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Surface Finish Metrology

© 2003 Taylor Hobson Ltd
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1 6 11 16
Why Measure Form Gothic Arch
Filters
Surface Finish? Measurement Analysis

2 7 12 17
Measurement Calibration Surface Finish
Parameters
Methods Methods Standards

3 8 13 18
Measurement Bearing Area Drawing
Datums (Material Ratio) Indication

4 9 14 19
Reproducing The Rk 3D (Areal)
The Surface Parameter Measurement

5 10 15 20
R&W Conics &
Terminology
Analysis Aspherics
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Why Measure Surface Finish ?

Why Measure Surface Finish?
Many Items. Many Industrial Sectors.
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Bearing Brake Disk

Cans

Mixer Nozzle

Ceramic Tile Medical Tubes

Deodorant Ball

SF Standards
Why Measure Surface Finish?
Automotive & Steel Industry
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Con-rods Pistons & Rings Valves & Seats

Injectors Punches & Press Tools

Cylinder Blocks
Crankshafts Brake Pipes

Tappets
Reflectors / Headlights Camshafts

Fuel Pumps Brake Discs & Drums

Gears & Shafts

Cutting Tools Extrusion Dies

Tappets Bearings
Pistons
Axles & Hubs Steering Parts
Cylinder Heads
Painted Surfaces
Sheet Metal CV Joints

SF Standards
Why Measure Surface Finish?
Bearing Industry
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Ball Bearings

Roller Bearings
Large Bearings

Thrust Bearings

Air Bearing Spindles

Miniature Bearings

SF Standards
Why Measure Surface Finish?
Pharmaceutical Industry
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Razor Blades & Packages
Medical EquipmentTubes

Hip Joints Pill Punches

Contact Lens & Moulds / Tools

Sieve Meshes
Teeth / Toothpaste

Plastic Packaging

Hearing Aid Components Syringes

Knee Joints
Hair / Cosmetics

Enzyme Circuits
Skin / Cosmetics

SF Standards
Why Measure Surface Finish?
Domestic & Food Industry
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Sprayer Nozzles Road
Razor Blades
Surfaces

Snooker Balls
Shaving Cream Containers
Drink Can Moulds

Pens / Tips & Parts

Video Drums Lottery Balls Money

Sandpaper
Deodorant Balls Hand Tool Mouldings
Paper

Wine Glasses
Kettle Elements Bottle Dies

Cans & Lids Window Cleaner Blades Floor Tiles

SF Standards
Why Measure Surface Finish?
Electronics / Computing / Printing / Photographic Ind.
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Rubber Drive Wheels Lead Frames
LCD Screens

Mobile Phones Motor Commutators

Ink Cartridges
Keypads
Printer Components

Circuit Boards CD / DVD / Disc Drives

Potentiometer Tracks

Heat Sinks Contacts & Switches

Analogue Meter Spindles

Camera Lenses Film Canisters

Camera Parts

SF Standards
Why Measure Surface Finish?
Aerospace & Defence Industry
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Gyro Parts Turbine Blades
Machine Tools

Hydraulic Valves & Spools

Turbine Rings / Teeth / Cases

Ammunition & Fuses

Tool Holders Impeller Blade Root

SF Standards
Why Measure Surface Finish?
Role of Surface Metrology
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Manufacture Function

Control Prediction

Quality of Conformance SURFACES Quality of Design

Variations in Value of Absolute Value of

Surface Parameter Surface Parameter

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Why Measure Surface Finish?
Role of Surface Metrology
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Manufacture Function

◆ Process Control ◆ Improve Design

◆ Predict Behaviour

SF Standards
Why Measure Surface Finish?
Role of Surface Metrology - Manufacture
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The Ideal Situation

SF Standards
Why Measure Surface Finish?
Role of Surface Metrology - Manufacture
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The Reality:
Process Control

SF Standards
Why Measure Surface Finish?
Role of Surface Metrology - Function
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Predicting Component Behaviour

SF Standards
Why Measure Surface Finish?
Monitoring Component Performance
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Monitoring Component Performance

SF Standards
Why Measure Surface Finish?
Nature of Surfaces
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◆ The microstructure of the material

◆ The action of the cutting tool

◆ The instability of the cutting tool on the material

◆ Errors in machine tool guideways

◆ Deformations due to stress patterns in the component

SF Standards
Why Measure Surface Finish?
Nature of Surfaces - The Microstructure of the Material
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Commercial Aluminium White Paint

Blue Paint Blue Plastic

SF Standards
Why Measure Surface Finish?
Nature of Surfaces - The Action of the Cutting Tool
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Built Up Edge
Deposit on Chip

TOOL

BUE
BUE Deposits On
Machined Surface

Built Up Edge Degrades Surface Finish

SF Standards
Why Measure Surface Finish?
Nature of Surfaces - The Instability of The Cutting Tool
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Milling

Regenerative Waviness.

SF Standards
Why Measure Surface Finish?
Nature of Surfaces - Stress Patterns In Components
Component
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Checks on raw material

Check during manufacturing process

Checks during product life.

Aircraft Crankshaft example

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Why Measure Surface Finish?
Nature of Surfaces
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◆ The microstructure of the material

◆ The action of the cutting tool

◆ The instability of the cutting tool on the material

◆ Errors in machine tool guideways

◆ Deformations due to stress patterns in the component

Machining Processes Typical Ra Values SF Standards

Why Measure Surface Finish?
Unwanted Properties on a Surface
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◆ Deep valleys which may be susceptible to crack
propagation

◆ Too many peaks which may cause early surface

breakdown and wear when in contact with a mating
component

◆ Excessive waviness which may cause noise or

indicate machining problems

SF Standards
Why Measure Surface Finish?
Wanted Properties on a Surface
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◆ Sufficient valleys for oil retention when lubrication is
an important factor

◆ Sufficient peaks for retention of paint and adhesives

◆ Sufficient distribution of valleys for formability

◆ Smooth surface profiles for reduced, noise, vibration

or high reflectance.

SF Standards
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Measurement Methods & Instrumentation

Measurement Methods & Instrumentation
Measurement Methods
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◆ Initial Visual inspection

◆ Comparison Plates

◆ Contact Methods

◆ Non-Contact Methods

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Measurement Methods & Instrumentation
Initial Visual Inspection
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◆ Hold Part Up To Light

◆ Use Eye-Glass if Required

Observe:

◆ Direction Of Lay

◆ Process Marks

◆ Defects / Scratches

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Measurement Methods & Instrumentation
Comparison Plates
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Measurement Methods & Instrumentation
Comparison Plates - ‘N’ Numbers (UK)
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2000
50 N12

1000
25 N11

12.5
500 N10

250
6.3 N9

125
3.2 N8

1.6
63 N7
Nominal Ra in µin
µm Roughness Grade Number
0.8
32 N6

0.4
16 N5

0.2
8 N4

0.1
4 N3

0.05
2 N2

0.025
1 N1

SF Standards
Measurement Methods & Instrumentation
Contact Type Instruments
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TRAVERSE UNIT

Stylus Movement (Z) Data Point Spacing (X)

Pickup / Stylus

Traverse Direction (X)

SF Standards
Measurement Methods & Instrumentation
Early Contact Type Instrument
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Talysurf 1 (1941)

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Measurement Methods & Instrumentation
Recent Contact Type Instrument
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Form Talysurf Series PGI

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Measurement Methods & Instrumentation
Instrument Using Variable Reluctance Transducer
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Surtronic 3+

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Measurement Methods & Instrumentation
Instrument Using Inductive Transducer
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Form Talysurf Intra Inductive Transducer

Ball Unit SF Standards

Measurement Methods & Instrumentation
Inductive Transducer
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Coil

Ferrite Slug (Armature)

Beam
Coil

Stylus

Knife Edge Pivots

SF Standards
Measurement Methods & Instrumentation
Instrument Using Piezo-Electric Transducer
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Surtronic Duo Portable Roughness Measurement

Piezo Transducer

SF Standards
Measurement Methods & Instrumentation
Instrument Using Piezo-Electric Transducer
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Surtronic Duo

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Measurement Methods & Instrumentation
Piezo-Electric Transducer
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Beam Piezo Element
Advantages
Ideal For Small Portable Instruments
Only Needs Simple Processing Electronics
Stylus Ideal for Small Stylus Movements
Good High Frequency Response

Disadvantages
Small Range
Low Linearity
Temperature / Humidity Sensitive
Limited Low frequency Response

