ABSTRACT

Biodiesel is a notable alternative to the widely used petroleum-derived diesel fuel since it can
be generated by domestic natural resources such as palm oil, soybeans, rapeseeds, coconuts
and even recycled cooking oil. Interest in biodiesel has been expanding recently due to
scarcity of natural resources,environmental pollution and high petroleum prices. The majority
of biodiesel today produced is via base catalyzed transesterification with methanol. The
crude palm oil is the raw material for this study. In order to find the optimum values of
biodiesel (Palm oil Methyl Ester, POME) yield, three parameters were studied: Reaction
temperature, Reaction time and the methanol :oil ratio. In this study, the parameters were:
reaction temperature: 60, 70, and 80 °C; Reaction time: 45, 60 and 90 minutes; and methanol
:oil ratio(mol/mol): 6:1, 8:1 ,10:1, 12:1, 15:1. The results showed that the optimum reaction
time was 60 minutes, reaction temperature was 60 °C and the methanol :oil ratio was 12:1,
were the optimum yield of 98.5% was achieved.
OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT
IT'S ECONOMICAL

Biodiesel can be produced by individuals on a small scale relatively inexpensively when

compared to Petrodiesel.To produce it from $0.40 a gallon to about $1.25 a

gallon depending on the cost of materials required to make it. With prices that low, most

people are able to save hundreds of dollars on their fuel bills. In some cases it even goes

into the thousands of dollars.

IT'S RENEWABLE

Biodiesel has been touted far and wide for its renewable properties. Instead of making a fuel

from a finite resource such as crude oil, Biodiesel can be produced from renewable

resources such as organic oils, fats. This means that it can be made from things

that can be regrown, reproduced, and reused.

IT'S GOOD FOR THE ENVIRONMENT

When Biodiesel is used to power diesel engines, the emissions at the tailpipe are

significantly reduced. Studies by the US National Renewable Energy Lab indicate drops in

several key areas’ that help the environment. Carbon Dioxide, Hydrocarbons, and Particulate

Matter all are significantly reduced when Biodiesel is used.

When used in older diesel engines such as indirect combustion diesels, the results are

astounding. There was a reduction in the tailpipe emissions of nearly 90%. It also has a

positive energy balance.

IT SUPPORTS FARMERS

When Biodiesel is made from organic oils such as Canola, Soy, Peanut, or other

domestically grown seed crops, it helps the farming community out. Because the oil used to
make Biodiesel is "domestically grown", it keeps the money flowing to those that "grow" the

feedstock.

IT'S GOOD FOR THE ENGINE

Biodiesel, unlike Petrodiesel, has a much higher "lubricity" to it. This means that it's

essentially "slipperier" than normal diesel fuel. With the added "lubricity" of Biodiesel,
engines have been shown to experience less wear and tear when used on a regular basis. Also,

because Biodiesel is less polluting, it means that it's easier on the engine.
INTRODUCTION
The demand of energy has increased rapidly with growing of world population. The reserves
of fossil fuel are being depleted, while the environmental problems caused by their use have
become serious. Thus, the renewable energy has been promptly developed . Amongst the
various alternate fuels being developed, the biodiesel has received special attention because it
is easy to produce from readily available and renewable sources (vegetable oils and animal
fats), safe to handle and use, eco-friendly, and miscible with petroleum diesel in all
proportional for use in existing diesel engines without any modification .

