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Answer. The three types are (1) discontinuous, in which the chip is formed into separated
segments; (2) continuous, in which the chip does not segment and is formed from a ductile metal;
(3) continuous with built-up edge, which is the same as (2) except that friction at the tool-chip
interface causes adhesion of a small portion of work material to the tool rake face, and (4) serrated,
which are semi-continuous in the sense that they possess a saw-tooth appearance that is produced
by a cyclical chip formation of alternating high shear strain followed by low shear strain.
21.12 Identify the four forces that act upon the chip in the orthogonal metal cutting model but cannot be
measured directly in an operation.
Answer. The four forces that act upon the chip are (1) friction force, (2) normal force to friction, (3)
shear force, and (4) normal force to friction.
21.13 Identify the two forces that can be measured in the orthogonal metal cutting model.
Answer. The two forces that can be measured in the orthogonal metal cutting model are (1) cutting
force and (2) thrust force.
21.14 What is the relationship between the coefficient of friction and the friction angle in the orthogonal
cutting model?
Answer. The relationship is that the coefficient of friction is the tangent of the friction angle (μ =
tan β).
21.15 Describe in words what the Merchant equation tells us.
Answer. The Merchant equation states that the shear plane angle increases when rake angle is
increased and friction angle is decreased.
21.16 How is the power required in a cutting operation related to the cutting force?
Answer. The power required in a cutting operation is equal to the cutting force multiplied by the
cutting speed.
21.17 What is the specific energy in metal machining?
Answer. Specific energy is the amount of energy required to remove a unit volume of the work
material.
21.18 What does the term size effect mean in metal cutting?
Answer. The size effect refers to the fact that the specific energy increases as the cross-sectional
area of the chip (to x w in orthogonal cutting or f x d in turning) decreases.
21.19 What is a tool-chip thermocouple?
Answer. A tool-chip thermocouple is comprised of the tool and chip as the two dissimilar metals
forming the thermocouple junction; as the tool-chip interface heats up during cutting, a small
voltage is emitted from the junction that can be measured to indicate cutting temperature.
Multiple Choice Quiz
There is a total of 17 correct answers in the following multiple-choice questions (some questions have
multiple answers that are correct). To attain a perfect score on the quiz, all correct answers must be given.
Each correct answer is worth 1 point. Each omitted answer or wrong answer reduces the score by 1 point,
and each additional answer beyond the correct number of answers reduces the score by 1 point. Percentage
score on the quiz is based on the total number of correct answers.
21.1 Which of the following manufacturing processes are classified as material removal processes (two
correct answers): (a) casting, (b) drawing, (c) extrusion, (d) forging, (e) grinding, (f) machining, (g)
molding, (h) pressworking, and (i) spinning?
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21.6 Which of the following are characteristics of the orthogonal cutting model (three best answers): (a)
a circular cutting edge is used, (b) a multiple cutting edge tool is used, (c) a single-point tool is used,
(d) only two dimensions play an active role in the analysis, (e) the cutting edge is parallel to the
direction of cutting speed, (f) the cutting edge is perpendicular to the direction of cutting speed, and
(g) the two elements of tool geometry are rake and relief angle?
Answer. (d), (f), and (g).
21.7 The chip thickness ratio is which one of the following: (a) tc/to, (b) to/tc, (c) f/d, or (d) to/w, where tc =
chip thickness after the cut, to = chip thickness before the cut, f = feed, d = depth, and w = width of
cut?
Answer. (b).
21.8 Which one of the four types of chip would be expected in a turning operation conducted at low
cutting speed on a brittle work material: (a) continuous, (b) continuous with built-up edge, (c)
discontinuous, or (d) serrated?
Answer. (c).
21.9 According to the Merchant equation, an increase in rake angle would have which of the following
results, all other factors remaining the same (two best answers): (a) decrease in friction angle, (b)
decrease in power requirements, (c) decrease in shear plane angle, (d) increase in cutting
temperature, or (e) increase in shear plane angle?
Answer. (b) and (e).
21.10 In using the orthogonal cutting model to approximate a turning operation, the chip thickness before
the cut to corresponds to which one of the following cutting conditions in turning: (a) depth of cut d,
(b) feed f, or (c) speed v?
Answer. (b).
21.11 Which one of the following metals would usually have the lowest unit horsepower in a machining
operation: (a) aluminum, (b) brass, (c) cast iron, or (d) steel?
Answer. (a).
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21.12 For which one of the following values of chip thickness before the cut to would you expect the
specific energy in machining to be the greatest: (a) 0.010 inch, (b) 0.025 inch, (c) 0.12 mm, or (d)
0.50 mm?
Answer. (c).
21.13 Which of the following cutting conditions has the strongest effect on cutting temperature: (a) feed
or (b) speed?
Answer. (b).
Problems
Chip Formation and Forces in Machining
21.1 In an orthogonal cutting operation, the tool has a rake angle = 15°. The chip thickness before the cut
= 0.30 mm and the cut yields a deformed chip thickness = 0.65 mm. Calculate (a) the shear plane
angle and (b) the shear strain for the operation.