SF Standards
Measurement Methods & Instrumentation
Interferometric Transducer - Laser
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Measurement Methods

Advantages Output is Related To Laser Wavelength

Extremely High Accuracy & Linearity
Large Range and High Resolution
A
Resolution Independent of Gauge Range
Laser

C B
Laser F
Reference Beam Diodes
Beam
E

Stylus D

Interference Detrected Here

Interpolation SF Standards
Measurement Methods & Instrumentation
Interference Fringes (Laser and PGI Systems)
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Reference Beam Moving Beam

Beams Aligned - Note Fringes

Beams Separated - No Interference

Output from diodes

SF Standards
Measurement Methods & Instrumentation
Phase Grating Interferometric Transducer (PGI)
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Advantages Output Phase and Frequency are
Extremely High Accuracy & Linearity Dependant Upon Grating Pitch
Not Laser Wavelength
Large Range and High Resolution
Resolution Independent of Gauge Range

SF Standards
Measurement Methods & Instrumentation
Phase Grating Interferometric Transducer (PGI)
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Measurement Methods & Instrumentation
Non-Contact : Scattering Laser Triangulation
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Advantages

High Speed 50,000pps

Slopes up to 90 deg

Low cost

Disadvantages

Spot size variation

Scattering only

Shadow areas

Limited Resolution

SF Standards
Measurement Methods & Instrumentation
Non-Contact : Scattering Laser Triangulation
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Laser

CCD Detector
X
Stepped Surface

Laser

CCD Detector


Stepped Surface

SF Standards
Measurement Methods & Instrumentation
Instrument Using Scattering Laser Triangulation
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Talyscan 250

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Measurement Methods & Instrumentation
Atomic Force Microscope
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Spring Deflection
Sensor

Spring

Stylus Tip

Operating Modes Resolution as low as 10pm

◆ ‘Contact Mode’
◆ ‘Tapping Mode’ Can image in air and under liquids

SF Standards
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Measurement Datums
Measurement Datums
Skid (Surface) Datum
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Direction of Traverse

Pivot Point For Pickup

1

1 - Stylus
2 - Skid

The Skid Has Filtered Out The Waviness

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Measurement Datums
Skid (Surface) Datum
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◆ Reduces Effects of Vibration

◆ Little Surface Levelling Required

◆ Instrument Portability

◆ Robust Design

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Measurement Datums
Effect of Skid To Stylus Pitch
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Apparent Height
Actual Height

+H

-H

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Measurement Datums
Effect of Skid To Stylus Pitch
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Resultant Profile P-V = 0µm

P-V = 10µm

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Measurement Datums
Independent Datums
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Traverse Unit Datum Traverse Direction

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Measurement Datums
Independent Datums
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Traverse Unit Datum Traverse Direction

Datum Skid

Optical Flat

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Reproducing The Surface

Reproducing The Surface
Interpreting The Graph - Scaling
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X 10k

X5

X 10K

X 50

X 10K

X
X 10K
200

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Reproducing The Surface
The Stylus - Critical Dimensions
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Effective Length

Pivot Point

Shank
Clearance

Tip Radius r

Shank Length

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Reproducing The Surface
Stylus Types - Standard & Recess Stylus
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Standard Stylus Recess Stylus

2µm Conisphere Tip 2µm Conisphere Tip

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Reproducing The Surface
Stylus Types - Ball Stylus
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120mm Ball Stylus
500µm Radius. Ruby Ball Tip

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Reproducing The Surface
Stylus Types - Miniature Bore Stylus
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Miniature Bore Stylus

2µm Conisphere Tip

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Reproducing The Surface
Stylus Types - Nozzle Stylus
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Nozzle Stylus
2µm Conisphere Tip

SF Standards
Reproducing The Surface
Stylus Types - Chisel Edge Stylus
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Chisel Edge Stylus
20µm Tungsten Tip

15°

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Reproducing The Surface
Gauge Range & Resolution
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Gauge Range 10mm

Gauge
Resolution:
Smallest stylus
movement that can be
‘detected’ 0.8nm

SF Standards
Reproducing The Surface
Stylus Tip Geometry
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2µm

2µm

Traverse Direction

Conisphere Stylus Truncated Pyramid Stylus

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Reproducing The Surface
Filtering Effect of Stylus Tip
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Form Waviness Roughness

Conisphere Tip r = 2µm

X X
Ruby Ball Tip r = 500µm

Refer to ISO 3274 For Details

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Reproducing The Surface
Effects of Stylus Tip Size & Shape - ISO 3274
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Standardised Values of Stylus Tip Radius - unless otherwise specified

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Reproducing The Surface
Stylus Force
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Typical Stylus Force

Nanostep : 10µN - 700µN (1 - 70mgf)

Form Talysurf : 700µN - 1mN (70 - 100mgf)

(60mm Diamond Tip Stylus)

Form Talysurf : 15mN - 25mN (1.5 - 2.5gf)

(120mm Ball Tip Stylus)

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Reproducing The Surface
Surface Replication
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Accuracy
Typically, a difference of ±2% ±0.1µm
is introduced when compared to the
original sample.

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Reproducing The Surface
Stylus Flanking - On A Curved Profile
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Bearing Race

Stylus Flanking !

T = 1.15R for Diamond Tip Stylus T = Obtainable Traverse Length

T = 1.6R for Ball Stylus R = Profile Radius

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Reproducing The Surface
Stylus Flanking - On A Slope
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Flanking graph - what it looks like

Stylus Flanking !

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Reproducing The Surface
Stylus Flanking
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Tip Stylus
Of Stylus
Flanking
In Contact
!

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Reproducing The Surface
Reproducing the Surface - Limitations
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Profile produced by Stylus
B
A

Stylus Tip

B
A

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Reproducing The Surface
Data Points - Aliasing
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True Signal Aliasing Signal

Sampling Interval

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Reproducing The Surface
Data Points - Reproducing Slopes
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Profile Insufficient Points

Result

Profile Sufficient Points

Result

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Reproducing The Surface
Tilting the Component
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Reproducing The Surface
Form Error Due To Component Misalignment
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Component Misaligned

Component Aligned

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Reproducing The Surface
Fixture - For Component Alignment
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Reproducing The Surface
Other Fixtures
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AIRY DIAMETER Airy

SF Diameter
Standards
Reproducing The Surface
Environmental Enclosure For ‘Nanostep’
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Nanostep 2

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Terminology
Terminology
Roughness, Waviness & Form
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Roughness, Waviness & Form

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Terminology
Roughness, Waviness & Form
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Roughness

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Terminology
Roughness, Waviness & Form
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Waviness

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Terminology
Roughness, Waviness & Form
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Form

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Filters
Filters
Filtering - Separates Roughness and Waviness
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Surface Interaction

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Filters
Roughness, Waviness and Form
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RAW DATA

Form Removal

Roughness Filter Waviness Filter

Ra,Rq,Rz etc... Wa,Wq,Wz etc...

SF Standards
Filters
Filtering Using Graphical Techniques
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Sampling Length

For This Graphical Method, The Shorter The Sampling Length,

The Greater The Attenuation Of Longer Wavelengths

SF Standards
Filters
Filter Types
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◆ ISO 2CR Filter

◆ 2CR PC (Phase Corrected)

◆ Gaussian Filter

SF Standards
Filters
2CR Filters
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Profile Roughness

2CR Roughness Filter

Profile Waviness

2CR Waviness Filter

SF Standards
Filters
Typical 2CR Electronic Filter (Roughness)
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-

Vi Vo

For Sinusoidal Waveform:

Transmission Ratio = Vo / Vi = 3 / (3+α2) α = λ input / λ cut-off

Phase Distortion = 2 tan-1 (α / 1.732)

SF Standards
Filters
Typical 2CR Filter - Step Response
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Settle
Overshoot
% Transmission

100

90

Rise Time
t

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Filters
Distortion Caused By ISO 2CR Filter
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Unfiltered Profile

ISO 2CR Filtered Profile

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Filters
Distortion Caused By ISO 2CR Filter
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Mean Line Established By

Filter

Modified Profile Relative

to Filtered Mean Line

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Filters
Filters - ISO 2CR PC
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Mean Line Established By

Filter

Modified Profile Relative

to Filtered Mean Line

SF Standards
Filters
ISO 2CR PC (Phase Corrected)
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Unfiltered Profile

