-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Fluids
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Specific Gravity = Density of substance / Density of water

Density of Liquid Water = 1000 kg/m^3

Pressure = Force perpendicular / Area

- Unit for pressure is Pascal
- kPa = 1000 Pa; MPa = 1000000 Pa

Fg = mg = pVg = pAhg
P_liquid = F/A = pgh
P_total = P_atm + P_liquid = P_atm + pgh

P_gauge = Pressure without atmospheric pressure = P_liquid = pgh

F_buoy = p_fluid * V_submerged * g

- This is Archimedes Principle

V_sub / V_object = p_object / p_fluid

- This means the percentage of an object that is submerged can be determined by
finding the ratio of the density of the object to the density of the fluid
- Also note that if p_object > p_fluid, the object will sink, as V_sub can't be
greater than V_object

Flow rate = A * v
- Flow rate is constant
- A1*v1 = A2*v2, also known as the equation of continuity

Bernoulli's Equation
- Assumes that fluid flow is ideal
- Fluid is incompressible
- Fluid's viscosity is negligible
- Flow is streamline
- P1 + pgy1 + 0.5pv1^2 = P2 + pgy2 + 0.5pv2^2

Torricelli's Theorem
- Used when you have a container and a hole is punched into it
- Since the area of the whole is much smaller than the area of the surface of the
liquid, based on equation of continuity you can assume that v1^2 = 0
- Also, since the container is open to the surface, both the hole and the surface
will have the same atmospheric pressure. This means P1 = P2
- This changes Bernoulli's Equation to: pgy1 = pgy2 + 0.5pv2^2, which can be
rearranged to get v2 = sqrt(2g(y1-y2)) or in other words sqrt(2gh)
- Note that h is the vertical distance from the surface to the hole

Bernoulli Effect
- Where fluid is moving faster there is lower pressure

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Thermal Physics
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
T(K) = T(C) + 273

melt = solid to liquid

freeze = liquid to solid
evaporate = liquid to gas
condensate = gas to liquid
sublimate = solid to gas
deposition = gas to solid

Q = mc∆T
- Does not apply during phase change

Q = mL
- Applies over a phase change
- L = Latent Heat of Fusion if phase change is between solid and liquid
- L = Latent Heat of Vaporization if phase change is between liquid and gas

∆L = αLi∆T
- α = coefficient of linear expansion
- This equation allows you to tell how much an object will expand linearly when it
changes temperature

∆V = βVi∆T
- β = coefficient of volume expansion
- This equation allows you to tell how much an object will expand in 3 dimensional
space when it changes temperature

PV = nRT

K_avg = (3/2) * k_b * T

- k_b = Boltzmann's constant
- Found in formula sheet

v_rms = sqrt((3RT)/M)
- M = molar mass of molecule
- Can be derived from formula for K_avg and the fact that k_b = R/Na and µNa = M
- Na is avogadro's number and µ is the mass of one molecule

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

- When two objects are brought into contact, heat will flow from the warmer object
to the cooler one until they
reach thermal equilibrium

|W| = ∫PdV
- Sign depends on whether problem is asking for Work on the sytem or by the system

∆U = Q + W

Isobaric = Pressure is Constant

Isochoric = Volume is Constant
Isothermal = Temperature is Constant
- Note: This implies that Q = -W because ∆U = 0
Adiabatic = Q = 0

Second Law of Thermodynamics - The total entropy of a closed system will never
decrease

Efficiency of Heat Engine = 1 - Qc/Qh

Ideal Efficiency of Heat Engine = 1 - Tc/Th
- Efficiency for a specific Engine can't be greater than this

Carnot Engine Process:

1) Isothermal expansion
2) Adiabatic expansion
3) Isothermal compression
4) Adiabatic compression

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Electronic Forces and Fields / Electric Potential and Capacitors
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Fe = kq1q2/(r^2)
- Also known as Coulomb's Law

E = Fe/q = kQ/(r^2)
- q is test charge, Q is source charge

Electric Field vectors go from positive charges to negative charges similar to

magnets

Electrons spread out over surface of sphere uniformly when in conductors

Electrons stay where they are in insulators

The electric field in a conductor is zero inside, and outside it is equivalent to

the electric field
generated if all the charge was located at the center of the sphere

Charge by Induction:
- If you bring a positive charge near a neutral conducting sphere, the positive
charges will move away
from the positive charge, and the negative charges will move towards it.
- If you bring a positive charge near a netural insulating sphere, the randomly
oriented dipoles in the insulator
will be oriented such that the negative side points at the positive charge and
the positive side away from it.

