Contents
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
13 Capacitors
Objectives
a) define capacitance (C = Q/V)
b) describe the mechanism of charging a
parallel plate capacitor
c) use the formula C = Q/V to derive C =
0A/d for the capacitance of a parallel
plate capacitor
d) define relative permittivity r (dielectric
constant)
e) describe the effect of a dielectric in a
parallel plate capacitor
Objectives
j) define the time constant, and use the
formula = RC
k) derive and use the formulae
and for charging a
capacitor through a resistor;
13.1 Capacitance
18.1 Capacitance
18.2 Parallel plate capacitors
18.3 Dielectrics
18.4 Capacitors in series and in parallel
18.5 Energy stored in a charged capacitor
18.6 Charging and discharging of a Capacitor
1 2
Objectives
f) use the formula C = r 0A/d
g) derive and use the formulae for
effective capacitance of capacitors in
series and in parallel
h) use the formulae U = ½ QV, U = ½
Q2/C, U = ½CV2 (Derivations are not
required.)
i) describe the charging and discharging
process of a capacitor through a
resistor
3 4
Objectives
l) derive and use the formulae
,
for discharging a capacitor through a
resistor
m) solve problems involving charging and
discharging of a capacitor through a
resistor.
5 6
Defining Capacitors
Short-term Charge Stores
7 8
 Capacitors
Device for storing electrical
energy which can then be
released in a controlled
manner
A capacitor consists of 2
conductors of any shape
placed near each other
without touching
The region between the 2
conductors is usually filled
with an electrically insulating
material called a dielectric
Capacitors
We usually talk
about capacitors in
terms of parallel
conducting plates
They in fact can be
any two conducting
objects
Dielectric Constant
If a dielectric is inserted
between the capacitor plates,
the electric field E inside the
capacitor is weaker than the
field E0 inside the empty
capacitor, assuming the charge
on the plates is unchanged
This reduction of the field is
described by the dielectric
constant , defined as k = E/E0
( or Er= E/E0)
Capacitance of Capacitor
Capacitance C depends
on capacitor
on dielectric type
NOT on capacitor
potential difference V
Since > 1, capacitance C
increases when a dielectric is present
Capacitors
Symbol in circuits is
It takes work, which is then stored as
potential energy in the electric field that
is set up between the two plates, to
place charges on the conducting plates
of the capacitor
Since there is an electric field between
the plates there is also a potential
difference between the plates
9 10
Capacitors
When a capacitor
each of its 2 plates carries the
same magnitude, q, of
charge
the potential of the +q plate
exceeds that of the q plate by an
amount V
The charge q and potential
difference V are related by
Q = C V where C is the capacitance
The SI unit for capacitance is farad
(F), where 1 farad = 1 coulomb/volt
11 12
Capacitance of Parallel-Plate
Capacitor
The capacitance of a parallel-
plate capacitor without a
dielectric is
A0
C
d
But if a dielectric
is placed between
the plates, A
C 0
d
Thus air or vacuum has =1
13 14
Electric Energy Storage
Electric energy can be stored in
capacitors
q or
16 17
 Key Ideas - Capacitors Comparison to a Battery
Capacitors are short-term charge stores. Property Battery Capacitor
They act as electrical springs. Short (fraction of a
Charging time Long (hours) second)
There are a number of electrical parameters
(measurements of properties) that are of Number of charge and 1000 1500 at
Billions of times
interest to the electronics engineer. discharge cycles best
These include working voltage, leakage Charge held Many coulombs Micro coulombs
current, and temperature coefficient. Chemical
How energy is stored Electric field
reaction
These are written in data tables
analogy Fuel tank Electrical spring

18 19

Example Capacitor Sandwich Construction

Two metal plates

Separated by
insulating material

20 21

Swiss Roll Construction Metal Plates + Dielectric

Capacitors consist
of two metal plates
separated by a
layer of insulating
material called a
dielectric.

22 23

Types of Caps Types of Caps

There are two types of capacitor,
electrolytic and non-electrolytic.
Electrolytic capacitors hold much more
charge
Electrolytic capacitors have to be
connected with the correct polarity,
otherwise they can explode.