ISO 2CR PC Filtered Profile

SF Standards
Filters
Gaussian Filter
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Unfiltered Profile

Gaussian Filtered Profile

Gaussian Filter SF Standards

Filters
ISO 2CR Transmission Characteristic : Roughness
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100

90

80
0.08mm
cut-off
70
Percentage Transmission

0.25mm
60
cut-off

50
0.8mm
cut-off
40

2.5mm
30
cut-off

20
8mm cut-
off
10

0
1µm 10µm 0.1mm 1mm 10mm 100mm

Wavelength λ

SF Standards
Filters
Gaussian vs ISO 2CR Response
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100
0.8mm Roughness Filter
90

80

70
Percentage Transmission

60
ISO 2CR
50

40
The Gaussian Filter Has a Much Sharper
Transmission Characteristic
30
Gaussian
20

10

0
1µm 10µm 0.1mm 1mm 10mm 100mm

Wavelength λ

SF Standards
Filters
Gaussian Transmission Characteristic : Waviness
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100

80
Transmission

0.25mm Waviness filter

Percentage

60

0.8mm Waviness filter

40

20 2.5mm Waviness filter

0
1µm 10µm 0.1mm 1mm 10mm

Wavelength

SF Standards
Filters
Example - Effect Of Roughness Filters
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Unfiltered Profile

Roughness Wavelength = 0.25mm Waviness Wavelength = 8mm

SF Standards
Filters
Example - Effect Of Roughness Filters
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Unfiltered Profile

Roughness Amplitude = 20µm Waviness Amplitude = 100µm

SF Standards
Filters
Example - Effect Of Roughness Filters (ISO 2CR)
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CUT-OFF
100
8mm
Percentage Transmission

80
2.5mm
60
0.8mm
40
0.25mm
20

0.08mm
0
1µm 10µm 0.1mm 1mm 10mm 100mm
Wavelength λ

Roughness Amplitude = 20µm Waviness Amplitude = 75µm

SF Standards
Filters
Example - Effect Of Roughness Filters (ISO 2CR)
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CUT-OFF
100
8mm
Percentage Transmission

80
2.5mm
60
0.8mm
40
0.25mm
20

0.08mm
0
1µm 10µm 0.1mm 1mm 10mm 100mm
Wavelength λ

Roughness Amplitude = 20µm Waviness Amplitude = 23µm

SF Standards
Filters
Example - Effect Of Roughness Filters (ISO 2CR)
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CUT-OFF
100
8mm
Percentage Transmission

80
2.5mm
60
0.8mm
40
0.25mm
20

0.08mm
0
1µm 10µm 0.1mm 1mm 10mm 100mm
Wavelength λ

Roughness Amplitude = 19µm Waviness Amplitude = 3µm

SF Standards
Filters
Example - Effect Of Roughness Filters (ISO 2CR)
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CUT-OFF
100
8mm
Percentage Transmission

80
2.5mm
60
0.8mm
40

0.25mm
20

0.08mm
0
1µm 10µm 0.1mm 1mm 10mm 100mm
Wavelength λ

Roughness Amplitude = 15µm Waviness Amplitude = 0µm

SF Standards
Filters
Example - Effect Of Roughness Filters (ISO 2CR)
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CUT-OFF
100
8mm
Percentage Transmission

80
2.5mm
60
0.8mm
40
0.25mm
20

0.08mm
0
1µm 10µm 0.1mm 1mm 10mm 100mm
Wavelength λ

Roughness Amplitude = 5µm Waviness Amplitude = 0µm

SF Standards
Filters
Filter Types
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◆ ISO 2CR- 1st 2 Cut-offs Discarded

◆ 2CR PC- 1st & Last Cut-offs Discarded

◆ Gaussian- Half 1st & Half Last Cut-off

Discarded

SF Standards
Filters
Sampling Length, Assessment Length, Traverse Length
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Traverse Length

Sampling Length (Cut-off)

Run-up Over travel

ISO 2CR

Assessment (Evaluation) Length

SF Standards
Filters
Sampling Length, Assessment Length, Traverse Length
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Traverse Length

Sampling Length (Cut-off)

Run-up Over travel

ISO 2CR PC

Assessment (Evaluation) Length

SF Standards
Filters
Sampling Length, Assessment Length, Traverse Length
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Traverse Length

Sampling Length (Cut-off)

Run-up Over travel

GAUSSIAN

Assessment (Evaluation) Length

SF Standards
Filters
Choosing The Correct Filter (Cut-off) Value
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0.8mm Sampling Length (Cut-off)

SF Standards
Filters
Choosing The Correct Filter (Cut-off) Value
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0.25mm Sampling Length (Cut-off)

SF Standards
Filters
Choosing The Correct Filter (Cut-off) Value
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Traverse Direction

1.25 mm

SF Standards
Filters
Choosing The Correct Filter (Cut-off) Value
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R ecom m ended C ut-off (ISO 4 28 8-19 96 )

P eriod ic N on-Period ic Cu t-off S am plin g

P rofiles P rofiles Leng th/
Evaluation
Leng th

S pacing
D istance R z (µ m ) R a (µm ) ‫ג‬c (m m ) ‫ג‬c (m m )/L
RSm
(m m )
> 0.013 -0.04 To 0 .1 To 0 .0 2 0 .08 0 .08/0.4

> 0.04-0.13 > 0 .1 -0.5 > 0.02-0.1 0 .25 0.25 /1 .2 5

> 0.13-0.4 > 0 .5 -10 > 0 .1 -2 0.8 0.8/4

> 0.4-1 .3 > 10 -50 > 2-1 0 2.5 2 .5/12.5

> 1.3-4 .0 > 50 > 10 8 8 /4 0

Unless otherwise indicated on a drawing, the table above should be

used to determine the cut-off.

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Filters
Bandwidth (Lc/Ls)
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Ls Lc

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Parameters
Parameters
Parameter Types
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◆ Roughness : Prefix R

◆ Waviness : Prefix W

◆ Primary : Prefix P

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Parameters
Parameter Types
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◆ Amplitude Parameters defined from
Z co-ordinates

◆ Spacing Parameters defined from

X co-ordinates

◆ Hybrid Parameters defined from

X & Z co-ordinates

SF Standards
Parameters
Amplitude Parameters - Ra
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Ra

Using Ra SF Standards
Parameters
Amplitude Parameters - Ra Limitations
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Ra

Ra

Ra

Ra

Same Ra - Different Surfaces

SF Standards
Parameters
Amplitude Parameters - Using Pa & ln to Calculate Area
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Using Pa and ln to Calculate Area

ln

Area
= Pa. ln

SF Standards
Parameters
Amplitude Parameters - Rq (rms)
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lr = Sampling Length

Using Rq SF Standards
Parameters
Amplitude Parameters - Rt
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Rt

lr = Sampling Length ln = Assessment Length

Using Rt SF Standards
Parameters
Amplitude Parameters - Rt Results are Divergent
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Note: A single scratch or peak can affect Rt

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Parameters
Amplitude Parameters - Rp
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Rp

Sampling Length

Using Rp SF Standards
Parameters
Amplitude Parameters - Rv
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Rv

Sampling Length

Using Rv SF Standards
Parameters
Amplitude Parameters - Rz
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Rz1 Rz2
Rz3 Rz4 Rz5

Rz = (Rz1 + Rz2 + Rz3 + Rz4 + Rz5 . . .) / n

n = number of sampling lengths

Using Rz SF Standards
Parameters
Amplitude Parameters - Rz1max, Rp1max, Rv1max
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Rz1max Rp1max

Rv1max

Using Rz1max Using Rp1max Using Rv1max SF Standards

Parameters
Spacing Parameters - RHSC (High Spot Count)
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A = Slice Level B = Mean Line

lr = Sampling Length (Cut-off) ln = Assessment Length

Using RHSC SF Standards

Parameters
Spacing Parameters - RHSC (High Spot Count)
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Tall narrow peaks tend Hardened peaks will eventually break

to work harden off and the surface will breakdown

SF Standards
Parameters
Spacing Parameters - RPc (Peak Count)
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A = Selectable Bandwidth B = Mean Line

Using RPc SF Standards

Parameters
Spacing Parameters - RPc (Peak Count)
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Painted Surface

Base Sheet Steel

‘Orange Peel Effect’

Due to Peaks on Sheet
Steel Base Surface

SF Standards
Parameters
Spacing Parameters - RSm (Mean Spacing)
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Mean
Line

lr=Sampling Length (Cut-off)

Using RSm SF Standards

Parameters
Hybrid Parameters - Rda, Rdq, (Wda, Wdq, Pda, Pdq)
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θ θ
θ

∆a) - Arithmetical Mean Slope

Rda (R∆ ∆q) - Root Mean Square Slope
Rdq (R∆

◆ Less sensitive to any exceptional ◆ Very sensitive to any exceptional

values of local slope then Rdq (RMS Slope) values of local slope then Rdq (RMS Slope)

◆ Less suitable for extremely fine surfaces ◆ Most suitable for extremely fine surfaces

◆ More suitable for general engineering and ◆ More suitable for optical or electronic parts,
automotive components. where even small changes are important.

