Adeel Anwar AP Calculus BC Review Sheet

I) Limits & Continuity

- A limit is a y-value
- Finding limits algebraically:
- If substitution gives 0/0:
- factor/multiply terms and reduce
- Multiply by the conjugate
- ‘Trig trick’, when ( lim sin # x)
X⇾0
- Substitution example:

lim x = -13
x⇾-13

- The limit of a constant is a constant

lim 74 = 74
X⇾-13

- In this example if we substitute then we get zero divided by zero:

2 x 2❑−32
lim
x−4
x⟶4
- Therefore you must factor:

2( x+ 4)(x−4)
lim which becomes: lim 2(x+4) ⇾ 2(4+4) = 16
x −4
x⟶4 x⇾4

- In the next example substitution will give 0/0, so we must multiply by the conjugate

n n
lim
√❑
⟶ lim
√❑
( √❑
❑ )
n⇾0 n ⟶0

Simplify to:
lim √❑ becomes √❑
n ⟶0
- Rules for limits as x⟶∞ for rational functions:

- n < m, lim f(x) = 0

 x⇾∞

- n = m, lim f(x) = ratio of leading coefficients

x⇾∞

- n > m, lim f(x) = ∞

x⇾∞

- Limit rules for sine:

sinθ
- lim =1
θ
θ ⇾0

sin(aθ)
- lim =1
aθ
θ ⇾0

sin(aθ)
- lim = a/b
bθ
θ ⇾0

- A ‘continuity’ is a single unbroken curve without gaps, jumps, or holes in it

- Definition of Continuity: A function is continuous at x=a if:
- The limit exists
- f(a) exists
 - lim f(x) = f(a)
x⇾a

- Ex: Use the definition of continuity to determine whether f(x) is continuous at x=2 if:
1
2
x + 1 when x < 2
f(x) =
3-x elsewhere

lim f(x) = lim f(x) = f(2)

−¿¿ +¿
x→ 2 x→ 2¿

1 1
lim
2
x+1 = lim 3 - x =
2
(2) + 1
−¿ +¿
x→ 2¿ x→ 2¿

2 does not equal (3 - 2) which does not equal 2, therefore f(x) is discontinuous at x=2
because the lim f(x) does not exist
x→2

II) Derivatives
- A ‘derivative’ is a rate of change (slope of the tangent line)
- Limit Definition of the derivative:

f (x +h)+f (x)
f’(x) = lim
h
h→0
- Product rule: y = (f’(x))(g(x)) + (f(x))(g’(x))

- Quotient Rule:

( f ’ ( x))(g(x ))−(f (x))(g ’ (x))

y=
( g( x ))2

- Derivative of Trig Functions:

- Derivative of (sin x) is (cos x)
 - Derivative of (tan x) is ( sec 2 x )
- Derivative of (sec x) is ((sec x)(tan x))
- Derivative of (cos x) is (-sin x)
- Derivative of (cot x) is (- csc 2 x )
- Derivative of (csc x) is -((csc x)(cot x))

- A derivative does not exist when there is a:

- Point of discontinuity
- There’s a vertical tangent
- corner/cusp

- Chain Rule and Product Rule example:

9
y= (4−3 x )
4−3 x
y’ = 9( 8 (-3)
¿¿

- Implicit differentiation = used when you want to find dy/dx for the equation that contains
both x and y
- Procedure:
- Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x
- Assume y is a function of x
- Solve for dy/dx
- example:

2y = x 2 + sin y
2(dy/dx) = 2x + (cos y)(dy/dx)
2(dy/dx) - (cos y)(dy/dx) = 2x
(dy/dx)(2 - cos y) = 2x
2x
(dy/dx) =
2−cos y

- Remember:
- The slope of the normal line is perpendicular to the slope of the tangent line
- There’s a horizontal tangent when the slope of the tangent line equals zero
- There’s a vertical tangent when the slope of the tangent line is undefined

- Linearization or Tangent Line Approximation

- Procedure:
- Choose an ‘easy’ x-value to work with
- Find the ordered pair
 - Find the derivative (dy/dx)
- Calculate m tan
- Write the equation of the tangent line
- Approximate using the given x-value
- Example:

Find the tangent line of f(x) = √ ❑ and use it to approximate f(26.2)

- Choice: x = 25
- Pair: (25, 5) [I get 5 as a y-value by plugging 25 into the original]
1 −1
- f’(x) = x 2
2
- f’(25) = 1/10
- y- y 0 = m(x - x 0 ) → y - 5 = (1/10)(x - 25)
- y - 5 = (1/10)(26.2 - 25) ≈ 5.12

