component parts

1. Battery. Supplies low-voltage current (usually 12V) to the ignition coil.
2. Ignition coil. Converts the battery voltage to the high voltage required for ignition.
3. Distributor:
(a) Cam. Opens the breaker points depending on the crankshaft angle for each cylinder.
(b) Breaker points. Interrupt the current flowing through the primary winding of the
ignition coil in order to generate high-tension current in the secondary winding by
electromagnetic induction.
(c) Condenser (capacitor). Suppresses the spark generated between breaker points
upon their opening to increase the secondary coil voltage.

30
 (d) Centrifugal governor advancer. Advances the ignition timing according to the
engine speed.
(e) Vacuum advancer. Advances the ignition timing according to the engine load
(intake manifold vacuum).
(f) Rotor. Distributes the high-tension current generated by the ignition coil to each
spark plug.
(g) Distributor cap. Distributes high-tension current from the rotor to the high-tension
cord of each cylinder.
4. High-tension cords. Carry the high-tension current from the ignition coil to the
spark plugs.
5. Spark plugs. Discharge the high voltage applied to the electrodes for spark
generation.
Ignition coil
Description. The ignition coil receives 12 V from the battery and generates a voltage
sufficiently high (10 kV or more) to generate a strong spark at the spark plug gap.
In the ignition coil, the primary and secondary windings are wound around the core.
These coils step up (increase) the battery voltage to a much higher voltage by
electromagnetic induction (self-induction and mutual induction).
The initial ignition timing is the timing during engine idling when the ignition
advancer mechanisms are not operating. The crankshaft angle at which this occurs is
called the “basic crankshaft angle”, and refers to the proper moment during a certain
stage of the compression cycle of the No.1 cylinder when ignition takes place.
The initial ignition timing is adjusted by physically changing the distributor
mounting position relative to the engine: to do this, turn the distributor until the match
mark on the crankshaft pulley lines up with the mark on the engine timing cover (this is
checked using a timing light).
Spark plugs
Construction. The spark plug consists mainly of the insulator, casing and center electrode.
Ceramic insulator. The ceramic insulator holds the center electrode and serves as the insulation
between the center electrode and casing.
Corrugations are provided on the ceramic insulator surface to extend the surface
to distance between the terminal and casing for prevention of high-voltage flashover.
The insulator is made of high-purity alumina porcelain having excellent heat
resistance, mechanical strength, dielectric strength at high temperatures and thermal conductivity.

31
Casing. The casing supports the ceramic insulator while at the same time serving as the means
for mounting the spark plug to the engine.
Center electrode. The center electrode consists of the following parts:
(i) Center shaft. Conducts the current and radiates away the heat produced by the electrodes.
(ii) Glass seal. Provides air tightness between the center shaft and ceramic insulator and bonds
the center shafts and center electrode.
(iii) Resistor. Reduces ignition noise to reduce radio interference.
(iv) Copper core. Conducts heat from the electrode and insulator nose for quicker radiation.
(v) Center electrode. Generates the spark with the earth electrode.
Earth electrode. The earth electrode is made of the same material as the center electrode.
U- groove, V-groove and other special electrodes have been developing for easier
sparking to improve the ignition performance. (Details are explained later).

32
33
Exp. No.-12

Aim: - Study operation and maintenance of clutch.

Requirement: - Working model of clutch.

Introduction: - the clutch is provided between the engine and gearbox as a mean of engaging and
disengaging the engine. To transmit the engine power to the road wheels smoothly without jerks
to the transmission system while setting the vehicle in a motion and also permit the engaging of
gears when the vehicle is in motion without damaging the gear wheels. A good clutch system
should transmit power smoothly without slipping, should have good heat radiating properties and
should be easy to inspect, adjust and repair.
Components of a clutch system
The main components of clutch are divided into three groups.
1. Driving member
2. Driven member
3. Operating member
The driving member consists of flywheel mounted on the engine crankshaft. The flywheel is
bolted to a cover, which carries a pressure plate, pressure spring and releasing levers. The driven
member consists of a disc called the clutch plate. It carries friction material on both of its
surfaces. When it is gripped between the flywheel and the pressure plate it rotate the clutch shaft
through the splines. The operating member consists of a foot pedal, linkage, release bearing and
springs necessary to insure the proper operation of the clutch.

Clutch Plate
Clutch plate is the driving member of the clutch and is gripped between the flywheel and
the pressure plate. It is mounted on the clutch shaft through the splines. When it is gripped, it
rotates the clutch shaft and the power is transmitted from the engine to the transmission through
the clutch.