SF Standards
Parameters
Hybrid Parameters - Rda, Rdq, (Wda, Wdq, Pda, Pdq)
fghijk
Slope Parameters

Friction : Higher slope : higher friction

Reflectivity : Higher slope : less reflective the surface

Elasticity : Higher slope : more likely to deform under load

Wear : Higher slope : greater rate of wear

Vibration : Lower slope : less vibration / more quiet

Adhesion : Higher slope : better adhesion / less shearing

SF Standards
Parameters
Hybrid Parameters - Rda, Rdq, (Wda, Wdq, Pda, Pdq)
fghijk
Effects of Surface Slopes - Vibration & Noise

No Vibration Low Frequency High Frequency

> Quiet < > Rumble < > Scream <

SF Standards
Parameters
Hybrid Parameters - Rda, Rdq, (Wda, Wdq, Pda, Pdq)
fghijk
Effects of Surface Slopes - Appearance

With low surface slopes With high surface slopes

more light is reflected less light is reflected into
into the eye and hence the eye and hence has a
has a good appearance poor appearance

SF Standards
Parameters
Hybrid Parameters - Rda, Rdq, (Wda, Wdq, Pda, Pdq)
fghijk
Effects of Surface Slopes - Slip Resistance

Ceramic Tiles

Typical
Parameters:
Rz, Rp, Rda, Rsk

High Surface Slopes mean greater friction - and greater safety.

SF Standards
Parameters
General Comments
fghijk
Useful Parameters

Ra & Rq

Rt & Rp & Rv

Rz

Rsk Check the Primary Profile !

Rda & Rdq

RHSC

RPc

RSm & RS

SF Standards
 fghijk

Bearing Area (Material Ratio)

Bearing Area (Material Ratio)
Run-in / Wear / Lubrication
Upper Surface - defines
Run-in characteristics
fghijk
Body of Surface - defines
Wear / life characteristics

Valleys - define lubrication

characteristics

SF Standards
Bearing Area (Material Ratio)
Rmr (tp%) and Rmr(c)
fghijk
Lapping Plate

Bearing
Line

Rmr = (a+b+c+d+e) x100 / ln ln = Assessment Length

Using Rmr SF Standards

Bearing Area (Material Ratio)
Bearing Area Curve
fghijk
Abbott-Firestone Curve

Abbott-curve

Bearing Ratio Curve These are the same

Bearing Area Curve

Material Ratio Curve

SF Standards
Bearing Area (Material Ratio)
Bearing Area Curve
fghijk

Level p Rmr (%) at level p

0 Rmr(%) 100 %

SF Standards
Bearing Area (Material Ratio)
Bearing Area Curve
fghijk

Level p Rmr (%) at level p

0 Rmr(%) 100 %

SF Standards
Bearing Area (Material Ratio)
Bearing Area Curve
fghijk

Level p Rmr (%) at level p

0 Rmr(%) 100 %

SF Standards
Bearing Area (Material Ratio)
Amplitude Distribution Curve
fghijk
Amplitude Distribution Curve

Level p

0 number of peaks

SF Standards
Bearing Area (Material Ratio)
Relationship Between MR Curve & ADC Curve
fghijk
Material Ratio Curve Amplitude Distribution Curve

Differentiate

Integrate

SF Standards
Bearing Area (Material Ratio)
Associated MR Curve Parameters - Rsk (skew)
fghijk

Surface with Random Amplitude Distribution- Zero Skew

Using Rsk SF Standards

Bearing Area (Material Ratio)
Associated MR Curve Parameters - Rsk (skew)
fghijk

Surface with Dominant Peaks - Positive Skew

SF Standards
Bearing Area (Material Ratio)
Associated MR Curve Parameters - Rsk (skew)
fghijk

Surface with Dominant Valleys - Negative Skew

SF Standards
Bearing Area (Material Ratio)
Associated ADC Curve Parameter - Rku (Kurtosis)
fghijk
Rku < 3

Rku = 3

Rku > 3

Using Rku SF Standards

 fghijk

The Rk Parameter
The Rk Parameter
The Rk Filter
fghijk

Surface Interaction

SF Standards
The Rk Parameter
The Rk Filter
fghijk
Tilted Profile Material Ratio curve

0 Rmr(%) 100 %

SF Standards
The Rk Parameter
The Rk Filter
fghijk

Mean Line

Unfiltered Real Profile

SF Standards
The Rk Parameter
The Rk Filter
fghijk

Valleys removed & kept in memory

Mean Line

Unfiltered Real Profile after valley suppression

SF Standards
The Rk Parameter
The Rk Filter
fghijk

Final Filtered Roughness Profile

SF Standards
The Rk Parameter
Rk Parameters
fghijk
40 %

Rdc

0 tp(%) 100 %

SF Standards
The Rk Parameter
Rk Parameters
fghijk
40 %

C
E

A Rdc
B
F D

0 Rmr(%) 100 %

SF Standards
The Rk Parameter
Rk Parameters
fghijk
40 %

C
E

Rk A Rdc
B
D1 F D

Mr1 Mr2

0 Rmr(%) 100 %

SF Standards
The Rk Parameter
Rk Parameters
fghijk

40 %
C E D
Rk A Rdc
Rpk B
D1 F D Rvk
C E
E
Mr1 Mr2
0 tp(%) 100 %
Area 1 Area 2

SF Standards
The Rk Parameter
Rk Parameters
fghijk
40 %
Rpk

Rk

Rvk

Mr1 Mr2

0 Rmr(%) 100 %

SF Standards
The Rk Parameter
Rk Associated Parameters
fghijk
Rk Core Roughness Depth

Rpk Reduced Peak Height

Rvk Reduced Valley Depth

MR1 Material Component Relative to Peaks

MR2 Material Component Relative to Valleys

A1 Material Filled Profile Peak Area

A2 Lubricant Filled Profile Valley Area

SF Standards
Bearing Area (Material Ratio)
Rk Associated Parameters
Upper Surface - defines
run-in characteristics
fghijk
Body of Surface - defines
wear / life characteristics

Rpk MR1 A1 Rk

Valleys - define lubrication

Rvk MR2 A2
characteristics

SF Standards
 fghijk

R & W Analysis
R & W Analysis
What Is It ?
fghijk
R & W Analysis

◆ A Motif Method (Envelope Technique) is used

◆ Different Method of Filtering

v & Analysis

◆ Started in French Automotive Industry in early 1970’s

◆ Refer To ISO Standard 12085

SF Standards
R & W Analysis
General Information
fghijk
1. Form Fit & Removal (eg LS Line) must be used for a
valid R & W Analysis. (The ‘DATUM’ option is not valid).

2. R & W Measurements are usually skidless.

3. The corrected upper envelope line can also be used as

an alternative to the Rk filter (as in ISO 13565-1) for
parameters Rk, Rpk & Rvk (as in ISO 13565-2).
If so, they become: Rke, Rpke, Rvke.

4. The 16% Rule (ISO 4288) applies for Motif Parameters.

SF Standards
R & W Analysis
Definitions - Local Peaks
fghijk

Local Peak: Part of the profile between two adjacent minima.

SF Standards
R & W Analysis
Definitions - Local Valleys
fghijk

Local Valley: Part of the profile between two adjacent maxima.

SF Standards
R & W Analysis
Definitions - Motif
fghijk
Local Peak 1

Local Peak 2

Motif: Portion of primary profile between highest points of two

local peaks of the profile that are not necessarily adjacent.

SF Standards
R & W Analysis
Roughness Motif
fghijk

Hj
Hj+1

ARi

Motif Length : ARi Motif Depths : Hj and Hj+1

LIMIT VALUE A : ARi ≤ A T = MIN [Hj ; Hj+1]

SF Standards
R & W Analysis
Upper Envelope Line of Primary Profile
fghijk
Upper Envelope Line

Upper Envelope Line: Straight lines joining highest points of

peaks* of primary profile.