According to Singh & Singh (2009), there are several sources which are used as feed stock
for biodiesel production such as soybean, sunflower, palm, canola, cotton seed, Jathropa,
rapeseed and soybean oil. However, compared with other

vegetable oil, palm oil has far better advantage and potential as
feed stock for biodiesel production. Palm oil is a perennial

crop, unlike soybean and rapeseed. Perennial crop means the

production of oil is continuous and uninterrupted, though

annual production has its seasonal peak and down cycle. Palm
plantation has the highest oil yield in terms of oil production

per hectare of plantation. Palm oil has the highest yield hectare than any other crops as shown
in Figure 1, and this makes it

the best source to produce biodiesel. reported that transesterification or alcoholysis is the
displacement of alcohol from an ester in a process similar to hydrolysis, except that alcohol is
used instead of water. The reaction is one of the reversible reactions and proceeds essentially
by mixing the reactants as presented by the following equation:

Oil or Fat + Methanol Methyl esters + Glycerol

Many studies have shown that transesterification with methanol is more practical than with
ethanol. Methanol is preferable because of its low cost and its physical and chemical
advantages .Another advantage of using methanol is the separation of glycerine, in which can
be obtained through simple decantation.
Currently, most biodiesel is produced by using homogenous base catalyst, such as sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH). These catalysts are commonly used
because of few reasons: able to catalyze reaction at low reaction temperature and atmospheric
pressure and high conversion can be achieved in a minimal time.

CHARACTERISTICS OF OILS OR FATS AFFECTING THEIR SUITABILITY FOR

USE AS BIODIESEL

• CALORIFIC VALUE, HEAT OF COMBUSTION – Heating Value or Heat of

Combustion, is

the amount of heating energy released by the combustion of a unit value of fuels.

One of the most important determinants of heating value is moisture content. Air-dried

biomass typically has about 15-20% moisture, whereas the moisture content for oven-dried

biomass is negligible. Moisture content in coals varies in the range 2-30%. However, the

bulk density of most biomass feedstocks is generally low, even after densification –

between about 10 and 40% of the bulk density of most fossil fuels. Liquid biofuels however

have bulk densities comparable to those for fossil fuels.

• MELT POINT OR POUR POINT - Melt or pour point refers to the temperature at which
the oil in solid form starts to melt or pour. In cases where the temperatures fall below the

melt point, the entire fuel system including all fuel lines and fuel tank will need to be

heated.

• CLOUD POINT - The temperature at which an oil starts to solidify is known as the

cloud point. While operating an engine at temperatures below oil’s cloud point,

heating will be necessary in order to avoid waxing of the fuel.

• FLASH POINT - The flash point temperature of a fuel is the minimum temperature at
which the fuel will ignite (flash) on application of an ignition source. Flash point

varies inversely with the fuel’s volatility. Minimum flash point temperatures are

required for proper safety and handling of diesel fuel.

• IODINE VALUE - Iodine Value (IV) is a value of the amount of iodine, measured in+

grams, absorbed by 100 grams of a given oil. Iodine value (or Iodine number) is commonly
used as a measure of the chemical stability properties of different biodiesel fuels against such
oxidation as described above. The Iodine value is determined by measuring the number of
double bonds in the mixture of fatty acid chains in the fuel by introducing iodine into 100
grams of the sample under test andmeasuring how many grams of that iodine are absorbed.
Iodine absorption occurs at double bond positions - thus a higher IV number indicates a
higher quantity of double bonds in the sample, greater potential to polymerize and hence
lesser stability.

• VISCOSITY – Viscosity refers to the thickness of the oil, and is determined by

measuring the amount of time taken for a given measure of oil to pass through an

orifice of a specified size. Viscosity affects injector lubrication and fuel atomization.

Fuels with low viscosity may not provide sufficient lubrication for the precision fit of

fuel injection pumps, resulting in leakage or increased wear. Fuel atomization is also

affected by fuel viscosity. Diesel fuels with high viscosity tend to form larger droplets

on injection which can cause poor combustion, increased exhaust smoke and

emissions.

•CETANE NUMBER - Is a relative measure of the interval between the beginning of

injection and auto ignition of the fuel. The higher the cetane number, the shorter the

delay interval and the greater its combustibility. Fuels with low Cetane Numbers will
result in difficult starting, noise and exhaust smoke. In general, diesel engines will

operate better on fuels with Cetane Numbers above 50.

Cetane tests provide information on the ignition quality of a diesel fuel. Research using

cetane tests will provide information on potential tailoring of vegetable oil-derived

compounds and additives to enhance their fuel properties.