- Note: If information on f “ (x) is given, it’s possible to determine whether the

approximation at an x-value is an overestimation or underestimation
- If f “ (x) > 0, the estimation under approximated the actual y-value
- If f “ (x) < 0, the estimation over-approximated the actual value

- Theorems
- Mean Value Theorem (MVT) = suppose y = f(x) is continuous on the closed
interval from [a,b] and differentiable at every point on (a,b). Then there exists at
least one point “c” between a and b such that:

f (b)−f ( a)
f’(c) =
b−a
The slope of the tangent line = slope of secant line joining a and b

- Procedure for finding c using MVT

- Find values of f(a) and f(b)
f (b)−f ( a)
- Calculate the slope of the secant line ( b−a )
- Find f ‘ (x)
- Set f ‘ (x) = the slope of the secant line, and solve for x
- Check whether x is in the open interval a and b
- *You must make sure the conditions for MVT are met before using
MVT!
- Example:

If f(x) = x 2 on [0,2], find a value c that satisfies MVT

a) check conditions: since f(x) is a polynomial it’s continuous on [0,2] and differentiable
on (0,2) therefore MVT applies
 2 2
f (b)−f (a) 2 −0
b) f ’ (c) = ⇾ 2x = ⇾ 2x = 2, x = 1 (inside open
b−a 2
interval, therefore c = 1)

- Rolle’s Theorem = suppose y = f(x) is continuous on [a,b] and differentiable at

every point on (a,b). If f(a) = f(b), then there exists at least one c between a and
b such that f ‘ (c) = 0
- Procedure for finding c using Rolle’s Theorem
- Check: f(a) = f(b)
- Take the derivative
- Set f ‘ (x) = 0 and solve for x
- Check whether x falls inside (a,b)
- Example:
Find c using Rolle’s Theorem for f(x) = x 3 - 3x in the interval [-1,2]

a) Check: since f(x) is a polynomial f(x) is continuous on [-1,2] and differentiable on (-1,2)
b) f(-1) = 2, f(2) = 2, so Rolle’s Theorem applies
c) f ‘ (x) = 3 x 2 - 3 ⇾ 0 = 3 x 2 - 3 ⇾ 2
x = 1 ⇾ x = 土 √❑
d) x = -1 is outside (-1,2), but x=1 is inside (-1,2), therefore c = 1

*Remember since f(a) = f(b), the slope of the line connecting (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b)) will always be
zero

- Intermediate Value Theorem = suppose y = f(x) is continuous on [a,b] and d is

any number between f(a) and f(b) there is at least one number c in [a,b] where
f(c) = d
- Consequence: If y = f(x) is continuous on [a,b] and if f(a) and f(b) have
opposite signs, then there’s at least one c value where f(c) = 0
- example:
Use IVT to show f(x) = x 3 + 2x - 1 has a zero in the interval [0,1]
a) Check conditions: f(x) is a polynomial so f(x) is continuous on [0,1], NO NEED
TO CHECK DIFFERENTIABILITY, so IVT applies
b) f(0) = -1 < 0 and f(1) = 2 > 0
c) Since f(0) is less than 0 and f(1) is greater than 0, IVT states that there exists at
least one c where f(c) = 0
- Graphing Applications of the Derivative
- The first derivative test for increasing and decreasing:
- If f ‘ (x) > 0, f(x) is increasing
- If f ‘ (x) < 0, f(x) is decreasing
- The First Derivative Test for Local Extremes: To determine if there’s a MIN/MAX
at a critical value (a CV is where f ‘ (x) = 0 or is undefined) examine values to the
left and right of the CV in f ‘ (x)
- If f ‘ (x) goes from negative to positive as we examine f ‘ (x) then the
critical value is a minimum
- If f ‘ (x) goes from positive to negative as we examine f ‘ (x) then the
critical value is a maximum
 - A point of inflection (POI) = a point where a graph has a tangent line and
changes concavity. A point of inflection occurs when f ‘’ (x) = 0 or f ‘’ (x) = does
not exist or undefined
- The Second Derivative Test for MAX/MIN:
- Set f ‘ (x) = 0 to locate critical values
- Find f ‘’ (x) and evaluate f ‘’ (x) at each critical value
- If f ‘’ (x) > 0 the critical value is a minimum and f(x) is concave up
- If f ‘’ (x) < 0 the critical value is a maximum and f(x) is concave down

- Absolute Extremes (Global Extremes)