*Note: Not all peaks are used : Discrimination is performed first

SF Standards
R & W Analysis
Waviness Motif
fghijk
Hwj Hwj+1
Upper Envelope Line

AWi

Motif Length : AWi Motif Depths : Hwj and Hwj+1

LIMIT VALUE B : AWi ≤ B T = MIN [Hwj ; Hwj+1]

SF Standards
R & W Analysis
R & W Parameters
fghijk
AR Mean Spacing of Roughness Motifs

R Mean Depth of Roughness Motifs

Rx Maximum Depth of Profile Irregularity

AW Mean Spacing of Waviness Motifs

W Mean Depth of Waviness Motifs

Wx Maximum Depth of Waviness

Wte Total Depth Of Waviness

SF Standards
R & W Analysis
R & W Parameter Definitions : AR
fghijk

AR1 ARi ARn

AR Mean Spacing of Roughness Motifs n

AR = 1/ Σ ARi
Arithmetic mean value of n Roughness Motif Lengths ARi, n i=1
within the Evaluation Length.

SF Standards
R & W Analysis
R & W Parameter Definitions : R
fghijk
H2 H3 Hm-1

Hj
H1 Hj+1
Hm

AR1 ARi ARn

R Mean Depth of Roughness Motifs m

R = 1/ Σ Hj
Arithmetic mean value of m Roughness Motif Depths Hj, mj= 1
within the Evaluation Length.

SF Standards
R & W Analysis
R & W Parameter Definitions : Rx
fghijk
H2 H3 Hm-1

Hj
H1 Hj+1
Hm

AR1 ARi ARn

Rx Maximum Depth of Profile Irregularity

Largest Depth, Hj, within the Evaluation Length.
Above, Rx = H3

SF Standards
R & W Analysis
R & W Parameter Definitions : AW
fghijk
Upper Envelope Line
AWi

2.5 µm
x
500 µm

AW Mean Spacing of Waviness Motifs n

Arithmetic mean value of n Waviness Motif Lengths AW i, within the
AW = 1/ Σ AWi
n i=1
Evaluation Length.

SF Standards
R & W Analysis
R & W Parameter Definitions : W
fghijk
Upper Envelope Line
AWi

Hwj

2.5 µm
x
500 µm

W Mean Depth of Waviness Motifs m

W = 1/ Σ Hwj
Arithmetic mean value of m Waviness Motif Depths Hwj, mj= 1
within the Evaluation Length.

SF Standards
R & W Analysis
R & W Parameter Definitions : Wx
fghijk
Upper Envelope Line
AWi

Hwj
Wx

2.5 µm
x
500 µm

Wx Maximum Depth of Waviness

Largest Depth, Hwj, within the Evaluation Length.

SF Standards
R & W Analysis
R & W Parameter Definitions : Wte
fghijk
Upper Envelope Line

Wte

2.5 µm
x
500 µm

Wte Total Depth Of Waviness

Distance perpendicular to the general direction of the Primary Profile, from
highest point to lowest point of upper envelope line.

SF Standards
R & W Analysis
Recommended Measurement Conditions
fghijk
Traverse Evaluation Maximum
1 1
A B Length Length λS Stylus Tip Radius
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (µm) (µm)
0.02 0.1 0.64 0.64 2.5 2 ± 0.5
0.1 0.5 3.2 3.2 2.5 2 ± 0.5
0.5 2.5 16 16 8 5±1
2.5 12.5 80 80 25 10 ± 2
Note 1: If not otherwise specified, default values are: A = 0.5mm and B = 2.5mm

0 ≤ spacing ≤ A A ≤ spacing ≤ B

Roughness Motifs Waviness Motifs

SF Standards
R & W Analysis
Relating Motif Parameters To Function of Surfaces
fghijk
Most Important
Parameters:

Specify at least one

Secondary
Parameters:

Specify if necessary
according to part
functions.

*)
Symbols (FS etc.)
are French
acronyms.

SF Standards
R & W Analysis
Further R & W Parameters
fghijk
SAR The Standard Deviation of AR

SR The Standard Deviation of R

SAW The Standard Deviation of AW

SW The Standard Deviation of W

SF Standards
 fghijk

Form Measurement
Form Measurement
Some Aspects Of Form Measurement
fghijk

SF Standards
Form Measurement
Form Fit : Least Squares Line
fghijk

a2 + b2+ c2 + d2 …. = minimum

SF Standards
Form Measurement
Straightness (LS Line)
fghijk

SF Standards
Form Measurement
Straightness (MZ Line)
fghijk

SF Standards
Form Measurement
Form Fit : Least Squares Arc
fghijk
R = Calculated LS Radius r-r = LS Arc

r
r

a2 + b2+ c2 + d2 …. = minimum

SF Standards
Form Measurement
Accuracy of Radius Measurement
fghijk
Factors Affecting Radius Accuracy

Component Related Instrument Related

Surface Finish of Component Accuracy of Calibration

Form Error of Component Condition of Stylus
Traverse Length / Included Angle Traverse Datum Straightness

◆ Specify Form Error (Pt) as well as Radius

◆ Always Measure within Calibrated Gauge Range

Radius Accuracy Example SF Standards

Form Measurement
Form Exclusions
fghijk

◆ Analysis of Interruptions in Radius (LS Arc)

◆ Straightness Analysis - Excluding Holes (LS Line)

◆ Software Levelling

SF Standards
Form Measurement
Form Exclusions - Example
fghijk
Straightness On Interrupted Surface

SF Standards
Form Measurement
Form Exclusions - Example
fghijk
Straightness On Interrupted Surface

Modified Profile Continental ConAir Blade Teeth - :Reanalysis

No Filter Required 02/19/01 12:08:50 PM
Blade 2 - 45mm/rws/FTSS2 PGI 02/19/01 11:48:28 AM
6 6

4 4

2 2
microns
microns

microns
0 0

-2 -2

-4 -4

-6 -6

-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70

millimetres
Current Point Reference Point Difference
X 21.5880 mm X -53.6190 mm ∆?X
X 75.2070 mm
Z -125.0868 µm Z 0.0420 µm ∆?Z
Z -125.1288 µm
Modified Profile PV 8.1329 µm Pitch 75.2071 mm

SF Standards
Form Measurement
Dimensional Measurement
fghijk

◆ Angles Between Straight Surfaces

◆ Pitch, dx and dz between Radius Centres

◆ Intersections of lines / arcs

◆ Step Height & Distance Measurement

SF Standards
Form Measurement
Dimensional Measurement - Example
fghijk

◆ Profile
◆ Angle
◆ Radius

SF Standards
 fghijk

Calibration Methods
Calibration Methods
Calibration Balls - Known Radius & Form Error
fghijk

SF Standards
Calibration Methods
Calibration Balls - Known Radius & Form Error
fghijk
Traverse Direction

◆ Remember to calibrate in each gauge range

◆ Note variation in stylus tip contact position
◆ Need to fully calibrate over measured range

SF Standards
Calibration Methods
Gauge Linearity
fghijk
Indicated Gauge Reading

True Gauge Position

SF Standards
Calibration Methods
Software Corrections - Arcuate Errors
fghijk

Traverse Direction

dZ

dX

SF Standards
Calibration Methods
Software Corrections - Stylus Tip Errors
fghijk

Traverse Direction

Path of Stylus Tip Centre

SF Standards
Calibration Methods
Ra & Rz Roughness Standards
fghijk

SF Standards
Calibration Methods
Ra & Rz Roughness Standards
fghijk

SF Standards
Calibration Methods
3 Line (Step Height) Standard
fghijk
Traverse Direction

2.5µm Step Height

◆ Remember to calibrate in each gauge range

◆ Note variation in stylus tip contact position

◆ Need to fully calibrate over measured range

SF Standards
Calibration Methods
3 Line (Step Height) Standard
fghijk
A B

A = Mean Line h = Calibration Height

SF Standards
Calibration Methods
3 Line (Step Height) Standard
fghijk
3W

W/3 W/3
W

A B

C
h = Calibration Height
W/3

SF Standards
Calibration Methods
Reduction Lever
fghijk

SF Standards
Calibration Methods
Reduction Lever
fghijk
B C

A=B+C
6mm
20 2

12mm (b)

120mm (a)

SF Standards
Calibration Methods
Wear Gauge
fghijk

W1 W2 W3 W4

SF Standards
Calibration Methods
Wear Gauge
fghijk

SF Standards
Calibration Methods
Prism Standard - Angle Verification
fghijk

SF Standards
Calibration Methods
Datum Bar Straightness Correction
fghijk
System Requirements For Correction

◆ Excellent Gauge Resolution

◆ Excellent Gauge Linearity

◆ Low Noise.