24 25
 Schematic Symbol Comparison of Types
The symbol for a capacitor is shown
below:
Advantages: Advantages:
High capacitance Do not lose charge
Can have high working Polarity does not matter
voltages. Stable up to 106 Hz (or
more)
Disadvantages: Disadvantages:
Polarity important Low capacitance
High leakage current
Not stable above 10 kHz
Can be damaged by AC
26 27

Numerical Parameters Leakage

A working voltage is given. If the capacitor
exceeds this voltage, the insulating layer will break
down and the component shorts out. The working
voltage can be as low as 16 volts, or as high as
1000 V.
Leakage current means that the capacitor does
not hold its charge indefinitely. A certain amount of
current leaks across the dielectric. This is most
marked in electrolytic capacitors.
Temperature coefficient. The value of a capacitor
can change quite markedly with different
temperatures.
In an electrolytic capacitor there has to be a
current to maintain the aluminium oxide
layer. This is about 1 mA.
Over a period of time the charge leaks
away. This is called the leakage current.
Also it is important that the polarity of the
capacitor is correct, otherwise the aluminium
oxide layer is not made and the component
will conduct. The resulting heating effect can
result in the capacitor exploding.

28 29

Working Voltage Working Voltage

All capacitors have a maximum The breakdown voltage of air is 3000
working voltage. V/mm, so a 5 mm gap will insulate up to
All insulators have a maximum voltage 15 000 V.
at which they will retain their insulating The actual voltage at which the
properties. breakdown occurs depends on the
The breakdown voltage is quoted in thickness of the material.
units of volts per metre, so it is actually
an electric field.

30 31

Working Voltage Temperature Coefficient

The thinner the material, the lower the
voltage that is needed before sparking
will occur.
If sparking occurs over a dielectric, then
a hole will be burned in the dielectric
and that is the end of the useful life for
the capacitor.
32
Capacitors, especially electrolytic, can
lose their capacitance, i.e. hold less
charge, when they get hot. The
decrease in capacitance can change
the characteristics of the circuit so much
that it will not work properly. Therefore
it is essential that the temperature in
which the circuit is going to operate at is
taken into consideration when designing
a circuit and choosing the components.
33
 Temperature Coefficient Temperature Coefficient

From this graph we can see that:

Mica capacitors are very stable with temperature.
Ceramic bead capacitors have a linear relationship.
Other types of capacitor have a temperature at which
their capacitance is at a maximum. It falls away
Can be tested either side of the optimum.
34 35

What happens next?

How Capacitors Work
When connected to a
potential difference (e.g. a
battery), the battery tries to
push electrons through the
wire away from its negative
terminal.
complete circuit, you get a
flow of electrons to the plate
i.e. you get a current without
a complete circuit, but only
for a short period of time.
36
As the electrons (the charge) build
up on the plate, 2 things happen:
1. The plate becomes more
negative and so becomes less
attractive to the electrons, so the
flow of electrons gradually reduces
which means the current gradually
reduces.
2. The electrons in the other plate
are repelled by the build up of
electrons in the first plate. So they
move off the second plate.
The electrons leaving the second
plate complete the circuit.
37

If you plot a graph of the potential difference across the

plates against charge stored on the plate you find:

Q
38 39

How it Works Basic Configuration Capacitance

As charge builds up, so does the pd across
the plates
Charged stored is directly proportional to
the potential difference across the plates.
Also, if then, V Q, Where Q = Charge in
Capacitor coulombs
Bulb Q / V = a constant.
Therefore C = Q / V
We call the constant which relates the two, C,
the capacitance because it is
- the
capacity of the plates to store charge.
Battery Capacitance is measured in farad, F.
40 41
 Capacitance Farads
C=Q/V 1F = 1 C V-1 (A capacitance of 1 farad will
mean a charge of 1 coulomb can be stored
Q - charge in coulombs for each volt across the plates).
C capacitance in farads Capacitance is measured in units called
farads (F). A farad is a very big unit, and we
V - potential difference in volts are much more likely to use microfarads ( F)
or nanofarads (nF). Or even picofarads (pF)
1 F = 1 × 10-6 F
1 nF = 1 × 10-9 F
1 pF = 1 × 10-12 F
42 43