Pressure Plate
A pressure plate consists of two sets of facing or friction material mounted on steel
cushion springs. The facing and cushion springs are riveted to a spring base disc and a spring
retainer plate, which are slotted for the insertion of the torsion springs. These springs contact the
hub flanges that fit between the spring retainer plate and disc. When the clutch is engaged the
pressure on the facing compresses the cushion springs suffiently to cause the unit to decrease in
thickness by 1.0 to 1.5 mm. This construction helps to make clutch engagement and chatter less.

Types of clutch

1. Single clutch plate- It is the most common type of clutch used in motor vehicle.
Basically, it consists of only one clutch plate mounted on the splines of the clutch shaft.
The flywheel is mounted on the engine crankshaft and rotates with it. The pressure plate
is bolted to the flywheel through clutch springs, and is free to slide on the clutch shaft
when the clutch pedal is operated. When the clutch is engaged, the clutch plate is gripped
between the flywheel and pressure plate. Clutch shaft is connected to the transmission
thus the engine power is transmitted from the crankshaft to the clutch shaft.

2. Multi plate clutch- It works in the same way as the single plate clutch, by operating the
clutch pedal. The multi plate clutches are used in heavy commercial vehicle, racing car
and motorcycles for transmitting high torque. It consists of a number of clutch plates

34
 instead of only one clutch plate as in the case of single plate clutch. As the number of
clutch plates is increased, the friction surface also increases thus increasing the capacity
of the clutch to transmit torque.

Maintenance of clutch

The clutch must be properly maintained and correctly operated to obtain its normal life
and satisfactory performance. There are two conditions, which shorten clutch life.

1. Continuous operation of the clutch release bearing- It is designed for intermittent use. If
run continuously the bearing lubricant will become exhausted causing the bearing to
become dries noisy, or will seize, resulting in clutch finger wear. The clutch bearing is
free of the clutch finger at all times except when the clutch pedal is depressed.
2. Clutch slippage- it occurs when the vehicle is overloaded, the vehicle load is applied too
quickly, or when the pressure of the clutch fingers is only partially applied to the clutch
plate. Avoid clutch slippage under heavy load by using a lower gear and reducing the
load.

Adjustment of clutch

Usually four adjustments are made on the clutch.

1. Floorboard clearance- This adjustment is required to prevent the pedal arm from resting
against the floorboard when the clutch is engaged.
2. Clutch pedal travel adjustment- This adjustment is required to insure complete clutch
disengagement when the clutch is thrown out.
3. Free adjustment play- This adjustment is required to keep a specified amount of free play
in the pedal after the clutch has been engaged.
4. Clutch release lever adjustment- This adjustment is made only after removing the clutch
from the vehicle and this adjustment should be made every time when the clutch is
removed from the vehicle.

Trouble and their causes

1. Slipping clutch- A clutch is said to slip, when the bearing surface of flywheel, clutch
plate and pressure plate are not in firm contact with each other. Causes of slipping clutch
are-
a. Worn linings
b. Bending pedal mechanism
c. Weak pressure springs

2. Clutch noises- A clutch may create noises when engaged and disengaged. Causes of
clutch noises are-
a. Worn and dry release bearing
b. Binding or tight release bearing
c. Poor alignment between the clutch or transmission house and the engine

35
3. Dragging clutch- A clutch is said to be dragging when the pedal is thrown out to
disengage the clutch, the driven plate does not stop rotating. Causes of dragging clutch
are-
a. Too much pedal free play
b. Tight or burned splines
c. Misalignment of clutch housing

36
Exp.No. -13

Aim: - Study, operation and maintenance of gearbox.

Requirement: - Working model of a gearbox.

Introduction: - It converts the power of the engine running at high speed into low speed and high
torque, which is required for starting. It helps in exchange forward motion into reverse motion of
the vehicle and to disconnect the engine from the rear wheels by putting the gearbox into neutral
position. The engine is started in the neutral position of the gearbox. When the vehicle is to be
stopped on a crowed road by bringing it into the neutral gear the engine keeps running and need
not be stopped.

Components of a gearbox

1. Input shaft- Transmits the power from the clutch to the gearbox.
2. Clutch gear- Connects the input shaft with the counter shaft.
3. Counter shaft- all the gears (such as low speed, second and reverse gear etc) are mounted
on the counter shaft.
4. Output shaft- the sliding gears is mounted on this shaft.
5. Sliding gears- these gears interlock with the gears on the counter shaft and thus complete
the transmission under varying torque and speed.