- Extreme Value Theorem: If a function f(x) is continuous on interval [a,b], f(x) has
both a minimum value and a maximum value on [a,b]
- Note: If f(x) has an extreme value on (a,b) then the extreme value occurs
at a CV of f(x)
- To locate Absolute extremes:
- Locate all CVs of f(x) on (a,b)
- Evaluate the original function at all CVs and the values of a and b (this
process is called the ‘candidate’s test’
- The largest f(x) value is the absolute MAX and the smallest f(x) value is
the absolute MIN
- Example:
Find all absolute extremes of f(x) = 2 x 3 - 15 x 2 + 24x on interval [0,5]
f ‘ (x) = 6 x 2 - 30x + 24
0 = 6 x 2 - 30x + 24
x = 4,1
Candidate’s Test:
f(0) = 2( 03 ) - 15 ( 02 ) + 24(0) = 0
f(1) = 2( 13 ) - 15 ( 12 ) + 24(1) = 11
f(4) = 2( 4 3 ) - 15( 4 2 ) + 24(4) = -16
f(5) = 2( 53 ) - 15 ( 52 ) + 24 (5) = -5
f(1) had the highest value, 11 is the absolute MAX; f(4) is the lowest, -16 is absolute MIN
- Taking the derivative of e x
d du
- dx ( e
u
)=( e
u
)( dx )
d
- ( )=( )(3 )
3 3
2
Ex: dx ex ex x
- Derivatives of Natural Logs:
d 1 du
- dx (ln u) = ( u )( dx )
1
- Ex: f(x) = ln(4x + 3 x
2
) ⇾ f ‘ (x) = ( 4 x +3 x2 )(4+6x)
- Derivatives of Exponential Functions:
- If a > 0 then:
 d du
-
dx
( au )=( au )(ln a)( dx
)
3 x−4
- Ex: y = 5 , find dy/dx

y’ = ( 5
3 x−4
)((ln5)(3))
- Derivative of log a x
d 1
- ( log a x ) =
dx ( x)(ln a)
- In general, use the change in base formula to derive this rule:
d d ln x 1 d 1 1
dx
( log a x ) =
dx
( ln a
)= ln a
( dx
(ln x)) = ln a
( x
)=
1
x (ln a)
- Example:
d d ln ( x 2+ 5 x ) 2 x +5
dx (
2
log 3 ( x +5 x) ) ⇾
dx ( ln 3
)⇾ (ln 3)(x 2+ 5 x )

- Logarithmic Differentiation: useful for differentiating functions that are composed of

products, quotients, or powers (with x)
- Ex: y = (cos x )x , find the derivative
ln y = (x)(ln(cos x))
1 dy −sin x
( y )( dx ) = (1)(ln(cos x)) + (x)( cos x )
dy
dx = y(ln (cos x) - (x)(tan x))
dy
dx = (cos x )
x
(ln (cos x) - (x)(tan x))

- Optimization: Applied MAX or MIN Problems

- Procedure:
- Draw a fully labeled diagram
- Write a formula for the quantity to be MIN/MAX
- Write the given information to eliminate any variables
- Take the derivative
- Find all CVs
- Perform an interval test (number lines for f ‘ (x))
- Answer the question actually asked

- Example: The perimeter of a rectangle is 60 units, find the largest possible area
 Perimeter (P) = 60

Width (w)

Length ( l )
Area (A) = (l )(w)

60 = 2l + 2w ⇾ w = 30 - l

Area = ( l )(30 - l ) = 30l - l

2

A’ = 30 - 2l ⇾ 0 = 30 - 2l ⇾ l = 15

(+) 0 (-)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------> A’
0 15
MAX
When l = 15 w = 30 - 15 = 15
Area =( l )(w) = (15)(15) = 225

The largest possible area is 225 units, when the length is 15 units

- Rectilinear Motion: Motion along a line (BC Topic)

- Position = represents the location of a particle at a specific time, t (position is
either represented by s(t) or x(t))
- Velocity = vector that has magnitude and direction
- Positive velocity = something moving to the right or up (v(t) > 0)
- Negative velocity = moving left or down (v(t) < 0)
- Zero velocity = v(t) = 0, the object is wither at rest or changing direction
Δ∈ position
- Average velocity = ( Δ ∈time )
- Instantaneous velocity = v(t) (the derivative of the position, v(t) = s’(t))
- Speed = |v(t )| , the magnitude of the velocity (but not the direction)
- Acceleration = a(t), the derivative of the velocity
- When velocity and acceleration have the same sign, the object is
 speeding up (even if both are negative)
- When velocity and acceleration have opposite signs, the object is slowing
down

