PY 232 Student Learning Outcomes (SLO) for Chapters 1, 2, 3 Belsky 4 th Edition

Dr. Kate Byerwalter

Chapter 1:
1. Define lifespan development and gerontology
Lifespan development – the study of human growth throughout life
Gerontology – The scientific study of aging & older adults

2. Identify the four principles of lifespan development

 It is multidisciplinary
 It explores the predictable milestones of life
 It focuses on individual differences
 It explores the impact of normative and non-normative life transitions and
practices

3. Distinguish between normative and non-normative transitions

Normative transitions include expected transitions such as starting a new level of
school, becoming a parent, etc. Non-normative transitions are generally unexpected
across the board, and include the death of a family member or divorce.

4. Define cohort and baby boom cohort

Cohort refers to our birth/age group, while the baby boom cohort is defined as the large
group of people who were born from 1946-1964

5. Indicate the role of education in promoting the idea of childhood

John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau promoted the fact that children were born with
a blank slate, and their path in life would be influenced by the treatment they received
as children. Rousseau believed children should be showered with love.
This philosophy was put into effect when universal education mandated elementary
attendance, and children were kept from working, made to be dependent and protected
in this stage of life. These protections went further when high school attendance was
mandated in the 1930s, thus legitimizing the adolescent stage of life. In recent decades,
emerging adulthood has become a recognized stage in between adolescence and
adulthood, further pushing back the start of adulthood to the late twenties so young
adults can finish education and find their place in the world. Increase in life span is a key
factor in these phenomena.
6. Define twentieth century life expectancy revolution and explain how it affect our
thinking about age.
In the 20th century, dramatic increases in life expectancy (around +30 years) can be
attributed to major public health advancements, such as antibiotic availability, clean
water, and higher quality medical care. This has essentially shifted expectations of age
groups (grandparents are now middle aged, old age has moved past 65). People aren’t
rushing into parenthood, and taking their time with life because they have more life to
live.

7. Contrast “young old” and “old old”.

Young old: 60-80, often look and feel middle aged
Old old: 80+, more often fit the frail stereotype of old people

8. Define income inequality and indicate if it is a problem in the U.S.

Income inequality refers to the widening gap between the super rich and everyone else,
and is a big problem in the US.

9. Contrast developing and developed countries. (Which is the U.S.?)

Developed countries are defined by high median per-person incomes, high life
expectancy, advanced technology, & widespread access to education and medical care.
Developing countries are defined by high levels of poverty & income inequality, lack of
basic necessities such as sanitary water and plumbing, lack of access to medical care or
education.

10. Define socioeconomic status

Socioeconomic status is a basic marker referring to status on the educational and
income rungs.

11. Contrast individualistic and collectivist cultures, using examples

Collectivist cultures focus on social harmony, and lay out basic values to be held
standard. Children are taught to respect elders, suppress their feelings, and work
towards the greater good. Collectivist cultures are more traditional and are very
common in developing nations in Asia, Africa, and South America.
Individualistic cultures are found in more developed societies and emphasize
independence, competition, and success.

12. Define theory

Theory: Any perspective explaining why people act the way they do; they allow us to
predict behavior and also suggest how to intervene to improve behavior
13. Contrast traditional behaviorism and social learning theory
Traditional behaviorism suggests that operant conditioning and reinforcement
determine all voluntary behaviors, while cognitive behaviorism/social learning theory
suggest that modeling (learning by watching and imitating) and self-efficacy instead
determine these behaviors.

14. Define self-efficacy and explain how it affects one’s life

Self-efficacy is the belief in our own competence, and our sense that we can be
successful at a given task. These feelings determine the goals we set, the things we do,
and how well we perform.

15. Define attachment theory

Attachment theory suggests that a loving bond between a child and a caregiver will set
the baby up for a fulfilling life. Disruptions in the biologically programmed attachment
response can cause serious problems later in life.

16. Define evolutionary psychology

Theory or worldview highlighting the role that inborn, species specific behaviors play in
human development and life. It looks to nature and biological forces that evolved to
promote survival, and how they affect the way we develop and behave.