∆Ue = -We
- This means that for a particle moving through an electric field, ∆Ue = -Fe * d =
-qEd
- Remember that d is the direction moved in the direction of the force

Ue = kq1q2/r
- ∆Ue = kq1q1(1/r2 - 1/r1)

∆V = ∆U/q = kQ/r
- ∆U = q∆V

Parallel Plates:
- ∆V = Ed
- E = |∆V/d|

Parallel Plate Capacitors:

- C = Q/∆V = (eo*A)/d
- Ue = (1/2)*Q*∆V
- Dielectrics increase capacitance of capacitor by factor of dielectric constant κ
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Direct Current Circuits
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

I = ∆Q/∆t

V = IR
- Also known as Ohm's Law

R = ρl/A

P = IV

R_eq = R1 + R2 for series

R_eq = 1/(1/R1 + 1/R2) for parallel

Junction Rule
- Current is same over resistors in series
- Current is split over resistors in parallel

Loop Rule
- Sum of potential differences of any closed loop must be 0

Batteries have resisitors with internal resistance

- Vt = Vb - Ir
- Vt is the terminal voltage or the effective voltage of the battery

Rules for using Loop Rule (Important when there are multiple batteries)
- Choose a direction for the loop
- When the loop goes across a resistor in the same direction as the current, the
potential drops by IR
- When the loop goes across a resistor in the opposite direction from the current,
the potential increases by IR
- When the loop goes from the negative to the positive terminal of a source of emf,
the potential increases byVR
- When the loop goes from the positive to the negative terminal of a source of emf,
the potential decreases by V

Current comes out of positive end of battery

C_eq = C1 + C2 for parallel

C_eq = 1/(1/C1 + 1/C2) for series

NOTE: NEED TO ADD CONCEPTUAL CAPACITOR STUFF

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Magnetic Forces and Fields / Electromagnetic Induction
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Will do later because this is easy

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Optics
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

c = fλ

contructive interference: ∆l = mλ
destructive interference: ∆l = (m+1/2)λ
- ∆l is the path length difference

Young's Double-Slit Interference Experiment:

- d = distance between slits
- L = distance from slits to screen
- x = distance from center to point P on screen
- ∆l = dsinθ
- x = mλL/d
- Integer values of m give locations of bright fringes
- Odd multiples of 1/2 for m give locations of dark fringes
- Note that diffraction only occurs λ is on the same magnitude as d
- Intensities of bright fringes decrease as you move further from center
- Including more slits will make the bright fringes more pronounced

n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2
- Also known as Snell's Law
- θ is angle of beam from line normal to surface boundary

n = c/v
Different Colors have different n values

Total Internal Reflection

- θ2 = 90°
- If θ1 is greater than the θ necessary to create a θ2 of 90°, total internal
reflection will still occur

Mirror Images:
- Image is real if light rays actually focus at the image
- Image is virtual if imaginary light rays focus at the image

Ray Tracing:
- Concave Mirrors:
- Incident ray parallel to axis is reflected through focus
- Incident ray that passes through focus is reflected parallel to axis
- Incident ray that strikes the vertex is reflected at an equal angle to the
axis
- Convex Mirrors:
- Incident ray parallel to the axis is reflected away from the virtual focus
- An incident ray directed toward the virtual focus is reflected parallel to
the axis
- An incident ray that strikes the vertex is reflected at an equal angle to
the axis

1/so + 1/si = 1/f

- Also known as the mirror equation
- so is the distance of the object to the mirror
- si is the distance of the image to the mirror
- f is the focal length of the mirror
- For all these distances the positive side is the side of the object, so if image
is on the opposite side of
the mirror, si will be negative.
- Also note that this means f is positive for concave mirrors and negative
for convex mirrors

M = hi/ho = -si/so
- hi is height of image
- ho is height of object

For lenses, si and f are positive if focus is on opposite side of object, and
negative if on the same side
- Note that so will stay positive as so is always positive

Converging Lens / Convex Lens

- Fatter in the Middle
- f is positive (on opposite side of object)

Diverging Lens / Concave Lens

- Thinner in the Middle
- f is negative (on same side of object)

Ray Tracing:
- Converging Lenses:
- An incident ray parallel to the axis is refracted through the real focus
- Incident rays pass undeflected through the optical center
- Diverging Lenses:
- An incident ray parallel to the axis is refracted away from the virtual
focus.
- Incident rays pass undeflected through the optical center

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Atomic and Nuclear Physics
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Will do later because I feel comfortable with this unit