- L’Hopital’s Rule:

lim f ( x) lim f ' (x)

x→e
= x→e
g (x) g ' ( x)
- Note: you must state that the limit of the numerator and the denominator both
equal zero for L’Hopital’s rule to apply
- Example:
lim x 2−3 x 2 2
x →0 , since the lim x −3 x = 0 & lim x +2 x = 0, L’Hopital’s Rule
x→ 0 x→ 0
x 2 +2 x
applies
lim 2 x −3 −3
x →0 = 2
2 x +2

- Differentiating Inverse Functions

- Inverse Functions: f(g(x)) = g(f(x)) = x
- The point (x,y) is on f, therefore the point (y,x) is on its inverse g
- Key facts to remember:
- If f’(a) = m, this means the slope of the tangent line to f(x) at x=a is m,
1
therefore g’(b) =
m
- Procedure:
- Determine (a,b) on f and (b,a) on g
- Find f’(x)
- Find f’(x) at the given x-value (evaluate mtan )
- Take the reciporocal of mtan
 4
- Example: If f(x) = x + 2 and g is the inverse of f, find g’(10)
So, if g has an x-value of 10, f must have a y value of 10
4
When f has a y value of 10, x = ½ (comes from setting 10 = + 2)
x
−(4)(1) −(4)(1)
f’(x) =
x2
⇾ f’(1/2) =
(1/2)2 = -16
When dealing with inverse functions with a point (a, b), if f’(a) = m, g’(b) = 1/m, therefore
if f’(½) = -16, g’(10) = -1/16

- Related Rates
- Procedure:
- Draw a diagram and label it
- Write an equation relating the known quantities with an unknown rate of
change
- Differentiate the equation with respect to t
- Solve for the derivative of the unknown rate of change
- Evaluate
- Make a list of what you:
KNOW WANT
rate Different rate

formula

Value (freeze frame)

- Example of related rates:

If the rate at which the radius of a circle changes is 2 ft/sec, at what rate is the area changing
when r = 5 ft?

r=5ft
 KNOW WANT
A= π r2 dA
dt

r = 5 ft

dr
= 2 ft/sec
dt

2
A= πr

dA ❑
= 2 π r (dr/dt)
dt

dA ❑
= 2 π (5 ft ) (2 ft/sec)
dt

dA ft 2
= 20 π
dt sec

Inverse Trig Derivatives:

d −1 1 d −1 −1
sin x = cos x=
dx √❑ dx √❑

d 1 d −1
tan −1 x= cot −1 x=
dx 1+ x 2 dx 1+ x 2

d 1 d 1
sec −1 x= csc −1 x =
dx |x| √❑ dx |x|√❑

III) Integration - The Antiderivative

- Integral calculus is used to find the area under a curve y=f(x) between x=a and x=b
provided that f(x) is continuous
- A function F is called an antiderivative of function f on a given interval if:
F’(x) = f(x)
For all x in the interval
❑

∫ f (x)=F(x )+ c , where c is a constant

❑

- Riemann Sums:
b
- Exact Area: ∫ f (x)dx
a
 n
A= lim ∑ f (x¿ ❑k )( Δ x)
n →∞ k=1

Where: n = number of rectangles, f (x¿ ❑k ) = height of the kth rectangle, and Δx =

base/width of the kth rectangle

- Riemann Sum Example:

a) Approximate the area under the curve over the interval [0,100] using right hand riemann
sums with 5 equal subdivisions
distance depth

0 2.0

10 1.9

20 1.6

30 1.7

40 1.8

50 1.9
60 2.1

70 2.0

80 2.1

90 2.0

100 1.9

0 20 40 60 80
100up the areas using the depths of the x coordinates on the right sides of each rectangle (if
sum
you were finding the left riemann sum use the depths of the coordinates on the left sides)
Right Riemann Sum:
100

∫❑ f(x) dx = (20)(1.6) + (20)(1.8) + (20)(2.1) + (20)(2.1) + (20)(1.9) = 190

0

b) Approximate the area under the curve over the same interval using midpoint sums
with 5 equal subdivisions:
Use the depths of the x-values midway between
100

∫❑ f(x) dx = (20)(1.9) + (20)(1.7) + (20)(1.9) + (20)(2.0) + (20)(2.0) = 190

0
c) Approximate the area under the curve w/ trapezoids and 5 equal subdivisions
Use the formula for area of a trapezoid (½)(b)(h1+h2) for each rectangle
100

∫❑ f(x) dx = (½)(20)(2.0+1.6) + (½)(20)(1.6+1.8) + (½)(20)(1.8+2.1) + (½)(20)(2.1+2.1) +