• DENSITY – Is the weight per unit volume. Oils that are denser contain more energy.

For example, petrol and diesel fuels give comparable energy by weight, but diesel is

denser and hence gives more energy per liter.

The aspects listed above are the key aspects that determine the efficiency of a fuel for

diesel engines. There are other aspects/characteristics which do not have a direct bearing

on the performance, but are important for reasons such as environmental impact etc. These

are:

• ASH PERCENTAGE - Ash is a measure of the amount of metals contained in the fuel.

High concentrations of these materials can cause injector tip plugging, combustion deposits
and injection system wear. The ash content is important for the heating value, as heating
value decreases with increasing ash content. Ash content for bio-fuels is typically lower than
for most coals, and sulphur content is much lower than for many fossil fuels. Unlike coal ash,
which may contain toxic metals and other trace contaminants, biomass ash may be used as a
soil amendment to help replenish nutrients removed by harvest (20)

• SULFUR PERCENTAGE –

The percentage by weight, of sulfur in the fuel Sulfur content is limited by law to very small
percentages for diesel fuel used in on-road applications.
REVIEW OF BIODIESEL FEEDSTOCKS

In general, biodiesel feedstock can be categorized into three groups: vegetable oils (edible or

non-edible oils), animal fats, and used waste cooking oil including triglycerides.

But also a variety of oils can be used to produce biodiesel, algae, which can be grown using

waste materials such as sewage and without displacing land currently used for food

production and oil from halophytes such as salicornia bigelovii, which can be grown using

saltwater in coastal areas where conventional crops cannot be grown, with yields equal to

the yields of soybeans and other oilseeds grown using freshwater irrigation.

Many advocates suggest that waste vegetable oil is the best source of oil to produce

biodiesel, but since the available supply is drastically less than the amount of petroleumbased

fuel that is burned for transportation and home heating in the world; this local solution

does not scale well. (21)

EMISSION FROM BIODISEL ENGINE TO DISEL ENGINE
BIODIESEL PRODUCTION
Imperative efforts have been made to develop vegetable oil derivatives that have the
properties and performance of hydrocarbons-based diesel fuel, thereabouts. Singh & Singh
(2010) mentioned that substitutes of triglycerides for diesel fuel are often associated with the
problem of high viscosity, low vitality and polyunsaturated characters. The problem of high
viscosity of vegetable oils has been approached in several ways such as preheating the oils,
blending or dilution with other fuels, transesterification and thermal cracking/pyrolysis [4].

Demirbas (2009) agreed that transesterification method is the most viable process adopted
known so far for the lowering of viscosity. Transesterification is defined as the reaction of a
fat or oil with an alcohol in the presence of catalyst to form esters and glycerol. The
byproduct, which is glycerol, has also commercial value. The physical characteristics of fatty
acid methyl/ethyl ester are very close to those.

CATALYST
In general, there are three categories of catalysts used for biodiesel production known as
alkalis, acids and enzymes [5]–[7]. As compare to enzyme catalysts, alkali and acid catalysts
are more commonly used in biodiesel production [1]. They were then categorized into
homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts. However, enzyme catalysts have become more
attractive recently since it can avoid soap formation and the purificationprocess is simple to
accomplish. Nonetheless, Leung et al. (2010) stated that they are not commercially used
because of the longer reaction times and higher cost. To reduce the

cost, some researchers developed new biocatalysts in recent years. An advantage is that no
purification is necessary for using these biocatalysts [8]–[10].
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The production of biodiesel by transesterification of palm oil is carried out as follows:

1. Mixing of alcohol and catalyst

2. Reaction of alcohol/catalyst with palm oil

3. Separation of biodiesel and glycerol

4. Removal of alcohol

5. Methyl ester washing

6. Biodiesel drying

The materials used in this process are: Crude Palm Oil (CPO), the catalyst is Sodium
Hydroxide (NaOH); Methanol (MeOH); and the

drying agent is Magnesium sulphate (MgSO4). The product is Methyl ester, and by-product
is Glycerol.