17. Define behavioral genetics, indicate what types of studies it uses to explore the
influence of heredity on traits, and indicate what research so far suggests.
Behavioral genetics examines the genetic contribution to the differences we see in
human beings. Twin studies compare identical and fraternal twins on a given trait, and
the idea is that identical twins should be more similar in hereditary traits. Adoption
studies compare adopted children with their biological and adoptive parents to
determine the role of genetics vs environmental factors. Rarer twin/adoption studies
examine identical twins separated at birth to determine the heritability of traits and to
examine environmental factors that lead to their respective phenotypes.

18. Contrast evocative and active forces, using examples

Evocative and active forces are two distinct ways our genetic tendencies shape our
experiences.
The principle of evocative forces state that our genetic predispositions, inborn talents,
and temperamental tendencies evoke certain responses from other people, for
example, child-shapes-parenting relationships. Essentially our genetics shape our
environment. Active forces refer to the fact that we actively select our environments
based on our genetic tendencies, for example, a strong athlete will spend more time
playing sports and immerse themselves in that environment thus becoming a better
 athlete. However, a high-quality environment can lead to a fuller expression of genetic
talent

19. Define epigenetics

Changes in phenotype without a change in genotype through modification of gene
expression.

20. Describe the main idea of Erikson’s theory (you don’t have to know all 8 stages, just
the idea of psychosocial tasks)
Psychosocial tasks are the main developmental milestones or challenges that we must
overcome before progressing to the following task. For example, the first one in infancy
is basic trust vs. mistrust, a hurdle that must be overcome before toddlerhood, where a
child must overcome autonomy vs. shame and doubt.

21. Describe the main ideas of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development (you do not have
to know assimilation and accommodation for this exam)
Piaget’s theory suggested that from infancy to adolescence, children progress through
four qualitatively different stages of intellectual growth.
 Sensorimotor (0-2): object manipulation to master basics of physical reality,
ending with language development
 Preoperations (2-7): Children’s perceptions are based on their immediate
appearances “what they see is what’s real”
 Concrete Operations (8-12): Realistic understanding of the world, still cannot
think fully abstractly in a scientific way
 Formal operations (12+): Cognitive human potential has been reached

22. Describe the main ideas of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model (developmental

systems)
Brofenbrenner viewed each of us at the center of an expanding circle of environmental
influences. He examined the total ecology (life situation) of the child. Firstly, the child’s
daily life must be considered (religion, peers, classroom, family), then broader aspects
(school system, community, media, medical institutions), then even more broadly (SES
and culture). Brofenbrenner stressed the importance of using many different
approaches and looking at the interactions of different processes.

23. Contrast correlational study, self-report, and naturalistic observation

A correlational study charts the relationships between the dimensions being studied (ex.
academic skills vs. level of cognitive stimulation at home)
 Self-report is when (usually) adults anonymously evaluate their own behaviors, which
can be biased because people may not recall everything correctly, or may magnify
positive behaviors while downplaying negative ones. However, they are easy and quick.
Naturalistic observation is observing a behavior in its natural habitat, which can also be
biased because by observing it, you would essentially be changing the behavior. It does
offer a structured look at a behavior, though.

24. Define correlational research, and be able to interpret correlations (e.g., What does a
correlation of .50 mean? - .50?)
Correlational research focuses on the relationship between two variables of interest. R
values represent the level of correlation, 0 indicating no correlation, and 1 indicating a
perfect correlation.

25. Define representative sample and explain why it is important

A representative sample is a study cohort that reflects the characteristics of the
population being studied, and of which generalizations will be made. This is important
for the results to be relevant, and not skewed or biased.

26. Indicate two important caveats of correlational research

It is important to consider if X causes Y, or Y causes X, or if some other factor altogether
is at play. Also it is important to note that correlation does not imply causation.

27. Indicate why correlational research is more often used than a “true” experiment
With true experiments, there are ethical concerns. For example, you would have to
consider the fairness of providing a certain treatment to one group and not the other.
Researchers follow a general principle to “do no harm” so we simply have to perform
correlational research in situations with ethical considerations.