Fixed Capacitors Fixed Capacitors

PAPER MICA
CAPACITOR CAPACITOR

44 45

Fixed Capacitors Fixed Capacitors

CERAMIC CAPACITOR ELECTROLYTIC
CAPACITOR

46 47

Variable Capacitors Variable Capacitors

VARIABLE CAPACITOR
TRIMMER CAPACITOR
A typical variable capacitor
(adjustable capacitor) is the
rotor-stator type. It
consists of two sets of
metal plates arranged so
that the rotor plates move
between the stator plates.
Air is the dielectric. As the
position of the rotor is
changed, the capacitance
value is likewise changed. This type of capacitor is
used for tuning most A screw adjustment is used to vary the distance
radio receivers. between the plates, thereby changing the capacitance.
48 49
 NOT IN EXAM
Color Codes
Although the capacitance value may be
printed on the body of a capacitor, it may
also be indicated by a color code. The
color code used to represent
capacitance values is similar to that
used to represent resistance values. The
color codes currently in use are the Joint
Army-Navy (JAN) code and the Radio
Manufacturers' Association (RMA) code
50
Color Codes
The capacitor shown in the above figure
represents either a mica capacitor or a molded
paper capacitor. To determine the type and
value of the capacitor, hold the capacitor so
that the three arrows point left to right (>).
52
Color Codes
The dot at the bottom right represents the
multiplier to be used. The multiplier represents
picofarads. The dot in the bottom center
indicates the tolerance value of the capacitor
54
Color Code - Example
56
Color Codes
For each of these codes, colored dots or
bands are used to indicate the value of the
capacitor. A mica capacitor, it should be
noted, may be marked with either three
dots or six dots.
Both the three- and the six-dot codes are
similar, but the six-dot code contains more
information about electrical ratings of the
capacitor, such as working voltage and
temperature coefficient.
51
Color Codes
The first dot at the base of the arrow sequence (the
left-most dot) represents the capacitor TYPE. This dot
is either black, white, silver, or the same color as the
capacitor body. Mica is represented by a black or
white dot and paper by a silver dot or dot having the
same color as the body of the capacitor. The two dots
to the immediate right of the type dot indicate the first
and second digits of the capacitance value
53
Color Code - Caps
55
Reading Color Code Step 01
Hold the capacitor so the
arrows point left to right
Read the First Dot
Read the second digit dot
and apply it to the first digit.
Read the multiplier dot and
multiply the first two digits by
multiplier (Remember that the
multiplier is in picofarads).
57
 Reading Color Code Step 02 Ceramic Capacitor Color Code
Lastly, read the tolerance
dot.

According to the left coding,

the capacitor is a mica
capacitor whose capacitance
is 9100 pF with a tolerance
of 6%.

58 59

Calculate the Values Calculate the Values

60 61

Parallel-plate Capacitors
made of two plates each of area A (the

plates are separated by a distance d.

13.2 Parallel-plate capacitors

62 63

Parallel-plate Capacitors Parallel-plate Capacitors

The electric field is the sum of the electric

64 65
 Parallel-plate Capacitors Parallel-plate Capacitors
The electric fields outside the plates
cancel out.

66 67

Parallel-plate Capacitors Parallel-plate Capacitors

The electric fields outside the plates cancel out. The electric fields between the plates add.
Make the outside fields disappear.

68 69

Parallel-plate Capacitors Parallel-plate Capacitors

The charges move to the inside of the plates. The electric field inside is uniform.
Move the + and symbols toward the center. The electric field outside is small.

70 71

Parallel-Plate Capacitors
Assume electric field uniform between
the plates, we have
Q
E= =
o oA
13.3 Dielectrics
Qd
V=Ed=
oA
Q Q
C= =
V Qd oA
C= oA
(As we have argued before)
d Pictures from Serway & Beichner 72 73
 Dielectrics Dielectrics
A dielectric is an insulator with polar Polar molecules rotate in the electric field
molecules that is placed between the plates of the capacitor.
of a capacitor.

74 75

Dielectrics Dielectrics
The net charge inside the dielectric is zero. But there is leftover charge on the
surfaces of the dielectric.

76 77

Dielectrics
This charge produces an electric field that
opposes the electric field of the plates.
Dielectrics
A dielectric is an insulating material in which the individual
molecules polarize in proportion to the the strength of an
external electric field.
This reduces the electric field inside the dielectric by a
factor , called the dielectric constant.
For fixed charge Q on plates

E of plates E0 V0
E and V

Capacitance is
increased by .