Sample preparation:
In order to have a 1.0 % concentration of NaOH for oil used, 0.1% gram of sodium
hydroxide (NaOH)
pellets were added to methanol to prepare the methoxide solution. Three sets of different
ratios of methoxide:oil were
prepared. The ratios of methoxide:oil were:-

i. 6:1 (80 mL :20 mL)

ii. 8:1 (75 mL :25 mL)
iii.10:1( 70 ml:30 ml)
iv.12:1( 66 ml:34 ml)
v.15:1(62 ml:38 ml)
METHODS:
BIODIESEL PRODUCTION PROCESSES
Samples of oil was pre-heated at 60 °CBiodiesel derived from biological resources is a
renewable fuel, which has drawn more and more attention recently. A fatty acid methyl ester
is the chemical composition of biodiesel. Transesterification is widely used for the
transformation of triglyceride into fatty acid methyl ester. The manufacturing process is
based on thetransesterification of triglycerides by alcohols to fatty acid methyl esters, with
glycerol as a byproduct. The base catalyzed production of biodiesel generally has the
following processes..
MIXING OF ALCOHOL AND CATALYST
This typical process is mainly done by mixing alkali hydroxide (commonly potassium
hydroxide and sodium hydroxide) with common alcohols (methanol and ethanol) in the mixer
with standard agitator to facilitate the mixing. Alkali hydroxide is dissolved in the alcohol to
produce alkoxide solution.
CHEMICAL REACTION
The alcohol and catalyst mixture is then charged into a closed reaction vessel and the oil is
added. The reaction system is totally closed to the atmosphere to prevent the loss of alcohol,
since it easily vaporizable. The reaction mixture is kept just near the boiling point of the
alcohol to speed up the reaction. Excess alcohol is normally used tonsure total conversion of
the oil to its esters as there is no problem of recovering of the alcohol for later use after
recycling.
SEPARATION
After the reaction is completed, there exists glycerol and biodiesel formation. Both have a
significant amount of the excess alcohol that was used in the reaction which is in need of
being recovered. The reacted mixture is sometimes neutralized at this step if the basic media
that is caused by alkali hydroxide is occurred. The glycerol phase is much denser than
biodiesel phase, making biodiesel to be floated. The two products can be separated by gravity
using settling vessel. The glycerol is drawn off at the bottom of the settling vessel and
biodiesel is drawn off at the top. In some cases, a centrifuge is used to separate the two
materials faster by screening both phases.
ALCOHOL REMOVAL
After the glycerol and biodiesel phases have been separated, the excess alcohol in each phase
is removed with a flash evaporation process or by distillation commonly. But currently
 extractive distillation can instead be used to fasten the process and to be more economical.
On the other hand, the alcohol is removed and the mixture neutralized before the glycerol and
esters have been separated to prevent the effect of basic media inside the reactor.

ROAD MAP FOR PRODUCTION OF BIODISEL

Palm oil
Vegetable oil

Heating on Magnetic Stirrer

Heating on Magnetic Stirrer (65-75oC)
(65-75oC)

Alcohol(CH3OH) Transesterification
Transesterification
Alcohol(
+ +
Catalyst(NaOH)
Catalys)
Settling down
Settling down

Glycerin
Biodiesel Was

hingHeating(110 Purifica
degree) tion

Pure Biodiesel
Soap/
Pure Biodiesel
Pears
FLOWSHEET OF BIODISEL PRODUCTION FROM PALM OIL

OBSERVATION TABLE OF BIO DISEL PRODUCTION

 Mol. RatioVolm.ratio wt%of oil (T±5)mins (in %)
1 06:01 4.0:1 60 1 40 71.25
08:01 3.0:1 60 1 40 96
10:01 2.34:1 60 1 40 95.71
12:01 1.94:1 60 1 40 0
15:01 1.63:1 60 1 40 103.23