28. Contrast cross-sectional and longitudinal research (pros and cons of each)
Cross sectional studies development in different age groups at the same time.
Sometimes cross sectional studies can ignore other variables that affect a phenotype in
a cohort. They also cannot reveal any individual differences. Longitudinal studies, in
contrast, involves testing an age group repeatedly over many years. They are considered
a gold-standard above cross sectional studies, but they have problems in getting people
to stay involved in the study, and require a lot of resources and effort. Also, people who
stay involved are usually an elite group of people who are highly motivated, potentially
introducing bias to a result.

29. Contrast quantitative and qualitative research

Quantitative research involves numerical scales and statistics. Qualitative research
involves interviewing people for information that cannot be quantified.
Chapter 2
1. Define fertilization (and know where it takes place in a woman’s body). Note: you
don’t have to know the definitions of all the body parts, etc.
Fertilization is when the egg and sperm join. This happens in the fallopian tubes.

2. Explain XX and XY chromosomes (which is male/female)

XX – Female
XY – Male

3. Name the 3 stages of prenatal development, when they occur, and what occurs at
each stage (generally)
 Germinal period (0-2 Weeks)
o Conception occurs in fallopian tubes
o Cell differentiation and multiplication
 Embryonic period (3-8 Weeks)
o Major organs develop
o Embryo grows less than 2” long
 Fetal Period (9 Weeks – Birth)
o Sex organs develop
o Significant brain development
o Age of viability for premie around 22 weeks

4. Define implantation, neural tube, placenta

Implantation: When a blastocyst becomes embedded in the uterine wall
Neural tube: Indentation on the back of the embryo that the brain and spinal cord are
formed from
Placenta: Structure projecting from the wall of the uterus through which the baby
absorbs nutrients

5. Describe the 3 principles of prenatal development (proximodistal, cephalocaudal,

mass-to-specific)
 Proximodistal – Growth occurs from the middle of the body to the outside
 Cephalocaudal – Growth occurs from the head to feet
 Mass-to-specific – Large structures appear before the finer details

6. Describe the 3 trimesters and what people may experience during each
 First trimester
o Flood of hormones produces headaches, weariness, tender breasts,
morning sickness
o Miscarriages are common in first trimester (1 in 10; 1 in 5 in late 30s)
  Second trimester
o Maternity clothes
o Quickening occurs – baby starts to kick
o Excitement and attachment increase
 Third trimester
o Increasing physical and emotional issues
o Leg cramps, backaches, anxiety, numbness, heartburn, insomnia

7. Define age of viability and indicate the age (# of weeks)

Age of viability is the age where probability of survival is greatly increased for premature
births – around 22 weeks,

8. Discuss morning sickness and indicate during which trimester it occurs.

Morning sickness happens during the first trimester, and may have developed as an
evolutionary survival mechanism that prevented a mother eating toxic or spoiled foods
while her baby was forming its basic body structures. Men can experience morning
sickness alongside their wives, a phenomenon known as couvade.

9. Define miscarriage and indicate how rates are different among women in their late
30’s.
Miscarriages are defined as spontaneous abortions, and happen in 1/10 pregnancies.
For women in their late 30s this doubles to 1/5.

10. Define quickening and indicate during which trimester it occurs.

Quickening occurs in the second trimester and is a sensation like bubbles that signals
the baby kicking in the womb.

11. Indicate the role of socioeconomic status and also the role of feeling loved in
predicting how a woman feels about her pregnancy.
Having a low SES may contribute to a woman’s feelings of demoralization and
depression, as this gives an expectant mother a long list of things to begin to worry
about. Feeling loved can fully compensate for these feelings, though, if she has a the
proper support network.