0
(½)(20)(2.1+1.9) = 191

- Using the limit definition of Area:

n
A= lim ∑ f ( x¿ ❑k )( Δ x)
n →∞ k=1
 ¿
x ❑k
Where ) = height of the kth rectangle and Δ x is the width of the rectangle
f¿

- Example:
3
Using the limit definition of the area estimate the area of 4x - x on [0,2]. Do not evaluate the
limit.
b−a 2−0 2
Δx = = =
n n n

2
x ❑k = a + k Δ x = 0 + k( )
¿
n

2k
¿ 2k 2k
f( x ❑k ) = f( n ) = 4( n ) - ( n
¿ ¿3

2k
n
¿
2k 2
A= 4( )−(¿¿ 3)( )
n n
¿
n
lim ∑ ¿
n →∞ k=1

- Indefinite Integrals:
- No limits of integration are used
- The constant c is always added
❑
x r +1
- ∫ f (x)dx = r+ 1
+c where r cannot equal -1
❑
- Example:
❑ 3
x
∫ x 2 dx= 2+1 +c
❑
- Integrals of Basic Trig Functions
 ❑
- ∫❑ sin x dx = - cos x + c
❑
❑
- ∫❑ cos x dx = sin x + c
❑
❑
- ∫❑ 2
sec x dx = tan x + c
❑
❑
- ∫❑ 2
csc x dx = - cot x + c
❑
❑
- ∫❑ (sec x)(tan x) = sec x +c
❑
❑
- ∫❑ (csc x)(cot x) = - csc x + c
❑

- Definite Integrals: integrate over a given interval [a,b] to get a result that is a value
❑
- A definite integral ∫❑ represents the area of a region bounded by a function
❑
f(x) between a and b
b
- ∫ f (x)dx , where a is the lower limit of integration and b is the upper
a
limit of integration
- Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part One: If f(x) is continuous on [a,b] and
F(x) is any antiderivative of f(x) on [a,b] then:
b
- ∫ f (x)dx = F(b) - F(a)
a
- Example:
2
x2 22 12 3
∫ x dx = 2
evaluated from 1 to 2 =
2
- 2
= 2
1

- The average value of a function: If f is continuous on [a,b], then the average

b
1
value or mean value of f on [a,b] is (
b−a
)( ∫ f (x)dx )
a

- Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part Two: if f is continuous on [a,b] then the

x
function F(x) = ∫ f (t) dt has a derivative at every point in [a,b] and
a
x
df d
dx
= dx ∫ f (t) dt = f(x)
a
- Example:
x
d
∫ cos t dt = cos x (all that happened was that t was replaced with
dx π/2
x)
- Integration by Substitution: u-sub method undoes the chain rule
- Method:
- Let u=g(x) which is usually the expression inside the parenthesis or
radical
du
- Find the derivative of u,
dx
- Solve for du
❑
- Substitute u into integral to get ∫ f (u)du
❑
- Integrate with respect to u (remember to put +c)
- Replace u with g(x)

- example:
x 2+1 ¿50 dx
2x ¿ du
❑ , let u = x 2+1 , =2 x , du = 2x dx
dx
∫❑ ¿
❑ x 2+1 ¿51
u 51
∫u 50
du →
51
→ ¿
¿
❑
¿

- Integration with Powers of sine and cosine

- If the power of sine is odd, save one factor of sine and convert the
remaining factors into cosine
- If the power of cosine is odd, save one factor of cosine and convert the
remaining factors into sine
- Example:
❑ ❑

∫ si n3 x co s 2 x dx → ∫ (si n2 x)(sin x)( co s 2 x ) dx →

❑ ❑
❑

∫ (1−co s2 x)(sin x )(co s2 x)dx

❑
Let u = cos x
du = -sin x dx
❑ ❑
u 3 u5 3
- ∫ (1−u2 )(u2)du =- ∫ (u2−u 4) du = -( − ) = −co s x +
❑ ❑ 3 5 3
co s 5 x
+c
5

- Integrals with Transcendentals

❑

- ∫ 1u du=ln|u|+c
❑
❑

- ∫ e x dx=e x+ c
❑
 ❑ u
a
- ∫ a u du=
❑ ln a
+c
- Integration by Parts: if u and v are functions of x and have continuous derivatives, then:
❑ ❑

∫ u dv=uv −∫ v du
❑ ❑

- Procedure:
- Select u so that du is simpler than u
- Select dv (easy to integrate and find v)
- Apply the formula
- example:
❑