2 06:01 4.0:1 70 1 55 92.5

08:01 3.0:1 70 1 55 93.33
10:01 2.34:1 70 1 55 97.24
12:01 1.94:1 70 1 55 98.5
15:01 1.63:1 70 1 55 96.77

3 06:01 4.0:1 80 1 55 86.25

08:01 3.0:1 80 1 55 89.33
10:01 2.34:1 80 1 55 90
12:01 1.94:1 80 1 55 84.84
15:01 1.63:1 80 1 55 98.39

4 06:01 4.0:1 60 1 85 93.75

08:01 3.0:1 60 1 85 93.33
10:01 2.34:1 60 1 85 88.57
12:01 1.94:1 60 1 85 96.96
15:01 1.63:1 60 1 85 96.77

5 06:01 4.0:1 70 1.5 55 0

08:01 3.0:1 70 1.5 55 93.33
10:01 2.34:1 70 1.5 55 88.57
12:01 1.94:1 70 1.5 55 95.45
15:01 1.63:1 70 1.5 55 90.32
OBSERVATION TABLE BASED ON REACTIION TEMPARATURE

Yield(in
Yield(in%) Ratio(OIL)/(MEOH) %) Ratio(OIL)/(MEOH)
Time:1hr Time :1hr
92.5 04:01 86.25 04:01
Temp:70 deg Temp:80 deg
93.33 03:01 89.33 03:01
Catalyst:1wt% Catalyst:1wt%
of oil of oil
97.1 2.34:1 90 2.34:1

98.5 1.94:1 84.84 1.94:1

96.77 1.63:1 98.39 1.63:1

TABLE-1 TABLE-2

Temperature
Reaction temperature is the important factor that will affect the yield of biodiesel. For
example, higher reaction temperature increases the reaction rate and shortened the reaction
time due to the reduction in viscosity of oils. However, the increase in reaction temperature
beyond the optimal level leads to decrease of biodiesel yield, because higher reaction
temperature accelerates the saponification of triglycerides (Mathiyazhagan and Ganapathi,
2011) and causes methanol to vaporize resulting in decreased yield. Usually the
transesterification reaction temperature should be below the boiling point of alcohol in order
to prevent the alcohol evaporation. The range of optimal reaction temperature may vary from
50°C to 60°C depends upon the oils or fats used. Therefore, the reaction temperature near the
boiling point of the alcohol is recommended for faster conversion by various literatures. At
room temperature, there is up to 78% conversion after 60 minutes, and this indicated that the
methyl esterification of the FFAs could be carried out appreciably at room temperature but
might require a longer reaction time. In butyl esterification, however, temperature had
stronger influence. Temperature increases the energy of the reacting molecules and also
improves the miscibility of the alcoholic polar media into a non-polar oily phase, resulting in
much faster reactions.

OBSERVATION TABLE BASED ON CATALYST AMOUNT

yeild(%) oil:methanol yeild(%) oil:methanol

time 1hr time 1 hr
92.5 04:01 04:01
temp 70 deg 70 deg
93.33 03:01
93.33 03:01
catalyst
catalyst 1.5
1 wt%
wt%
88.57 2.34:1
97.1 2.34:1
95.45 1.94:1
98.5 1.94:1
90.32 1.63:1
96.77 1.63:1

TABLE-1 TABLE-2
Amount of Catalyst

Biodiesel formation is also affected by the concentration of catalyst. Most commonly used
catalyst for biodiesel production is sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or Potassium hydroxide
(KOH) (Mathiyazhagan and Ganapathi, 2011). The type and amount of catalyst required in
the transesterification process usually depend on the quality of the feedstock and method
applied for the transesterification process. For a purified feedstock, any type of catalyst could
be used for the transesterification process. However, for feedstock with high moisture and
free fatty acids contents, homogenous transesterification process is unsuitable due to high
possibility of saponification process instead of transesterification process to occur.