E of dielectric

C C0
01/31/2005 Phys112, Walker Chapter 20 79
78 79

Dielectrics Strength Dielectric Properties

of common materials
Dielectrics are insulators: charges are not Material Dielectric Dielectric
free to move (beyond molecular distances) Constant: Strength (V/m)
Above a critical electric field strength,
however, the electrostatic forces polarizing Vacuum 1 2.5·1018
the molecules are so strong that electrons Air (lightening) 1.00059 3.0·106
are torn free and charge flows. ( -1) Density
This is called Dielectric Breakdown, and can Teflon 2.1 60 ·106
disturb the mechanical structure of the Paper 3.7 16 ·106
material
Mica 5.4 100 ·106
01/31/2005 Phys112, Walker Chapter 20 80 01/31/2005 Phys112, Walker Chapter 20 81
80 81
 Problem Type 1: Problem Type 1:
Fixed Charge Fixed Charge
A capacitor is charged with a battery to a A capacitor is charged with a battery to a
charge Q. The battery is removed and a charge Q. The battery is removed and a
dielectric is inserted. dielectric is inserted.
Without the dielectric: With the dielectric: With the dielectric:
Q Q0
V0 V0
Q0 C0V0 V ( E0 Ed ) d V0 V ( E0 Ed ) d
V

Q CV Q0 C C0 Q CV Q0
Q Q0 Q Q0
C C0 C C0
V V0 V V0
82 83

Problem Type 1: Problem Type 2:

Fixed Charge Fixed Voltage
A capacitor is charged with a battery to a A capacitor is connected to a battery with
charge Q. The battery is removed and a voltage V and remains connected as a
dielectric is inserted. dielectric is inserted.
1 Without the With the dielectric:
Q Q0 The electric field of the dielectric:
V
V0 dielectric reduces the V V0
voltage across the Q C0V0
C C0 capacitor, causing the
Q CV C0V0
capacitance to rise.

84 85

Problem Type 2: Problem Type 2:

Fixed Voltage Fixed Voltage
A capacitor is connected to a battery with A capacitor is connected to a battery with
voltage V and remains connected as a voltage V and remains connected as a
dielectric is inserted. dielectric is inserted.
With the dielectric:
Q Q0 Q Q0 The charge on the
V V0
V V0 V V0 dielectric pulls
additional charge from
C C0 Q CV C0V0 C C0
the battery to the
plates, causing the
capacitance to rise.
86 87

Capacitors with dielectrics Capacitors with dielectrics

A dielectrics is an insulating material (rubber, glass, etc.) Notice that the potential difference decreases (k =
Consider an insolated, charged capacitor V0/V)
Since charge stayed the same (Q=Q0)
capacitance increases

Insert a dielectric Q0 Q0 Q0
Q Q
C C0
Q Q V V0 V0
dielectric constant: k = C/C 0
Dielectric constant is a material property
V0 V
88 89
Capacitors with dielectrics - notes Capacitors with dielectrics - notes
Capacitance is multiplied by a factor The capacitance is limited from
k when the dielectric fills the region above by the electric discharge that
between the plates completely can occur through the dielectric
material separating the plates
E.g., for a parallel-plate capacitor
In other words, there exists a
maximum of the electric field,
A sometimes called dielectric strength,
C 0 that can be produced in the dielectric
d before it breaks down
90 91

Example
Dielectric constants and dielectric Take a parallel plate capacitor whose plates
strengths of various materials at room have an area of 2.0 m2 and are separated by
temperature a distance of 1mm. The capacitor is charged
Material Dielectric Dielectric to an initial voltage of 3 kV and then
constant, k strength (V/m) disconnected from the charging source. An
Vacuum 1.00 -- insulating material is placed between the
Air 1.00059 3 106 plates, completely filling the space, resulting
Water 80 -- in a decrease in the capacitors voltage to 1
Fused quartz 3.78 9 106 kV. Determine the original and new
capacitance, the charge on the capacitor, and
the dielectric constant of the material.
92 93

Take a parallel plate capacitor whose plates have an area of 2 m2 and are separated by a
distance of 1mm. The capacitor is charged to an initial voltage of 3 kV and then
disconnected from the charging source. An insulating material is placed between the
plates, completely filling the space, resulting in a decrease in the capacitors voltage to
1 kV. Determine the original and new capacitance, the charge on the capacitor, and the
dielectric constant of the material.
Take a parallel plate capacitor whose plates have an area of 2 m2 and are separated by a
distance of 1mm. The capacitor is charged to an initial voltage of 3 kV and then
disconnected from the charging source. An insulating material is placed between the
plates, completely filling the space, resulting in a decrease in the capacitors voltage to
1 kV. Determine the original and new capacitance, the charge on the capacitor, and the
dielectric constant of the material.