Operation of gearbox

Low speed- When the gear shift fork is moved by operating the gear shift lever, the sliding gear
on the output shaft is shifted forward to mesh with low speed gear on the counter shaft, resulting
in the rotation of input shaft being transmitted in order to turn the output shaft. This gear
combination is the one that produces the lowest speed from the input shaft.
Second speed- when the gearshift fork is moved second sliding gear is shifted backward to mesh
with second speed gear, rotation of input shaft is then transmitted to turn the output shaft.
Third gear- in this type the input and output shafts are coupled and rotated together the
transmission in then said to be top.
Reverse gear- When the gearshift fork is moved, the sliding gear is shifted backward to mesh with
the reverse idler gear. The rotation of input shaft is transmitted to turn the output shaft in reverse
direction.

Types of gearbox

1. Sliding mesh gear box-It is the simplest type of gearbox. The clutch gear is rigidly fixed
to the clutch shaft. It remains always connected to the drive gear of the counter shaft.
Three other gear are fixed to the counter shaft, they are the second, first, and reverse gear.
A shifter yoke is used to slide the gear mounted on the main shaft.
2. Constant mesh gears box-In this type of gearbox all the gears of the main shaft are in
constant mesh with the corresponding gears of the counter shaft. Two-dog clutch are
provided of the main shaft. The dog clutch can slide on the shaft and rotate with it. In this
type of gear box all the gear are in constant mesh, hence they are safe from being
damaged and no grinding sound occurs while engaging or disengaging them.

37
Gearbox troubles

The most common troubles of gearbox and their causes are as follows: -

1. Grinding noise-Gear box not properly aligned with the engine causing the shaft from the
flywheel to the gearbox to blind.
2. Noise in gear-these noise occurs because the rear bearing on main shaft have become dry
or due to damaged speedometer drive gears.
3.hard shifting-It occurs due to improper clutch adjustment, distorted splines of the main
shaft or battered gear teeth.

38
EXP NO.- 14
Aim- Performance test of Internal Combustion engines.
OBJECTIVES:-
To plot performance curves of I.C. engines.
i) Power Vs. engine speed
ii) Hourly fuel consumption Vs engine speed
iii) Specific fuel consumption Vs. engine speed
iv) Specific fuel consumption Vs power
v) Equivalent crankshaft, torque Vs engine speed

APPARATUS:-
I.C. engine, balance, measuring cylinder, stop watch, Hydraulic dynamometer, Tacho-
meter, barometer, dry & wet bulb thermometer, psychrometric chart.
PROCEDURE:-
Engine test set-up is shown in Fig. 13.6
i) Engine should be run before starting the actual test and general
observations should be made regarding the proper running conditions of
the engine.
ii) Engine should have reached steady working conditions before taking any
reading.
iii) Readings should be taken from the various instruments while the test is in
progress and should be recorded in log sheet as given in Table.13.1.
iv) Record fuel consumption every 30 minutes by balance method.
v) Record brake load as a function of engine speed.
vi) Calculate BHP using equation (13.1).
vii) Calculate specific fuel consumption in terms of g/bhp – h.
viii) Calculate equivalent crank shaft torque using equation (13.2)
THEORY:-
The performance curves of I.C. engines are represented by:-
i) Power as a function of engine speed (Fig. 13.1)
ii) Equivalent crankshaft torque as a function of engine speed (Fig. 13.2)
iii) Hourly fuel consumption as a function of engine speed (Fig. 13.3)
iv) Specific fuel consumption as a function of engine speed (Fig. 13.4)
v) Specific fuel consumption as a function of power (Fig.13.5)

Engine power can be calculated by:

BHP = …………….. (13.1)

Where,
W = brake load, kg.

39
 N = engine, rpm
BHP = brake horse power

Equivalent torque can be calculated:

hp =

or T = ……..…………….. (13.2)

Where,
T = torque, kg-m

NOTE: Correction factors for power & fuel consumption are not considered in this test
because of limited time. However, these factors must be used to find corrected
powers & fuel consumption in actual engine tests.

PRECAUTIONS :-
i) Keep away from all the moving parts of the equipment.
ii) Make certain that all the connections are tight to prevent any leakage of fuel
etc.
iii) Fill the water & fuel to proper level before starting

DRAW THE GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION:-

i) BHP Vs engine rpm
ii) Fuel consumption Vs. engine rpm
iii) Specific fuel consumption Vs. engine speed
iv) Specific fuel consumption Vs. BHP
v) Torque Vs. engine speed

40
Fig.13 Performance Curves of Internal Combustion Engine

41
 Fig. 13.6 Engine Testing Set-Up
1. Engine 7. Strain gauges
2. Hydraulic Dynamometer 8. Main jar of diesel
3. Photo pick-up 9. Beaker
4. Oscilloscope 10. Balance
5. Strain indicater 11. V1 valve for direct diesel supply to
engine
6. Thermo couple 12. V2 valve for diesel supply from beaker to
engine

42