The yield of fatty acid alkyl esters generally increases with increasing amount of
catalyst. This is due to availability of more active sites by additions of larger amount
of catalyst in the transesterification process. However, on economic perspective,
larger amount of catalyst may not be profitable due to cost ofthe catalyst itself.
Therefore, similar to the ratio of oil to alcohol, optimization process is necessary to
determine the optimum amount of catalyst required in the transesterification process
(Kansedo, 2009; Jagadale and Jugulkar, 2012).
FUTURE SCOPE:

Next (second and third) generation biofuel technologies are considered to offer the solution
for the sustainability problems associated with first generation biofuels. Second generation
biofuels use cellulosic biomass which include, herbaceous lignocellulosic species such as
miscanthus, switchgrass and reed canary grass (perennial crops) and trees such as poplar,
willow and eucalypt (short rotation crops), as well as forestry and agricultural residue. Algae
are also being evaluated as a more promising advanced feedstock option in the distant future
(often referred to as third generation).

Feedstocks for second generation biofuels generally produce higher biomass yields per
hectare than most first generation crop feedstocks (the exception being sugar cane crop
feedstocks). In addition to their fast growth and short-rotation characteristics, essentially the
entire crop is available as feedstock. Given their relatively high projected energy conversion
efficiency (IEA 2008), second generations feedstocks are projected to have higher overall
energy yields (Table 5.1a and Table 5.1b). They require less tillage and chemical inputs.
They also allow a wide range of land to be used for cultivation including degraded and
marginal land, therefore reducing or avoiding the potential for land use competition with food
and animal feed production. However, some feedstocks are considered invasive10 (or
potentially so) and thus could have negative impacts on water resources and biodiversity.
Cellulosic biomass has lower handling costs than first generation biofuel crops and is easier
to store, given its resistance to deterioration. On the other hand, it can often be bulky and thus
require well developed and costly transportation infrastructure (FAO 2008).

Conversion technologies

The main technological conversion pathways for cellulosic biofuel production are bio-
chemical and thermo-chemical. The bio-chemical process involves breaking down the
cellulosic biomass via acid or enzymatic hydrolysis into sugars, which are then fermented and
distilled to obtain ethanol. Enzymatic hydrolysis is the preferred choice as it has higher
yields, requires less chemical input and is more environmentally sustainable. The hydrolysis
step is technically challenging and research is continuing to develop more efficient ways of
conversion.

The thermo-chemical pathway involves pyrolysis or gasification of biomass to produce

synthetic gas (syngas) which can then be used in a chemical process (Fischer-Tropsch) to
produce a range of liquid biofuels including FT diesel, methanol, methane and hydrogen fuel.
The FT process is a well-established technology used in the production of liquid fuels from
coal and natural gas. Production from biomass, however, is still under development. A key
challenge is the production of clean syngas required for the FT process. Research is being
conducted on several gasification options and on the production of catalysts that are resistant
to contaminants (IEA Bioenergy 2008). The diesel produced from the FT process is a high
quality product with energy intensity similar to that of conventional diesel, a high cetane
number and low sulfur content.

Both conversion processes according a recent report by the IEA (2008) have an overall
biomass to biofuel conversion efficiency of about 35%. Ranges of indicative biofuel yields
per dry ton of biomass are shown in Table

Cost estimates

Future projected costs of lignocellulosic biofuels range from $0.60 - $1.30/l gasoline
equivalent (lge), depending on assumptions for feedstock costs, the timing of commercial
availability of conversion technologies and the feedstock supply chain. Potential cost
reductions could lower total costs to $ 0.25 and $0.35/lge, according to some estimates (IEA
Bioenergy 2008).
The IEA has developed cost projections based on the potential market penetration of second
generation biofuels to 2050, as summarized in Table

The projections assume a dramatic acceleration of second generation biofuels production

after 2030 to meet 26% of transport fuel demand by 2050. Thus, slower deployment would
imply higher costs.