Given: Since we are dealing with the parallel- Given: The dielectric constant and the new capacitance
V1=3,000 V plate capacitor, the original capacitance V1=3,000 V are
V2=1,000 V can be found as V2=1,000 V V1
A = 2.00 m2 A A = 2.00 m2 C C0 C0 3 X 18nF 54 nF
d = 0.01 m C0 0 d = 0.01 m V2
d
The charge on the capacitor can be found to be
Find:
2.00m 2 Find:
(8.85 10 12 C 2 / N m 2 )
C=?
1.00 10 3 m C=? Q C0 V 18 10 9 F 3000V 5.4 10 5 C
C0=? C0=?
Q=? Q=?
k=?
18nF k=?

94 95

How does an insulating dielectric material reduce electric fields

by producing effective surface charge densities?
Reorientation of polar molecules

13.4 Capacitors in series and

in parallel
Induced polarization of non-polar molecules

Dielectric Breakdown: breaking of molecular bonds/ionization of

molecules.
96 97
 Adding Capacitors Adding Capacitors
Resistors: V IR Series:
1 1 1
1 Q Q1 Q2 , V V1 V2 ,
Capacitors: V Q C C1 C2
C
Parallel:
1
R
C V V1 V2 , Q Q1 Q2 , C C1 C2
R and 1/C enter the voltage equations in a similar way.
If you replace R with 1/C in series-parallel equations for
resistors, you get the correct result for capacitors!

98 99

Why are the charges the same on

capacitors in series?
As with resistors, the voltages across two
capacitors in series add to get the total
voltage.
As with resistors, the voltages across two
capacitors in parallel are the same.
When we discharge two capacitors in
parallel, the total charge that leaves the To begin with, there is no charge on either
capacitors is the sum of the charges. (Recall capacitor.
that with resistors the sum of the currents is
the total current in parallel.)
100 101

Why are the charges the same on Why are the charges the same on
capacitors in series? capacitors in series?

q q q q

Before we start charging the two capacitors, A the capacitors charge, the charge within
the charge within the dashed box is zero. the dashed box remains zero.

102 103

Why are the charges the same on Why are the charges the same on
capacitors in series? capacitors in series?

+Q Q +Q Q +Q Q

When the left plate of the left capacitor The charge within the box must remain zero,
acquires its final charge +Q so the right capacitor must have the same
charge is Q. charge as the left capacitor.

104 105
 Caps in Series - Equation 2 Caps in Series - Equation
1
RT
1 1 1
...
R1 R2 Rn
1
C1 C2
CT
1 1 1
CT
C1 C2
...
Cn C1 C2

106 107

CT in Series - Example
CT
Determine the total capacitance of a
series circuit containing three capacitors
in Series
whose values are 0.01 µF, 0.25 µF, and Solution
50,000 pF,

108 109

Caps in Parallel - Equation CT in Parallel - Example

Determine the total capacitance in a
parallel capacitive circuit containing
three capacitors whose values are 0.03
µF, 2.0 µF, and 0.25 µF, respectively

CT = C1 + C2 + C3 n
110 111

CT in Parallel - Solution Questions Parallel

What is the single capacitor equivalent of
this circuit below?
What is the charge on each capacitor?

12 V C1 4 F C2 6 F

112 113
 Answer Parallel Questions Series
What is the single capacitor equivalent of
12 V C1 4 F C2 6 F this circuit below?
What is the charge on each capacitor?
Ctotal = C1 + C2 Charge on C2 , Q2 What are the voltmeter readings?
= = 6 10-6 F 12 V
= 7.2 10-5C C1 C2
= 72 mC 12 V
C1 4 F 6 F
Total charge, Q
= 48 mC + 72 mC
= 120 mC
114 115

Answer Series

13.5 Energy stored in a

charged capacitor

116 117

Energy Stored in a Battery Energy Stored in a Capacitor

q q+ q Q
Charge on plates
118 119

Stored Energy Equation Measuring Stored Energy

Energy stored by the capacitor,
W = 1/2 QV
equation may be written as
W = 1/2 CV2

120 121
 Measuring Stored Energy Stored Energy Question 1
Calculate the charge and energy stored in
a l0 F capacitor charged to a potential
difference of:

A joulemeter is used to measure the energy transfer from a a.) 3 V Q= 30 C, W = 45 J

charged capacitor to a light bulb when the capacitor discharges. The
capacitor p.d. V is measured and the joulemeter reading recorded b.) 6 V Q= 60 C, W = 180 J
before the discharge starts. When the capacitor has discharged,
the joulemeter reading is recorded again. The difference of the two
joulemeter readings is the energy transferred from the capacitor
during the discharge process. This is the total energy stored in the
capacitor before it discharged. This can be compared with the
calculation of the energy stored using W = ½CV2.
122 123

Stored Energy Question 2

Energy in a Capacitor
A 50k F capacitor is charged from a 9 V Start with two parallel plates with no charge.
battery then discharged through a light Move one charge from one plate to the other.
There is no electric field and no force, so it
bulb in a flash of light lasting 0.2 s. requires no work.
Calculate:
a) the charge and energy stored in the
capacitor before discharge,
b) the average power supplied to the light
bulb. a) = .45 C b) = 10 W
124 125

Energy in a Capacitor Energy in a Capacitor

After the charge is transferred, the capacitor has When the charge on a capacitor is q, the
a small charge and a small field.
voltage is q/C and the electric field is
The field causes a force on the next charge we
move, forcing us to do work. V/d=q/Cd.
The force on a small charge dq is
q
F (dq ) E dq
Cd

126 127

Energy in a Capacitor Energy in a Capacitor

The work done in moving the charge is The work done in charging the capacitor to
1 its final charge Q is:
dW Fd qdq Q
C 1 Q2 1
W dW qdq CV 2 U
C0 2C 2

128 129
 Energy in a Capacitor Energy Density

Energy per unit volume in a an electric field.

1 In a parallel-plate capacitor of volume v=Ad :

U CV 2
2 U
1
CV 2
1 0A
Ed
2 1
0 E 2 Ad
2 2 d 2
U 1
u 0 E2
v 2

130 131

Energy Density

The density of the energy stored in any

electric field, not just a capacitor, is: 13.6 Charging and
1 discharging of a Capacitor
u 0 E2
2

132 133

Capacitors in Circuits Capacitors in Circuits

In DC circuits, capacitors just charge or Describe what happens in this circuit
discharge. after the switch is closed.
5
No current flows after a capacitor is fully 20
charged or discharged.

1
12 V

134 135

Capacitors in Circuits Capacitors in Circuits

Initially positive charge on the right plate When the capacitor starts charging, it
of the capacitor pushes charge off the behaves like a battery that opposes the
left plate. It is as if the capacitor were flow of current.
replaced by a wire. 5 20 5 20
+

1 1
12 V 12 V

136 137
 Capacitors in Circuits Capacitors in Circuits
Eventually, the capacitor becomes fully First, ignore the branch with the
charged. No more current flows. What is capacitor.
the final voltage on the capacitor? Rtotal=3 . I = 4 A. V across the 1
+
5
20 resistor is IR = 4 V. +
5
20

1 1
12 V 12 V

138 139

Capacitors in Circuits Capacitors in Circuits

V across the 5 resistor is 0. Why?
Summary:
V across the capacitor is 4 V.
In steady state, no current flows through
Q on the capacitor = CV = 80 C
the capacitor. Just find the voltage
5
20 across the capacitor and you can
+
determine the charge.

1
12 V

140 141

RC Discharging RC Discharging
Charge a capacitor I Look at the voltage
I with a battery to a around the circuit. We
voltage V.
Disconnect the rule:
capacitor and attach I
Q0 it to a resistor. Q
Q(t) The initial charge is IR 0
Q=CV. C
VR IR
The charge decays VC
Q
t to zero but what is C
Q(t)?
142 143

RC Discharging RC Discharging
I I
Q Q
IR 0 IR 0
C C
I 0, Q 0 I 0, Q 0
Q
VR IR dQ Q
VR IR dQ
VC I VC I
C dt C dt
Q dQ
The minus sign comes from: R 0
C dt
1)I > 0 dQ 1
Q (t )
2)Q is the charge on the capacitor dQ dt RC
0
3)The capacitor is discharging so dt
144 145
 RC Discharging RC Discharging
dQ 1 dQ 1
Q(t ) dt
dt RC Q RC
This is a differential equation, but it is a really easy Q(t ) t
dQ 1
one to solve. dt
Q0
Q RC 0
equations. Q (t ) 1
ln t, RC
dQ 1 dQ 1 Qf Q0 RC
dt dt ln t/
Q RC Q RC Qi Q (t ) Q0e

146 147

RC Time Constant RC Discharging

Discharging capacitors with three different
time constants.
= RC.
has units of seconds. The time constant is the time it takes the
charge to drop to 1/e of its original value.
When is big, capacitors charge and
discharge slowly.
If R is large, not much current flows, so =3 s
is big. 1 =2 s
If C is large, there is a lot of charge that e =1 s
has to flow, so is big.
148 149

RC Charging RC Charging
I
C A capacitor is initially We again use
V0 uncharged.