◆ Good Environment.

◆ Good Inherent Traverse Straightness

◆ Repeatable Straightness Before Correction

SF Standards
 fghijk

Drawing Indication
Drawing Indication
Considerations
fghijk
◆ Traverse Length ?
◆ Cut-off ?
◆ Form Type ?
◆ Filter type ?
◆ Number of Cut-offs ?
◆ Appropriate Parameters ?
◆ Tip Type / Radius ?
◆ Bandwidth ?
◆ Where to measure ?
◆ Lay / Direction Of Measurement

SF Standards
Drawing Indication
Early / Obsolete Methods
fghijk
Maximum Permissible Value Rt (µm)

◆ Triangle Symbols are still used on many drawings.

◆ This method is no longer valid & was cancelled in 1978.
◆ It has been superseded by ISO 1301

SF Standards
Drawing Indication
Graphical Symbols For Surface Texture
fghijk

6.8

Conventional Surface Texture Symbol

SF Standards
Drawing Indication
Graphical Symbols For Surface Texture
fghijk
1 2 3

Requirement for
Requirement for Requirement for
Surface Texture,
Surface Texture,
Surface Texture
Material
Material Removal
Removal
Not Permitted
Required

SF Standards
Drawing Indication
Graphical Symbols For Surface Texture
fghijk
(c) Turned
(a) 0.0025-0.8/Rz 6.8
(b) 0.0025-0.8/Ra 2.2

(e) 3 (d)

SF Standards
Drawing Indication
Drawing Indication of Surface Lay
fghijk

See ISO 1302

SF Standards
Drawing Indication
Graphical Symbols For Surface Texture
fghijk

Fe/Ni 15p cr
0.0025 - 0.8 / Rz 6.8

SF Standards
Drawing Indication
Graphical Symbols For Surface Texture
fghijk
U Ra 0.9
L Ra 0.3

Bi-Lateral Tolerancing

SF Standards
Drawing Indication
The 16% Rule (Default Rule)
fghijk

• No more than 16% of the measured values for

an upper limit should exceed the specified value

• No more than 16% of the measured values for a

lower limit should be less than the specified value

SF Standards
Drawing Indication
The MAX Rule
fghijk

Rz MAX 0.9

SF Standards
 fghijk

3D (Areal) Measurement
3D (Areal Measurement)
3D (Areal) Measurement
fghijk

SF Standards
fghijk
3D (Areal Measurement)
Advantages of 3D (Areal) over 2D
fghijk
◆ Good Visualisation of the Surface

◆ More Statistically Stable

◆ Better at Detecting & Analysing Defects

◆ Many Methods of Representing the Data

SF Standards
3D (Areal Measurement)
Disadvantages of 3D (Areal) over 2D
fghijk
◆ Longer Measurement Cycles

◆ Large Data Files

◆ Sometimes Visually Subjective

◆ Mainly Restricted to R & D

SF Standards
3D (Areal Measurement)
Contact Measurement Method
fghijk

Traverse Direction

Y Axis Incremental Movement

SF Standards
3D (Areal Measurement)
Non-Contact Measurement Method
fghijk
CCD Detector Laser

Y Axis Incremental Movement

Measurement Axis (X)

SF Standards
3D (Areal Measurement)
Critical Dimensions for 3D Measurement
fghijk

Profile 2

Z2
∆Z
∆X

Z1
Profile 1 ∆Y

SF Standards
3D (Areal Measurement)
Data Analysis
fghijk

SF Standards
3D (Areal Measurement)
Levelling the Data
fghijk

SF Standards
3D (Areal Measurement)
Form Removal
fghijk
Cylinder Liner- Form Removed

Cylinder Liner- No Form Removed

SF Standards
3D (Areal Measurement)
Viewing 3D Data
fghijk

Meshed Axonometric View

SF Standards
3D (Areal Measurement)
Viewing 3D Data
fghijk
Pseudo- Colour View

Photo Simulation View

SF Standards
3D (Areal Measurement)
Viewing 3D Data
fghijk
Contour View

Continuous Axonometric View

SF Standards
3D (Areal Measurement)
3D Filtering
fghijk

0.8mm

0.8mm

Sampling Area •

◆ 0.8mm Gaussian Filter

◆ ½ Cut-off Lost Top, Bottom, Left & Right

SF Standards
3D (Areal Measurement)
3D Parameter Types
fghijk
◆ Amplitude Parameters

◆ Spatial Parameters

◆ Hybrid Parameters

◆ Functional Parameters

SF Standards
3D (Areal Measurement)
3D Amplitude Parameters - Prefix: S
fghijk
Sa = arithmetic mean of the deviations from the mean plane

Sq = RMS of the mean of the deviations from the mean plane

St = total peak to valley over the sample area

Sv = depth of the deepest valley to mean plane

Sp = height of the highest peak to mean plane

SF Standards
3D (Areal Measurement)
3D Spatial Parameters
fghijk
SPc = peak count between two selectable planes

Sds = density of summits contained in a sampling area

Std = texture direction of the surface

SF Standards
3D (Areal Measurement)
3D Hybrid Parameters
fghijk
Sdr = developed interfacial area ratio of the surface

Ssc = mean summit curvature of the surface

S∆q = RMS slope of the surface

SF Standards
3D (Areal Measurement)
3D Functional Parameters
fghijk
Stp = surface bearing area ratio

Sbi = surface bearing index

Sci = core fluid retention index

Svi = valley fluid retention index

SF Standards
3D (Areal Measurement)
Volume / Defect Analysis
fghijk

SF Standards
3D (Areal Measurement)
Example of Volume Analysis
fghijk

Control of Volume of Glue Spots

SF Standards
3D (Areal Measurement)
Step Height Analysis
fghijk

SF Standards
3D (Areal Measurement)
Example of Step Height Analysis
fghijk

Measurement of Contact Pin Height on ICs.

SF Standards
 fghijk

Conics and Aspherics

Conics & Aspherics
Technology Trends
fghijk
Spherical
Optics

Aspherics

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
Technology Trends
Measurement of Aspherics
fghijk
m2
0 Deg m1 GLASS : 2 Measurements m1 & m2 90
deg apart

GERMANIUM

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
Technology Trends - Miniaturisation
fghijk
◆ Miniaturisation

– Consumer Electronics

– Military Applications

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
UV (Ultra Violet) Aspheric Applications
fghijk
◆ Lithography - UV (Ultra Violet) Aspheric Applications
– Ever Increasing Form Accuracy (eg λ/20)
– Larger Diameters (200mm+)
– Interesting Materials (eg CaF)

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
IR (Infra Red) Aspheric Applications
fghijk
◆ IR (Infra Red) Aspheric Applications

– Diffractive Optics

– Larger Diameters (200mm+)

– Lower Precision (λ/2)

– Strong Trend to Aspheres

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
Technology Trends
fghijk
◆ Ophthalmics

– Form of Torics / Aspheres

– Shopfloor Applications

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
Opthalmics - Toric Lenses & Astigmatism
fghijk

To correct for Astigmatism, Toric Some Toric Lenses are heavier at

Lenses apply a different correction the bottom to stop the lens from
vertically and horizontally. rotating.