Another projection for biofuel costs (IEA Bioenergy 2008), based on an earlier IEA analysis
in the WEO 2006, indicated that, excluding any subsidies, biofuel production costs would
have to be about $0.80/lge to be competitive with gasoline and diesel prices at $100/bbl.

Prospects and implications:

Research programs on improving overall process efficiency and integration of various

process steps are underway in many countries, often with government support. Process
operating units are in place at the University of British Columbia in Canada, at Lund
University in Sweden and at the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Several
companies have announced plans, or have already begun to develop second generation
biofuels demonstration facilities. In the US, the DOE has put forward a program of support
for demonstration plants and research with a goal of producing 147 billion litres of ethanol by
2017. The report by the IEA, Bioenergy 2008, provides a comprehensive summary of
activities by companies and government institutions.

It is expected that, given the complexity of the technical and economical challenges involved,
wide deployment of commercial plants will not take place before 2015 or 2020 (IEA 2009,
OFID/IIASA 2009). Therefore, uncertainties exist as to the extent of the contribution of
second generation biofuel technologies to the global transport fuel demand by 2030.

Addressing these uncertainties, the OFID/IIASA analysis examined a range of assumptions

on the expected share of second generation biofuels in total transport biofuels in three
scenario variants (Table 5.5). Scenario V1 assumes gradual deployment after 2015, while
scenario V2 assumes delayed arrival of second generation biofuels with first generation
biofuels capturing the market until 2030. In scenario V3 rapid deployment of second
generation biofuels in developed countries is assumed due to accelerated development, driven
particularly by the US' ambitious targets.

The analysis indicates that rapid deployment of second generation technologies after 2015, if
done to meet the biofuel production target scenario, would imply about 315 million dry tons
of biomass requirement by 2020, increasing to 725 million dry tons in 2030. Developed
countries would account for 95% and 83% of the demand, respectively.

The biomass requirement in 2020 implies that 32 Mha of land will be needed (assuming an
average typical yield of about 10 dry tons/ha), if all the biomass comes from plantations of
dedicated crops (perennial grass and short rotation forest crops). However, due to the
availability of large amounts of forest and agricultural residues, the land requirements would
actually be lower. By 2030, with the average yield assumed to increase to about 15 dry
tons/ha, land requirements would not exceed 50 Mha in the scenario with rapid deployment
and would be less than 20 Mha in the other scenarios.

Algae-derived biofuels

Algae are microscopic, aquatic plants that convert water and CO2 in the presence of sunlight
into biomass, oils, and oxygen. The oil produced can be converted into very high quality
diesel and the carbohydrate content of the biomass can be converted into ethanol.

Algae require no fresh water or arable land. At the same time, because they feed on CO2,
algae production could also be used for CO2 capture from large sources. Another benefit is
the high oil yield per hectare, when compared to first and second generation biofuels (Table ,
Hart/GBC 2008)
The conversion process for algae oil into biodiesel is similar to that of the process for
vegetable oil. However, the cost is very high at present. The need for large facilities, low
costs and the prevention of contamination are some of the key challenges. Research is
currently being conducted on the optimum strains of algae and on the reduction of
cultivation, oil extraction and processing costs by governments and private institutions.

The US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency is funding research into jet fuel
production from algae. Royal Dutch/Shell is collaborating with a company in Hawaii to build
a demonstration plant to commercially harvest algae and demonstrate the technical viability
of converting algae into diesel (IEA Bioenergy 2008). BP signed a contract with the
University of California, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the University of
Illinois at Urbana Champaign establishing a $500 million joint Energy Biosciences Institute
that will conduct biotechnology-based alternative energy research. Most recently,
ExxonMobil announced last July an investment of $600 million to produce liquid
transportation fuels from algae. The effortinvolves a partnership with the Synthetic Genomics
Company. A summary of activities by some companies and institutions is provided in the
reports by Hart/GBC and IEA Bioenergy 2008. Another experiment has been launched in
France by the French Petroleum Institute (IFP) and the National Institute for Agronomic
Research (INRA).