∫ x e x dx
❑
Let u = x let dv = e
x
+c
du = dx let v = e x
❑ ❑ ❑

∫ x e dx x
= uv - ∫v du = (x)( e ) - x
∫ e x dx = x e x - e x +c
❑ ❑ ❑
- Tabular Method: Multiple Choice Shortcut
- Example:
❑

∫ x e2 x dx
❑

Derivative (x) Integral (dv)

x e2 x

1 1 2x
e
2

0 1 2x
e
4

Now connect the derivative value with the integral value to its bottom-right and alternate signs:
1 2x 1 2x
So… x connect with e as a (+) value, and 1 connects with e for a (-) value
2 4
❑
1 2x 1 2x
∫ x e2 x dx = e x- e +c
❑ 2 4
- Integrals Involving Partial Fractions
- If the degree of the numerator (n) is lower than the degree of the denominator
(m) begin with partial fraction decomposition
- If n>m begin with polynomial long division and then use partial fraction
decomposition
- Examples
❑
5 x−3
a) ∫ x25−2x−3
x−3
dx →
x −2 x−3
2=
A
+
B
x−3 x+ 1
❑
5x-3 = (x+1)(A) + (x-3)(B)
 5(3)-3 = (3+1)(A)
A=3

5(-1)-3 = (-4)(B)
B=2
❑
3 2
∫ ( x−3 + )dx = 3ln |x−3| +2ln |x +1| + c
❑ x+1
❑ 4
b) ∫ xx 2++23 xx +7
+2
dx
❑

4 2 2 −13 x−7
(x +2 x+7) ÷(x +3 x+2)=x −3 x +7+
x 2+3 x +2
Now use partial fraction decomposition for the remainder

−13 x−7 A B
= +
x 2 +3 x+ 2 x +2 x +1

-13x-7 = (A)(x+1) + (B)(x+2)

-13(-2)-7 = (-1)(A)
A = -19

-13(-1)-7 = (1)(B)
B=6
❑ 4
x3 3 x2
∫ xx 2++23 xx +7
+2
dx =
3
−
2
+ 7 x−19 ln |x+2|+ 6 ln |x +1|+c
❑

- Inverse Trigonometry Integral Rules

❑
u
- ∫ √1❑ sin −1 ( )+ c
=
a
❑
❑ ❑
1
- ∫ a2 +u2 = a ∫ ta n−1 ( ua )+c
du 1
❑ ❑

- Examples:
❑

- ∫ 9+1x 2 dx → a = 3, u = x →
1
3
x
tan−1 ( )+c
3
❑
 2
x−2 ¿ +5
x ¿
❑ dx ¿
- ∫ x2 −4dxx +9 → (¿¿ 2−4 x +4 )+ 9−4 → dx , u = x-2, a
❑ ❑ ¿
∫¿ ❑

∫❑ ¿
❑

= √❑
x−2
√❑
1 −1
tan ¿
x−2

- Improper Integrals = Integrals are known as improper integrals if:

- One or both the limits of integration are -∞ or ∞

∞ b

∫ f (x)dx → lim ∫ f ( x)dx

b→∞ a
a
b b

∫ f ( x)dx → lim ∫ f ( x) dx
a →−∞ a
−∞

- The integrand isn’t continuous on the limits of integration interval

- Example of Improper Integrals Application:

∞ b lim −1 lim −1 lim −1

∫ dx2 → lim ∫
dx
x2
⇾ b→∞ │b1 ⇾ b→∞ - (-1) , since b→∞
1 x b→∞ 1 x b b
=0,
∞

∫ dx
x
2
=1
1

- Area Between 2 Curves: Using Vertical Strips

- If function f(x) and g(x) are both continuous and if f(x) > g(x) on the interval [a,b],
then the area of the region between f(x) and g(x) is:
b b

∫ (f ( x )−g( x ))dx ∫ (TOP−BOTTOM )dx

a a
2
- Example: Find the area between y = 4 - x & y = -2x+4
 x
0 2

y
2
A= ∫ (4−x 2)−(−2 x + 4) dx
0
x3 2
A= x 2− ¿0 = 4/3
3

- Volume of Solids of Revolution

- Method One: The Disk Method = used to determine the volume of a solid when
rotated about the x-axis, y-axis, or any axis that borders the region
 2
R( x )¿ dx
¿
- Horizontal Axis of Revolution: V= b , R(x) is the height of the
π ∫¿
a
“strip” you draw