12. Identify what the textbook author states about dad’s emotions during pregnancy
Dad’s emotions are not to be neglected, as they can be just as devastated when a
pregnancy does not work out, or just as elated when it does. Dads-to-be can also have
high anxiety about the coming responsibilities of having a child, along with the burden
of society expecting them to be strong on their own without outside support.
13. Define birth defect and sensitive period
Birth defect: a physical or neurological problem that occurs prenatally or at birth
Sensitive period: the timeframe when a particular organ or system is developing and is
susceptible to damage by teratogens

14. Define teratogen and list the 4 principles of teratogens

Teratogen: a substance that cross the placenta and harms the fetus
 They cause major structural damage during the embryonic stage
 Teratogens can affect the developing brain throughout pregnancy
 Teratogens operate in a dose-dependent fashion
 Teratogens exert their damage unpredictably, depending on maternal and fetal
vulnerabilities
15. Indicate the main danger associated with smoking during pregnancy
Giving birth to a smaller than normal baby, which may compromise development
throughout life.

16. Describe fetal alcohol syndrome, and indicate who is at highest risk
The defining qualities of FAS are far smaller than normal birth weight, abnormally small
brains, facial abnormalities such as a flattened face, & developmental disorders such as
mental retardation, seizures, and hyperactivity. Women who binge drink (4+ drinks at a
time, regularly have several drinks throughout pregnancy) are at highest risk.

17. Identify the two forces discussed in the “Hot in Developmental Science” section on
prenatal stress

18. Define and give an example of fetal programming research

FPR: Research discipline exploring the impact of traumatic pregnancy events and intense
stress on producing LBW, obesity, and long term physical problems.
There are FPR studies that explore how intrauterine events may affect our
temperament, timing of puberty, or even premature againg and death.

19. Describe Down Syndrome and indicate some possible complications. (Skip other
disorders)
Down Syndrome occurs because of a cell-division error called non-disjunction which
causes an extra chromosome or piece of that copy to adhere to chromosome pair 21. It
usually is not lethal because this pair contains the fewest amount of genes. It produces
physical features such as flat facial profile, upward slant to eyes, stocky appearance, and
enlarged tongue. They have high risk for heart defects and leukemia, but most
commonly suffer from mental retardation.
20. Define genetic testing and ultrasound
Genetic testing: a blood test to determine whether a person carries the gene for a given
genetic disorder
Ultrasound: An image of the fetus in the womb that helps to date the pregnancy, assess
the fetus’ growth, and identify abnormalities

21. Define amniocentesis, and indicate when it is typically recommended.

A second trimester procedure that involves inserting a syringe into a woman’s uterus to
extract a sample of amniotic fluid, which is testing for genetic and chromosomal
conditions.

22. Define infertility, indicate whether it affect males or females (or both), explain the
effects on the couple (including cultural differences)
Infertility: Inability to conceive a child after a year of unprotected intercourse that
affects 1/6 US couples.
Infertility affects both men and women and produces anxiety, depression, and often
stress on other relationships.

23. Define Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART), and explain the pros and cons.
Any infertility treatment where the egg is fertilized outside of the womb. It is great for
those who have no other option at conceiving a child, such as those with blocked
fallopian tubes, or those with sperm that cannot penetrate the ovum. A surrogate
mother can also carry the genetic offspring of two parents if the mother cannot carry a
child. However, treatments are very expensive, and can approach near 100k. There are
also emotional considerations if the conception is unsuccessful (1/3 treatments is
successful). Also, miscarriages can be common if multiple fertilized eggs are implanted
into a uterus, which decreases the chance that one of them will survive.

24. Identify what occurs at each of the 3 stages of labor

 Dilation and Effacement
o Cervix thins out and dilates with the help of forceful contractions
o Sweating, nausea, and intense pain can occur
 Birth
o Fetus descends through the uterus and enters birth canal
o Skull crowns, shoulders rotate, and baby slithers out
 Expulsion of the placenta
o Placenta and other supporting structures must be pushed out
o This prevents infection and allows to uterus to return to normal
25. Define c-section. Indicate when a c-section is recommended instead of natural
childbirth. Indicate the rates in the U.S. compared to other nations
C-section: method of delivering a baby surgically by extraction through incisions in the
woman’s abdominal wall and in the uterus.
C-sections are recommended when either there is advance knowledge that there will be
complications with a vaginal birth, or when unexpected complications occur during
labor. 1 in 3 deliveries in the US are c-sections, but in the developing world, there is an
astonishing lack of access to these procedures and giving birth can often be dangerous
for these women, especially those in rural areas.