Solution: (a) r = to/tc = 0.30/0.65 = 0.4615
φ = tan-1(0.4615 cos 15/(1 - 0.4615 sin 15)) = tan-1(0.5062) = 26.85°
(b) Shear strain γ = cot 26.85 + tan (26.85 - 15) = 1.975 + 0.210 = 2.185
21.2 In Problem 21.1, suppose the rake angle were changed to α = 0°. Assuming that the friction angle
remains the same, determine (a) the shear plane angle, (b) the chip thickness, and (c) the shear strain
for the operation.
Solution: From Problem 21.1, α = 15° and φ = 26.85°. Using the Merchant Equation, Eq. (21.16):
φ = 45 + α/2 - β/2; rearranging, β = 2(45) + α - 2φ
β = 2(45) + α - 2(φ) = 90 + 15 – 2(26.85) = 51.3°
Now, with α = 0 and β remaining the same at 51.3°, φ = 45 + 0/2 – 51.3/2 = 19.35°
(b) Chip thickness at α = 0: tc = to/tan φ = 0.30/tan 19.35 = 0.854 mm
(c) Shear strain γ = cot 19.35 + tan (19.35 - 0) = 2.848 + 0.351 = 3.199
21.3 In an orthogonal cutting operation, the 0.250 in wide tool has a rake angle of 5°. The lathe is set so
the chip thickness before the cut is 0.010 in. After the cut, the deformed chip thickness is measured
to be 0.027 in. Calculate (a) the shear plane angle and (b) the shear strain for the operation.
Solution: (a) r = to/tc = 0.010/0.027 = 0.3701
φ = tan-1(0.3701 cos 5/(1 - 0.3701 sin 5)) = tan-1(0.3813) = 20.9°
(b) Shear strain γ = cot 20.9 + tan (20.9 – 5) = 2.623 + 0.284 = 2.907
21.4 In a turning operation, spindle speed is set to provide a cutting speed of 1.8 m/s. The feed and depth
of cut of cut are 0.30 mm and 2.6 mm, respectively. The tool rake angle is 8°. After the cut, the
deformed chip thickness is measured to be 0.49 mm. Determine (a) shear plane angle, (b) shear
strain, and (c) material removal rate. Use the orthogonal cutting model as an approximation of the
turning process.
Solution: (a) r = to/tc = 0.30/0.49 = 0.612
φ = tan-1(0.612 cos 8/(1 – 0.612 sin 8)) = tan-1(0.6628) = 33.6°
(b) γ = cot 33.6 + tan (33.6 - 8) = 1.509 + 0.478 = 1.987
(c) RMR = (1.8 m/s x 103 mm/m)(0.3)(2.6) = 1404 mm3/s
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21.5 The cutting force and thrust force in an orthogonal cutting operation are 1470 N and 1589 N,
respectively. The rake angle = 5°, the width of the cut = 5.0 mm, the chip thickness before the cut =
0.6, and the chip thickness ratio = 0.38. Determine (a) the shear strength of the work material and
(b) the coefficient of friction in the operation.
Solution: (a) φ = tan-1(0.38 cos 5/(1 - 0.38 sin 5)) = tan-1(0.3916) = 21.38°
Fs = 1470 cos 21.38 – 1589 sin 21.38 = 789.3 N
As = (0.6)(5.0)/sin 21.38 = 3.0/.3646 = 8.23 mm2
S = 789.3/8.23 = 95.9 N/mm2 = 95.9 MPa
(b) φ = 45 + α/2 - β/2; rearranging, β = 2(45) + α - 2φ
β = 2(45) + α - 2(φ) = 90 + 5 – 2(21.38) = 52.24°
μ = tan 52.24 = 1.291
21.6 The cutting force and thrust force have been measured in an orthogonal cutting operation to be 300
lb and 291 lb, respectively. The rake angle = 10°, width of cut = 0.200 in, chip thickness before the
cut = 0.015, and chip thickness ratio = 0.4. Determine (a) the shear strength of the work material
and (b) the coefficient of friction in the operation.
Solution: φ = tan-1(0.4 cos 10/(1 - 0.4 sin 10)) = tan-1(0.4233) = 22.94°
Fs = 300 cos 22.94 - 291sin 22.94 = 162.9 lb.
As = (0.015)(0.2)/sin 22.94 = 0.0077 in2
S = 162.9/0.0077 = 21,167 lb/in2
β = 2(45) + α - 2(φ) = 90 + 10 - 2(22.94) = 54.1°
μ = tan 54.1 = 1.38
21.7 An orthogonal cutting operation is performed using a rake angle of 15°, chip thickness before the
cut = 0.012 in and width of cut = 0.100 in. The chip thickness ratio is measured after the cut to be
0.55. Determine (a) the chip thickness after the cut, (b) shear angle, (c) friction angle, (d) coefficient
of friction, and (e) shear strain.