R( y )¿ 2 dy
¿
- Vertical Axis of Revolution: V= d
π∫ ¿
c
- Example: Determine the volume of the solid generated by rotating y=
2
x about the x axis on [1,2]
x 2 ¿2 dx
¿ π x5
V= 2 ⇾V= ¿21 ⇾ 31 π /5
π∫ ¿ 5
1
- Method Two: The Washer Method = used when the region we revolve to create a
solid doesn’t border the axis of rotation, this solid will always have a hole in it
R( x )¿2 −¿ dx
¿
- Horizontal Axis of Revolution: V = ¿
b

π∫ ¿
a
2
R( y )¿ −¿ dy
¿
- Vertical Axis of Revolution: V = ¿
d

π∫¿
c
 - example:

Determine the volume of the solid governed by rotating the region bounded by:
y = - x 2+ 4 & x=1 & y=0

x=1

y=-x^2 +
4

y
y = - x 2+ 4 ⇾ x = + √❑

Limits: y=0, 3 (set √ ❑ to get y=3)

¿
¿
¿
V= 3 √❑ ¿2−¿ dy = V = 9 π / 2
π ∫¿
0
- Volume of Solids with Known Cross Sections: For cross sections of area A:
b
- Perpendicular to the x-axis, V = ∫ A( x )dx
a
d
- Perpendicular to the y-axis, V = ∫ A( y) dy
c
- Common Cross Sections:
- Square A= s 2
- Rectangle A = bh
1 2
- Semicircle A = πr
2
1
- Isosceles right triangle A = bh
2
- Leg on base

- Hypotenuse on base

- Equilateral triangle
A = √❑
❑
- To find the volume:
- Write an expression for the area
- Determine limits of integration
- Integrate and simplify
 - Example:

Region R is bounded by y=x+1 and y= x 2 -1 is the base of a solid. Each cross

section perpendicular to the x-axis is a rectangle with a height of 2. Find the volume of this
region, R.

y
Cross section:

(x+1)-( x 2 -1)
- x 2 +x+2

Limits: x 2 -1 = x + 1, x = 2, -1

Area:
A = bh = ( - x 2 +x+2)(2) = -2 x 2 +2x+4

Volume:
2
V= ∫ (−2 x 2 +2 x+ 4) dx=9
−1
- Arc length of a ‘Smooth’ Curve
- Suppose that y=f(x) exists where f’(x) is continuous on [a,b]. Let “L” be the
length of the curve y=f(x) from x=a to x=b
b

L= ∫ √❑
a

- Parametric Equations & Vectors - Formulas (BC Topic)

dx
- dt
<0 , the particle is moving to the left
dx
- dt
>0 , the particle is moving to the right
dx
- dt
=0 , the particle is not moving horizontally, the particle’s position has a
vertical tangent
dy
- dt
<0 , the particle is moving down
dy
- dt
>0 , the particle is moving up
dy
- dt
=0 , the particle is not moving vertically, the particle’s position has a
horizontal tangent
dx dy
- = =0 , the particle is not moving at all, the particle is at rest, this is
dt dt
called a “singular point”
dy
dy dt
- =
dx dx , the slope of the tangent line to a smooth curve at a given point
dt
dy '
2
d y dt
- =
d x 2 dx
, the second derivative (used to determine concavity)
dt
b

- S= ∫ √❑
a
, total distance traveled, the length of the arc on the curve from a to
b
- √ ❑ , the speed of the particle
- Polar Coordinates Formulas (BC Topic)
dr
- dθ
<0 , the particle is moving towards the pole
dr
- dθ
>0 , the particle is moving away from the pole
dr
- dθ
=0 , the particle might be at a maximum distance from the pole
β

- L= ∫ √❑
α
, arc length
β
1
- A=
2α
∫ 2
r d θ , area of polar curves
dy
dy d θ
- =
dx dx , slope of the tangent line to the curve where x=rcos
θ and y=rsin
dθ
θ

dr
sinθ +rcos θ
dy dθ
- dx = dr
cos θ−rsin θ
dθ

- Conversions:
- x = rcos θ
- y = rsin θ
- 2 2
r =x + y
2

y
- tan θ= x
- Circles
- r=a
 - r = asin θ
- r = acos θ
- Graphed fully on [0, π ], when r = a it’s [0,2 π ]
- Cardioids
- r = a + asin θ
- r = a + acos θ
- Graphed fully on [0,2 π ]
- Limacons
- r = a + bsin θ
- r = a + bcos θ
- When a < b, this is a limacon with a loop; a > b, it’s dimpled or flattened
- Graphed fully on [0,2 π ]
- Rose Curves
- r = asinb θ
- r = acosb θ
- When b is odd, there are b petals graphed fully on [0, π ]
- When b is even there are 2b petals, graphed fully on [0,2 π ]