26. Define Apgar Scale and explain how the scoring works (you don’t have to know the 5
categories)
Apgar scale: a quick test used to assess a newborn’s condition by measuring heart rate,
muscle tone, respiration, reflex response, and color.
Each of these criteria are ranked on a 0-2 scale, and summed both 1 minute after birth
and again 5 minutes after birth. If the 5-minute score is 7 or above, the baby is generally
healthy. If the 5-minute score does not improve, the baby may be rushed to a NICU.

27. Define low-birth-weight and very-low-birth-weight and indicate whether infants who
survive have long term issues (and what they might be).
LBW: less than 5.5 lbs
VLBW: Less than 3.25 lbs
LBW can cause abnormalities in brain development, compromise intellectual abilities in
both childhood and adulthood, and overweight & early-age related disease.

28. Compare infant mortality rates in the U.S. compared to other industrialized countries
(why so low?)
The US lags behind other industrialized countries due to high income inequality, stress
(money, divorce, job loss), poor health practices, and unequal access to high quality
prenatal care. SES is a strong indicator of a newborn’s health and viability.
Chapter 3
1. Define synaptogenesis and myelination and explain why each is important.
Synaptogenesis is the formation of synapses (axon to dendrite connections) that
connect the brain and program every skill that a baby will learn. Myelination is the
formation of the myelin sheath of axons, which allows for quicker conduction of neural
impulses. Synaptogenesis and myelination both occur at different rates in different parts
of the brain.

2. Explain what is meant by the brain being “plastic”, and indicate at what age it is most
so.
The brain is malleable or plastic, meaning it can be easily changed and rewired,
especially during infancy and childhood.

3. Define reflex, and indicate if the sucking and rooting reflexes disappear or are lifelong.
Reflexes are automatic activities, like the sucking reflex in newborns (they are sucking
virtually all the time, an evolutionary development that prevents the baby from starving
before it learns this activity) and the rooting reflex (if anything touches their cheek they
will turn and begin sucking, an evolutionary development that helps the baby find the
breast). These reflexes are present at birth, but must be removed during the pruning
stage.

4. List benefits of breastfeeding, who is more likely to do it, how long the AAP
recommends it, and challenges to doing it.
Breastfeeding confers immunity to a newborn as breastmilk contains antibodies that
prevent infections and promote gut health. The studies that show this have not
controlled for SES however, and since affluent, educated, and slimmer women are more
likely to breastfeed, this may just be a correlation. The AAP recommends breastfeeding
for the first six months of life AT LEAST, but work, practicality, and acceptance of
breastfeeding make this 6 month recommendation difficult to fulfill.

5. Why are children in the U.S. less likely to suffer stunting compared to children in the
developing world?
Stunting is caused by chronic malnutrition, and since the government in the US provides
nutrition to those families who are food insecure, their malnutrition is not chronic, and
they don’t suffer from ongoing hunger.

6. Define colic and indicate the cause and at what age it tends to end.
Colic is frantic continuous crying that is caused by a newborn’s immature nervous
system being overwhelmed by a multitude of stimuli.
7. Contrast kangaroo care and swaddling (and describe the study of rat grooming).
Kangaroo care is using a baby sling, while swaddling is wrapping a baby tightly in a
blanket, while both consist of holding the baby close to your body, rocking them, and
providing immediate care.

Rat grooming studies showed that those rat babies that were lavishly groomed and
licked responded better to stressful stimuli than those with little grooming.

8. Define REM sleep and indicate its pervasiveness in infancy compared to later ages.
REM sleep is a sleep phase of rapid eye movement when dreaming is intense and brain
waves are identical to stage 1 of sleeping. Infants fall immediately into REM phase, and
spend most of their sleep in REM. When they reach adolescence, kids adopt a regular
adult sleep cycle, and the amount of REM sleep each night gradually decreases.