Solution: (a) r = to/tc, tc = to/r = 0.012/0.55 = 0.022 in
(b) φ = tan-1(0.55 cos 15/(1 - 0.55 sin 15)) = tan-1(0.6194) = 31.8°
(c) β = 2(45) + α - 2(φ) = 90 + 15 - 2(31.8) = 41.5°
(d) μ = tan 41.5 = 0.88
(e) γ = cot 31.8 + tan(31.8 - 15) = 1.615 + 0.301 = 1.92
21.8 The orthogonal cutting operation described in previous Problem 21.7 involves a work material
whose shear strength is 40,000 lb/in2. Based on your answers to the previous problem, compute (a)
the shear force, (b) cutting force, (c) thrust force, and (d) friction force.
Solution: (a) As = (0.012)(0.10)/sin 31.8 = 0.00228 in2.
Fs = AsS = 0.0028(40,000) = 91.2 lb
(b) Fc = 91.2 cos (41.5 - 15)/cos (31.8 + 41.5 -15) = 155 lb
(c) Ft = 91.2 sin (41.5 - 15)/cos (31.8 + 41.5 -15) = 77.2 lb
(d) F = 155 sin 15 - 77.2 cos 15 = 115 lb
21.9 In an orthogonal cutting operation, the rake angle = -5°, chip thickness before the cut = 0.2 mm and
width of cut = 4.0 mm. The chip ratio = 0.4. Determine (a) the chip thickness after the cut, (b) shear
angle, (c) friction angle, (d) coefficient of friction, and (e) shear strain.
Solution: (a) r = to/tc, tc = to/r = 0.2/.4 = 0.5 mm
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3.0 mm. The rake angle of the tool is 5° in the direction of chip flow. The resulting chip ratio is
0.45. Using the orthogonal model as an approximation of turning, determine (a) the shear plane
angle, (b) shear force, (c) cutting force and feed force.
Solution: (a) φ = tan-1(0.45 cos 5/(1 - 0.45 sin 5)) = tan-1(0.4666) = 25.0°
(b) As = tow/sin φ = (0.2)(3.0)/sin 25.0 = 1.42 mm2.
Fs = AsS = 1.42(220) = 312 N
(c) β = 2(45) + α - 2(φ) = 90 + 5 - 2(25.0) = 45.0°
Fc = Fscos (β – α)/cos (φ + β – α)
Fc = 312 cos(45 - 5)/cos(25.0 + 45.0 - 5) = 566 N
Ft = Fssin(β – α)/cos(φ + β – α)
Ft = 312 sin(45 - 5)/cos(25.0 + 45.0 - 5) = 474 N
21.14 A turning operation is made with a rake angle of 10°, a feed of 0.010 in/rev and a depth of cut =
0.100 in. The shear strength of the work material is known to be 50,000 lb/in2, and the chip
thickness ratio is measured after the cut to be 0.40. Determine the cutting force and the feed force.
Use the orthogonal cutting model as an approximation of the turning process.
Solution: φ = tan-1(0.4 cos 10/(1 - 0.4 sin 10)) = tan-1(0.4233) = 22.9°
As = (0.010)(0.10)/sin 22.9 = 0.00257 in2
Fs = AsS = 0.00256(50,000) = 128 lb
β = 2(45) + α - 2(φ) = 90 + 10 - 2(22.9) = 54.1°
Fc = 128 cos (54.1 - 10)/cos (22.9 + 54.1 - 10) = 236 lb
Ft = 128 sin (54.1 - 10)/cos (22.9 + 54.1 - 10) = 229 lb
21.15 Show how Eq. (21.3) is derived from the definition of chip ratio, Eq. (21.2), and Figure 21.5(b).
Solution: Begin with the definition of the chip ratio, Eq. (21.2): r = to/tc = sin φ/cos (φ - α)
Rearranging, r cos (φ - α) = sin φ
Using the trigonometric identity cos(φ - α) = cos φ cos α + sin φ sin α
r (cos φ cos α + sin φ sin α) = sin φ
Dividing both sides by sin φ, we obtain r cos α/tan φ + r sin α = 1
r cos α/tan φ = 1 - r sin α
Rearranging, tan φ = r cos α/(1 - r sin α) Q.E.D.
21.16 Show how Eq. (21.4) is derived from Figure 21.6.
Solution: In the figure, γ = AC/BD = (AD + DC)/BD = AD/BD + DC/BD
AD/BD = cot φ and DC/BD = tan (φ - α)
Thus, γ = cot φ + tan (φ - α) Q.E.D.
21.17 Derive the force equations for F, N, Fs, and Fn (Eqs. (21.9) through (21.12) in the text) using the
force diagram of Figure 21.11.
Solution: Eq. (21.9): In Figure 23.11, construct a line starting at the intersection of Ft and Fc that is
perpendicular to the friction force F. The constructed line is at an angle α with Fc. The vector F is
divided into two line segments, one of which = Fc sin α and the other = Ft cos α.
Thus, F = Fc sin α + Ft cos α. Q.E.D.
Eq. (21.10): In Figure 23.11, translate vector N vertically upward until it coincides with the
previously constructed line, whose length = Fc cos α. Next, translate vector Ft to the right and
downward at an angle α until its base is at the arrowhead of F. Ft now makes an angle α with F.
The arrowhead of Ft will now be at the base of the translated base of N. The distance along the
previously constructed line between the Ft arrowhead (base of translated N vector) and F is Ft sinα.
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