IV) Series
- nth term test = can be used to show that a series diverges (cannot be used to show
convergence) - the series diverges if the limit does not equal zero
∞ lim n !
- Ex: ∑ 2 n!n !+1 ⇾ n→∞ =½ which does not equal zero, so the series
n=1 2 n !+1
diverges by the nth term test
∞
a
- Geometric series = ∑ ar n , has a sum of S =
1−r
, converges if I r I<1, diverges
n=0
if IrI>1
3 n
¿
2
- Ex: 3¿ and since 3/2 > 1, this series diverges
∞

∑¿
n=0
∞
- p-series = ∑ n1p , converges if p>1, diverges if p < 1
n=1
 −1 ¿n a n
¿
- Alternating Series = ∞

∑¿
n=1
- The Alternating Series Test cannot be used to show divergence.
- A series converges if the terms:
- Strictly alternate
- Decrease in magnitude
- Tend to (approach) zero
- Example: Determine the convergence or divergence of:
n +1 1
−1 ¿ ( )
n
¿ 1
⇾ an =
∞ n
∑¿
n=1

- The series alternates due to (-1 ¿n +1

1 1
- an +1< an , <
n+1 n
lim 1
- n→∞
=0
n
- Since all three conditions of the Alternating Series Test are met, this
series converges
❑
- Ratio Test: let ∑
❑
an be a zero with non-zero terms
❑

| |
an+1
❑
- ∑
❑
an converges absolutely if: lim
n →∞ an
<1
❑

| |
an+1
❑
- ∑
❑
an diverges if: lim
n →∞ an
>1
❑

- The ratio test is inconclusive if: lim

n →∞ | |
an+1
an
>1

- Direct Comparison Test:

∞ ∞
- ∑ an converges if 0 < an < bn and ∑❑ bn converges
n=1 n=1
∞ ∞
- ∑ an converges if 0 < bn < an and ∑❑ bn diverges
n=1 n=1
- Example:

Determine the convergence or divergence of the series

∞
1 1 1
∑ 2+3 n
, since an =
2+3
n let
bn = n
3
n=1
 Since bn is a geometric series which converges since r<1, an must also
converge since an < bn due to the direct comparison test

- Limit Comparison Test

∞ lim an ∞
- ∑ an converges if n→∞
= L > 0 (exists) and ∑ bn converges
n=1 bn n=1
∞ lim an ∞

- ∑ an diverges if n→∞
= L > 0 (exists) and ∑ bn diverges
n=1 bn n=1

- Example:
Determine whether the following series converges
∞ ∞
1
∑ 3 n2−4 n+5
compare to ∑ n12 (converges b/c p-series, 2>1)
n=1 n=1

lim an 1 n2
n→∞ = lim ( 2
⋅ ) = ⅓ (a positive and finite value)
bn n →∞ 3 n −4 n+5 1

∞ lim an
Since ∑ n12 is a convergent p-series and n→∞ is a positive finite value,
n=1 bn
∞
1
∑ 3 n2−4 n+5
also converges by the limit comparison test
n=1

- Tangent Line Approximation

- If f has n derivatives at c, then the polynomial is called the nth Taylor Polynomial
for f centered at x=c

f ' '(c) f ' ' ' ( c)

Pn (x) = f(c) + f ’ (c)(x-c) + (x-c ¿2 + (x-c ¿3 +.....+
2! 3!
f n ( c)
(x-c ¿n
n!

- Separation of Variables
- A first order differential equation is separable if it can be expressed in the form:
dy
h(y) = g(x) and can be rewritten as h(y)dy = g(x)dx
dx
- Steps
- Separate the variables and rewrite the equation in h(y)dy=g(x)dx form
- Integrate both sides of this new equation
- A family of solutions exists (which is called the general solution)
R(y)=G(x)+c unless an initial condition is given
 - If an initial condition is given, you must use it to solve for c
- Example:
❑ ❑
dy 1 −1 −1
dx
= -4x y 2 ⇾ ∫ y2
dy=∫ 4 x dx ⇾
y
=−2 x 2 +c ⇾ y=
−2 x2 + c
❑ ❑
- Euler’s Method: a numerical approach to approximate the particular solution of a
differential equation by applying the concept of local linearity
- The goal is to create each new point from the previous point. To do this we use a
table of values

(x,y) f’(x) Δx Δy (x+ Δ x , y+

Δy )

Initial condition Same # (f’(x))( Δ x ) New point