9. Define self-soothing and indicate at what age infants can really engage in it.
Self-soothing is a self-care mechanism that allows infants to put themselves back to
sleep. It develops around 6 months

10. Indicate what kinds of activities promote fewer sleep problems.

“Putting a baby to bed with love” by treating it gently, lovingly, and carrying out pre-
sleep soothing routines produces a baby with fewer sleep problems. After month 5,
consider waiting before immediately responding to nighttime crying, as this will allow
the child to “learn” how to put itself to sleep.

11. Define co-sleeping and explain in what type of culture it is more common.
Co-sleeping is sharing the bed with a child. This is more common in collectivist cultures.

12. Define SIDS and indicate risk and protective factors.

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome is the sudden, unexplained death of an apparently
healthy infant, often while sleeping during the first months of life. 1/1000 babies in the
US suffer SIDS, so it is a top ranking cause of infant mortality in the developing world.
Studies have found that babies with abnormal numbers of neurons in a certain section
of the brain stem are more susceptible to SIDS. This specific study had a significant
fraction of mothers who smoked during pregnancy, though, and this may be the actual
risk factor itself. However, SIDS has clear environmental causes (deaths spike on days
when parents are likely to be drinking like NYE, carelessness by placing a baby face
down to sleep), so being careful to not accidentally smother your baby by placing it on
its back to sleep is a good step to take,

13. Define habituation and preferential looking paradigm.

Habituation: the fact that we naturally lose interest in a new object after some time
 Preferential-looking paradigm: the principle that humans are attracted to novelty and
look selectively at new things.

14. Indicate what babies prefer to view.

Firstly, babies have poor vision at distances (20/400; legally blind in many places), but
their visual cortex quickly develops and they achieve adult vision at age 1. They are
almost entirely tuned into the social world and prefer largely to look at faces over other
things. Specifically, they like to look at their mother’s face, attractive people, and people
who are making eye contact.

15. Describe research on racial homogeneity in infancy and sensitivity to race later in life.
Research found that spending infancy in a racially homogenous environment predicted
less ability to read facial expressions of people of different races during adolescence. It
also reduces ability to differentiate between people outside of your own ethnic group,
and this ability is pruned away by 9 months of age.

16. Define visual cliff and indicate what it tells about depth perception
Visual cliff: a procedure where infants are placed on a table with a checkerboard
pattern, and mothers stand on the opposite end where the table drops off to floor level
at the mid point. Babies refused to continue because their depth perception told them
they would fall.

17. Indicate how the 3 growth principle apply to motor milestones.

Proximodistal – Growth occurs from the middle of the body to the outside, but babies
also control their shoulders before they fully control their arms and fingers (in to out)
Cephalocaudal – Growth occurs from the head to feet, but babies also lift their head,
then pivot, then sit up and stand without support (top down)
Mass-to-specific – Large structures appear before the finer details, and big
uncoordinated movements are honed and refined as we grow up

18. Indicate whether the timing of large motor skills (e.g., crawl/walk) relate to later
intelligence.
Nope, besides those with developmental disorders.

19. Define Piaget’s sensorimotor stage and give examples of primary, secondary, and
tertiary circular reactions. (include “little scientist”)
Sensorimotor stage: our mission in our first two years of life is to make sense of our
physical reality through our senses, ending with the development of language
Primary circular reactions (1-4 mo): repetitive, often accidental self-actions like thumb
sucking
 Secondary (4 mo): action oriented schemas focused on the outside world like grasping
and kicking.
Tertiary (1 yr): Child actively experimenting with objects (little scientist) like throwing
plates and spitting food from high chair

20. Define object permanence and indicate the age achieved; describe the A-not-B error.

21. List 2 critiques of Piaget’s view of infant cognition.

22. Describe impossible events study by Renee Baillargeon.
23. Define social cognition and explain the nice tiger/mean dog study.
24. Define language acquisition device and social interactive perspective of language.
25. Indicate the sequence of language development (define: babbling, holophrase, and
telegraphic speech).
26. Indicate why Infant Direct Speech is important.