R Use a battery with Q

voltage V0 to charge the VR IR
V0 IR 0
capacitor.
C
Q
V0 VC
The voltage increases to C
V0.
The charge increases to
Q=CV0.
150 151

RC Charging RC Charging
dQ Q
I
We again use V0 R 0
dt C
This differential equation has the solution:
Q
VR IR
V0 IR 0
C Q (t ) Q f 1 e t/
Q
V0 VC dQ
C I 0 Qf CV0
dt
RC
dQ Q
V0 R 0 Try plugging the solution into the differential
dt C equation and see if it works!
152 153

RC Charging
Charging
capacitors with
1 three different
1 time constants.
e =1 =2
=3
s s
s The time
constant is the
time it takes the
charge to rise to
1-1/e of its final
value.
154
What happens to the charge on the
plate?
Charge builds up -
quickly at first (a lot
of electrons arriving
each second) and
then more slowly.
The potential
difference is
proportional to
charge, so the p.d.-
time graph is exactly
the same shape as
the charge-time
graph.
156
Discharging Capacitors
Initially there is a
large current due to
the large potential
difference across the
plates.
The current drops as
pd drops.
Notice that the electrons are now moving the
opposite way round the circuit so the graph
shows the current as negative to show this.
158
Discharging Capacitors
As the potential difference across the plates
is directly proportional to the charge on the
plates, the p.d.-time graph is the same shape
as the charge-time graph as before.
160
Charging and Discharging
Charging Capacitors Current falls away as
it becomes less
What happens to attractive for
current as time
electrons to move to
passes?
the plate from the
cell.
Note: The area under
the current-time
graph is equal to the
amount of charge
stored on the plates.
155
Charging Capacitors
When the capacitor is fully charged,
the pd across the plates will equal the
emf of the cell charging it.
Look at the diagram.
The cell is trying to push
electrons clockwise (with its
capacitor is trying to push
electrons anticlockwise (with
its push of 2V). Neither wins
so no charge flows.
157
Discharging Capacitors
Charge drops quickly at first (due to the
large current - which is of course, a large
flow of charge).
As the charge and therefore the pd across
the plates drops, so the charge drops
more slowly.
159
Charge/Discharge Cycle
161
 R-C circuits R-C circuits
So far we have assumed
When the switch is
that all emfs and resistances
open i is zero, as is the
are constant, time-
charge on the capacitor
independent quantities.
q.
This assumption fails when
we consider a circuit with a When the switch is
capacitor. initially closed the
current is maximized,
Lets assume an ideal
and q is zero. As the
source with emf
capacitor charges i
connected to a resistor of
decreases as q
resistance R and capacitor
increased until q is
with capacitance C.
maximized and i is zero.
162 163

Decay Decay

164 165

Charging a Capacitor Charging a Capacitor

The capacitor in the figure As the capacitor charges,
is initially uncharged. That its voltage vbc increases
means that vbc is zero at and the potential difference
time t = 0. across the resistor, vab,
According to the loop rule decreases.
the voltage across the The sum of these two
resistor, vab, is equal to the voltages must always be
emf of the source E. equal to E.
The initial current through
the resistor: Io = vab/R =
E/R

166 167

Charging a Capacitor Charging a Capacitor

When the capacitor is fully charged, vbc = E.
Why does the current decrease as the q
E iR 0
capacitor charges? C
Let q represent the charge on the capacitor
and i the current in the circuit as some time t The potential drops by iR from a to b and
after the switch has been closed. The current by q/C from b to c. Solving the above
will flow counter clockwise. The instantaneous equation for i we get:
voltages for the resistor and capacitor are: E q
q i
vab iR vbc R RC
C
168 169
 Charging a Capacitor Charging a Capacitor
When the switch is closed at t = 0 the The current and the
capacitor is not yet charged, and the initial capacitor charge are given
current is, as we have stated before, E/R. as functions of time to the
Without the capacitor, this would be the right.
constant value of the current.
Current jumps from 0 to Io
As q increases the voltage drop across the = E/R at t = 0, then
capacitor increases. The drop equals E when gradually approaches zero.
the charge reaches its final value Q f. The The charge starts at zero
current eventually reaches zero. When this and gradually approaches
happens Q f = EC. Qf.
170 171