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
Aspheric Measurement - Instrument Requirements
fghijk
Aspheric Measurement - Instrument Requirements

◆ Large Gauge Range

◆ Excellent Gauge Resolution

◆ Excellent Gauge Linearity

◆ Excellent Repeatability

◆ Low Noise

◆ Excellent Traverse Straightness

◆ Powerful Software Analysis Capability

◆ Traceability

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
Aspherics Measurement System
fghijk
PGI plus

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
Conics Sections
fghijk

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
Conics Constants
fghijk
Ellipse: K< 0 Sphere: K= 0 Oblate Ellipse: K>0

Z2 + X2 = 1 Z2 + X2 = 1 Z2 + X2 = 1
R22 R12 R2 R2 R22 R12

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
Conics Constants
fghijk
Hyperbola: K< -1
Parabola: K= -1

Z2 + X2 = 1
Z = (Ax)2
R22 R12

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
What is an Aspheric?
fghijk
Conventional Spherical Lens

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
What is an Aspheric?
fghijk
Aspheric Lens

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
Reasons for Using an Aspheric?
fghijk
◆ Reduces Spherical Aberration

◆ Ability to Produce Vari-focal Lenses

◆ Reduction in Lens Size and Weight

◆ Greater Design Freedom

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
How is an Asphere Constructed?
fghijk
Z Axis

Basic Conic Section (Sphere)

Z2 + X2 = 1
R2 R2

X Axis

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
How is an Asphere Constructed?
fghijk
Z Axis

Basic Conic Section (Sphere)

Aspheric Polynomial Curve

Z=a8|x|8

X Axis

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
How is an Asphere Constructed?
fghijk
Z Axis

Aspheric Profile

Basic Conic Section (Sphere) C

B
Aspheric Polynomial Curve
A X Axis

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
How is an Asphere Constructed?
fghijk
Z Axis

Aspheric Profile

Aspheric Profile

Basic Conic Section (Sphere)

C
Basic Conic Section
B
Aspheric Polynomial Curves

Aspheric Polynomial Curve A

X Axis

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
Standard Equation for an Aspheric Surface
fghijk
cx2
Z(x)= +a1|x| +a2| x|2 + a3| x|3 … +a20 | x|20
1+ √ 1-(K+1) c2x2

Where: X is the Radial distance from the Aspheric Axis

Z is the corresponding vertical distance
a is the indexed Polynomial Coefficient
C is the reciprocal of the Base Radius
K is the Conic Constant of the Surface

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
Base Radius of Curvature
fghijk

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
How Do We Measure and Aspheric Surface?
fghijk

Aspheric Axis

Optical Flat

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
How Do We Measure and Aspheric Surface?
fghijk

Aspheric Data
Radius=40.0mm
K= -1
A4= 5.3188e-007
A6=5.5231e-009
A8=-1.6774e-011
A10=-6.3352e-014

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
Aspheric Form Fit
fghijk

B
A

Aspheric Axis

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
Residual Error After Aspheric Form Removal
fghijk
+Z Axis
Aspheric Axis
A

+X Axis

-X Axis

Aspheric Axis
-Z Axis

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
How Do We Analyse an Aspheric Surface?
fghijk

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
Aspheric Parameters
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SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
Aspherics - Further Analysis
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Convex Component-Concave Residual Form Error-Increase Base Radius

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
Aspherics - Further Analysis
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Convex Component-Convex Residual Form Error-Decrease Base Radius

SF Standards
Conics & Aspherics
Aspherics - Further Analysis
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Smallest Rt Value Achieved-True Shape & Base Radius

SF Standards
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Gothic Arch Analysis

Gothic Arch Analysis
Typical Components
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Ball Screw

CV Joint

SF Standards
Gothic Arch Analysis
What is a Gothic Arch?
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A Gothic Arch (as in Gothic Architecture) consists of two arcs which
meet at a point. In engineering, the ball bearings sit between two Gothic
Arches and one race rotates while the other is stationary.

To predict how a bearing is going to function it is necessary to know

where the ball will lie within these arcs - and where it will make contact.

SF Standards
Gothic Arch Analysis
Early Methods
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Historically, measurement involved the use of marking ink on a test ball placed
in the Gothic Arch. Contact points of the ball are made visible by the ink.

This method is time consuming and has limitations on further analysis. Very
small bearings are also difficult to measure in this way.

SF Standards
Gothic Arch Analysis
Left and Right Arc Radius Analysis
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Gothic Arch Analysis determines the radius of the left and right arcs of the
profile and the offsets between the centres of the two arcs.

SF Standards
Gothic Arch Analysis
Determination of Contact Points
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TEST BALL

BEARING

Best Fit Arc

Contact points

Additional information and angles are calculated for a theoretical test

ball of specified radius fitted to the Gothic Arch Profile.

SF Standards
Gothic Arch Analysis
Typical Results Display
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SF Standards
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Surface Finish Standards

Surface Finish Standards
ISO Standards - Terminology
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TERMINOLOGY
Surface Finish Standards
ISO Standards - Properties of Surfaces
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PROPERTIES OF SURFACES
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Surface Finish Metrology
© 2003 Taylor Hobson Ltd
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Start of Further Information Slides

Early Taylor Hobson Transport
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Measurement Methods & Instrumentation
Ball Unit
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Measurement Methods & Instrumentation
Interferometric Signal Interpolation
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Laser Diodes

sin f cos

o/p nf
Interpolation
(xn)
Up / Down Direction
Reproducing The Surface
‘Airy’ Diameter
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Glass Flat

“Airy” Diameter

The “Airy” diameter is approximately ∅ = D/√2

Where D = Diameter of Glass Flat

Reproducing The Surface
Gaussian Filter
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Z Gaussian Filter

Profile Filter
Unfiltered Profile

Cut-off Mean Line

Sampling Length

X
Parameters
Ra - Applications
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•Ra is a controlling parameter,if the Ra value changes then the process it controls has
changed, e.g.Cutting tip, speeds, feeds and cutting fluid (lubricant).
•Ra is the most commonly used parameter in industry and is available in the simplest
and lowest priced instruments from all manufacturers.
•The averaging nature of Ra makes is a stable parameter which is not influenced by odd
or spurious spikes or scratches.
•For extremely fine surfaces Ra is not sensitive enough to pick out the odd or infrequent
defects that are important - See Rq
•The Primary version Pa is often used on very short surface such as ‘O’ ring grooves
where filtering would remove relevant detail affecting the performance of the seal.
•The Waviness version Wa can predict the performance of larger scale sealing faces as
those on gaskets such as cylinder heads. There is not enough compliance in the
components structure to flatten out large waviness features and thus the seal may fail.
Parameters
Rq (rms) - Applications
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•Rq has the effect of magnifying single or odd spikes and valleys, thus making it a
parameter which differentiates between very smooth surfaces with similar surface with
non typical marks or defects.

•For statistical work, Rq values are more meaningful than arithmetic averages ones. This
parameter is not used very much in general engineering, but is used more in the optical
and electronic substrates industry due to it’s ability to detect spurious peaks and
valleys.

•High Rq values on mirrors or lens surfaces will signal potential image quality reduction
and or local distortions.

•The Primary version Pq is used to assess the quality of seal in ‘O’ Ring Grooves and
the interaction between the rubber and metal surfaces.Such short length surfaces do not
require the normal roughness filters as they would remove relevant detail.
Parameters
Rt - Applications
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• Rt is the maximum peak to valley height of the profile in the evaluation length (ln),
however because this is a peak parameter it is subject to large variations and can be
unstable.It shows the extreme limits of the profile - but they may not be co-incident.

• Rt is used as a controlling parameter, particularly useful where components are

subjected to high stresses, any large peak to valley could suffer from crack
propagation.

• Singular large peaks can also penetrate oil lubrication films increasing wear , debris
and damage to sliding surfaces.

• Electrical contact effectiveness and the risk of arcing or sparking from singular non
typical peaks.

• The Primary version Pt is used to quantify the overall Form Error of a component or
surface.

• Pt is also used in ‘O’ ring grooves where the surface is very short and filtering
becomes meaningless, to assess the adequacy of the surface to seal properly.
Parameters
Rp - Applications
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• Rp is the maximum height of the profile above the mean line within a sampling
length divided by n sampling lengths.

• Peaks are important when considering friction and wear properties, as the
interaction between surfaces concentrates around them. The presence of peaks can
make dimensional measurements on components that are subjected to wear
unreliable, as wear removes the peaks that were originally included in the
dimensional measurement.
Parameters
Rv - Applications
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• Rv is the maximum depth of the profile below the mean line within a
sampling length or averaged over ‘n’ sampling lengths.

• The Rv parameter is useful where stress is a functional criteria. Deep

valleys can be surface cracks and not simply deep machining marks.

• Valleys are important for the retention of lubrication. However, fracture

propagation and material corrosion start in valleys.
Parameters
Rz - Applications
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• This parameter has similar uses to the Rt parameter but is a little more stable as it
has averaging involved when assessed over a number of Sampling Lengths.

• Rz is an alternative to Rt as a controlling parameter.

• Oil film penetration probability in sliding contact bearings.

• Electrical contact effectiveness and likelihood of arcing or burning.