Charging a Capacitor Charging a Capacitor

We can derive general
expressions for the charge The previous equation rearranged:
and current as functions of
dq dt
time. Due to our choice of
q CE RC
the direction of current, i
equals the rate at which And then integrate both sides. Lets
positive charge arrives at change the integration variables to and
the left-hand plate of the
so we can use q and t as the upper
capacitor, so i = dq/dt.
Putting this into equation, limits: q
dq
t
dt
dq E q 1 0
q CE 0
RC
q CE
dt R RC RC 172 173

Charging a Capacitor Time Constant

After a time equal to RC,
When we carry out the integration we get:
q CE t
the current in the R-C circuit
ln has decreased to 1/e of its
CE RC
initial value and the charge
Exponentiating both sides, taking the inverse has reached (1 1/e) of its
logarithm, and solving for q: final value. The product RC
t t is called the time constant or
q CE (1 e RC ) Q f (1 e RC ) relaxation time of the circuit,
The instantaneous current i is just the time = RC. It is a measure of
derivative: how quickly the capacitor
dq E t RC t
charges or discharges.
i e I o e RC
dt R
174 175

Time Constant Discharging a Capacitor

Suppose that after the capacitor in figure 26.20 has
When tau is small, the acquired a charge Qf we remove the battery and
capacitor charges quickly. connect points a and c to an open switch.
When it is large the When we close the switch, t = 0 and q = Qo, the
capacitor takes a longer capacitor discharges through the resistor and the
time to charge. Hence, tau charge again returns to zero.
is the factor RC. Let i and q represent the time varying current and
charge at some instant after the switch is closed.
We choose our current direction to be the same as
we did before so we can use equation 26.10 for
E = 0. This gives:
dq q
i
176 dt RC 177
 Discharging a Capacitor
dq q
The initial current, when t =0, Io = -Qo/RC. i
dt RC
To find q as a function of time we take the same steps as
charging: t
dq q
q Qoe RC
i dq
dt RC i
q
dq 1 t dt
dt
q RC 0 Qo t RC
0 e
q t RC
ln t
Qo RC
I oe RC
178 179

Summary

By Carsten Denker
180 181

Capacitance Calculating the Capacitance

A Parallel-plate
0
C capacitor
d
L Cylindrical
q CV C 2 0 capacitor
ln b / a
Capacitance
[F = C/V] ab Spherical
C 4 0
capacitor
A battery maintains a potential difference b a
between its terminals. It sets up an electric
Isolated
field E which drives electrons through the wire C
towards the positive terminal.
4 0R sphere
182 183

Capacitors in Parallel & in Series Energy Stored in an Electric Field

Dielectric Dielectric
When a potential difference is Material Constant Strength
applied across several capacitors 2 (kV/mm)
Potential energy
q
connected in parallel, that U Air 1.00054 3
potential difference is applied 2C Polystyrene 2.6 24
across each capacitor. The total Paper 3.5 16
charge stored on the capacitors 1 Transformer Oil 4.5
is the sum of the charges stored Potential energy U CV 2 Pyrex 4.7 14
on all the capacitors. 2
Ruby Mica 5.4
When a potential difference is 1 2 Porcelain 6.5
n applied across several capacitors Energy density u 0E Silicon 12

C eq Cj connected in series, the 2 Germanium 16

capacitors have identical charges
n Ethanol 25
j 1 . The sum of the potential 1 1 The potential energy of a Water (20º C) 80.4
differences across all the charged capacitor may be
capacitor capacitors is equal to the applied Ceq j 1 Cj viewed as being stored in the
Water (50º C)
Titania Ceramic
78.5
130
potential difference .
in parallel capacitors electric field between its plates. Strontium Titanate 310 8
in series
184 185
 Dielectric

Polar and non-

In a region completely filled by a polar dielectrics
dielectric material of dielectric constant
, all electrostatic equations containing 0 E dA q
the permittivity constant are to be
modified by replacing with . dielectric
186