Parameters
Rz1max - Applications
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• Rz1max is a controlling parameter, particularly useful where components are
subjected to high stresses, any large peak to valley could suffer from crack
propagation.

• Singular large peaks can also penetrate oil lubrication films increasing wear , debris
and damage to sliding surfaces.

• Rz1max is an alternative to Rt as a controlling parameter in that it is a local max

height.

• Oil film penetration probability in sliding contact bearings.

• Electrical contact effectiveness and likelihood of arcing or burning.

Parameters
Rp1max - Applications
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• Peaks are important when considering friction and wear properties, as
the interaction between surfaces concentrates around them. The
presence of peaks can make dimensional measurements on components
that are subjected to wear unreliable, as wear removes the peaks that
were originally included in the dimensional measurement.

• Singular large peaks can also penetrate oil lubrication films increasing
wear , debris and damage to sliding surfaces.

• Rp1max is an alternative to Rt as a controlling parameter in that it is a

local max height and is only concerned about material above the mean
line.

• Oil film penetration probability in sliding contact bearings.

• Electrical contact effectiveness and likelihood of arcing or burning.

Parameters
Rv1max - Applications
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• The Rv1max parameter is useful where stress is a functional criteria.
Deep valleys can be surface cracks and not simply deep machining
marks.

• Although controlled valleys are important for the retention of lubrication,

fracture propagation and material corrosion also start in valleys.

• Where Rv varies from the Rv1max parameter it is an indication the

surface valley features are varying along the profile length. Such
randomness in the surface is better catered for by combining peak
parameters with averaging parameters.
Parameters
RHSC - Applications
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• High Spot Count - This parameter is frequently used in the automobile
industry on cylinder liners, where lubrication is essential.

• It can be used to predict wear or lapping requirements to minimise

lubrication penetration.

• Also in cases where a certain number of peaks are required such as

brake discs , drums or linings and pads for friction purposes.
Parameters
RPc - Applications
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• The Pc (Peak Count) parameter is similar to the HSC parameter but has an
additional control based on height as well as frequency of occurrence.
• This parameter is often used where control of surface coating adhesion is required.
• When used by the sheet steel industry it is a good parameter for controlling
characteristics related to bending, forming, painting and laminating.
• The effectiveness of high pressure seals and gaskets can be monitored and
controlled by use of Peak Count.The number of peaks which exceed the set band
criteria will determine whether the closing force applied can deform the surface to
give the seal required.
• The current or load capacity and arcing / sparking characteristics of electrical
contacts and switches can be monitored with Peak Counting. The magnitude of the
peaks above a critical level will determine the deformation under physical load and
the total area of contact. This then reflects on wear , pitting and heat generation or
burning.
• The printing industry make use of the RPc parameter to select the correct paper
finish which gives adequate quality of colour density and image with minimum
usage of costly printing inks. Peak Count with its discrimination band is guide to the
volume of ink the surface will hold or is needed to cover the paper profile.
Parameters
RSm - Applications
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• When this parameter is used in conjunction with the RS parameter it can help
to differentiate between a Smooth and a Jagged surface.

• For a smooth waveform the values of these parameters will be similar to each
other.

• RSm can often be equated to the feed rate of a lathe or grinding machine ,
and in conjunction with RS can be used to monitor tool or grinding wheel
condition or material structure changes.

• RSm is also useful for deciding on the correct filter, for further information on
this subject consult the Taylor Hobson Surface Texture Parameter Guide or
ISO 4287 - 1997.
Parameters
Rmr - Applications
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• The Material Ratio (Rmr) is the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the length
of the bearing surface at a specified depth into the profile, with respect to the
profile length. Although the Material Ratio parameter simulates the effect of
wear, it cannot normally replace actual running-in tests. This is because:

• 1.The Material Ratio is a fraction of a length, not an area of surface.

• 2.It is determined from a comparatively short sample of the surface and
ignores the gaps that may result from waviness or form.
• 3.This parameter relates to the unloaded surface: whereas, in use, a real
surface may undergo elastic deformation.
• 4.In practice, two contacting surfaces are involved and the surface features of
both have a part to play in causing wear.
• 5.Wear is often accompanied by a physical flow of material and the concept
of crests being neatly, geometrically truncated by a line drawn through them
is probably unrealistic. Despite its limitations, this is a parameter that finds a
number of useful applications and can be correlated to performance
Parameters
Rsk - Applications
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• Rsk indicates the nature of the surface as produced by the manufacturing process -
whether it has a majority of peaks , valleys or a balance of the two.
• A negatively Skewed surface will be produced by the Plateau Honing Process for
instance. Used in engine cylinder bores this pre-dominance of valleys is good for the
retention of oil and thus has good lubrication properties.
• Analysing Skew during the phases of engine oil and engine wear testing records the
changing character of the surfaces.
• Conversely a negative Skew in the corner radius of a crankshaft main bearing would
point to stress raising areas, crack propagation and early failure.
• The positive Skew surface produced by turning however does not retain liquid under
sliding contact conditions and is good for high friction applications such as the discs
and brake drums of motorcycles and cars.
• A negative Skew means the surface will have good ‘Wetability’ which is needed for oil
and lubrication or surface coating processes.
• Conversely , negative Skew surfaces are hard to clean and give rise to contamination in
Pharmaceutical , Food & Chemical transport systems.
• When measuring Skew non phase-corrected filters should also be avoided due to
possible distortion.
• Skidded instruments should be avoided if Rsk is positive.
Parameters
Rku - Applications
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• Rku can be used as a tool condition controlling parameter. As a grinding wheel becomes
blunt or clogged by the stock metal being removed then the surface becomes less
random in nature due to the change in the cutting action. The surface takes on a more
‘bumpy’ appearance - and the Rku value decreases.

• Conversely an increase in the surface hardness of the workpiece can cause brittle
fracture and the cutting tool tip which will give a more peaky surface - the Rku value will
increase in this case.

• Often used in conjunction with Rsk (skewness) to monitor wear (e.g. engine wear) in
research projects.The effectiveness of oils and lubricant additives can be monitored from
the change of surface profile over extended periods.

• Surfaces with high Kurtosis are more difficult to clean and are thus prone to
contamination and important feature in liquid , chemical , photographic and other mass
process industries. Rku - Kurtosis - Sharpness

• 3 = Gaussian - Random Grinding - Good Wheel

• +3 = Sharp More Peaky - Fracturing - Tool? - Material?
• -3 = Blunt ,Bumpy Lost Cutting Edges.
Machining Processes
Process Categorisation
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Cutting with Single or Turning, Milling, Broaching, Planing ...
Multiple Tool Tips

Abrasive Machining Grinding, Polishing, Honing ...

Physical & Chemical Electrochemical Machining,

Machining Elecrodischarge Machining ...

Other Machining Laser Machining, High-Power Water Jet ...

Ultra-fine Machining Ion Beam Milling, Energy Beam Machining ...

(nanomachining)

Forming, Casting,
Extrusion
Machining Processes
Cutting Tool - Primary & Secondary Cutting Edges
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Machining Processes
Surface Produced By Curved Tool
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Machining Processes
Built-up Edge as Function of Speed & Tool / Chip Temp.
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Machining Processes
Diamond Turning
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When Burnishing follows Cutting, the Surface Finish can be very fine.

SF Standards
Machining Processes
Milling
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Climb Milling Upcut Milling

Machining Processes
Surface Appearance of Face Milling Single Tooth
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Machining Processes
Abrasive Processes
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Peripheral Grinding Face Grinding Honing Lapping

(a) and (b) are process variations.

Machining Processes
Different Abrasive Processes - Same Rz!
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Grinding Honing Lapping

Machining Processes
Centreless Grinding
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Machining Processes
Plateau Honing
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Machining Processes
Typical Ra Values Produced By Common Processes
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Machining Processes
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Form Measurement
Accuracy of Radius Measurement - Example
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t=34.501656mm

l=80mm

r-t
r=110mm

r = Least Squares Radius

t = Chordal Height
l = Measurement Length/2
Form Measurement
Accuracy of Radius Measurement - Example
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t=1.833462mm

l=20mm

r-t
r=110mm

r = Least Squares Radius

t = Chordal Height
l = Measurement Length/2
Form Measurement
Accuracy of Radius Measurement - Example
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t=1.833962mm

l=20mm

r=109.9705mm

r = Least Squares Radius

t = Chordal Height
l = Measurement Length/2
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End of Further Information Slides