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INDIAN RAILWAYS, DELHI
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Computer GENESIS OF INDIAN RAILWAYS
Science / IT
Electronics The story of the Indian Railways (IR) is not just a saga of mundane statistics and mile
Electrical of rolling stock. It is the glorious tale of a pioneering institution that has blazed a trail fo
nearly a century and a half, making inroads into far-flung territory and providing a means o
Mechanical communication.
Chemical Indian Railway is one of India's most effective networks that keep together the socia
Civil economical, political and cultural fabric of the country intact. Be it cold, mountainous terrain o
CAT / the long stretches through the Rajasthan desert, Indian Railways cover the vast expanse of th
MBA country from north to south, east to west and all in between
GMAT /
Foreign More than a hundred years ago, on the 16 April 1853, a red-letter day appeared in th
MBA glorious history of the Indian Railways. On the day, the very first railway train in India ran ove
Latest Jobs a stretch of 21 miles from Bombay to Thane. This pioneer railway train consisting of 14 railwa
Engineering carriages carrying about 400 guests, steamed off at 3:30 pm amidst the loud applause of a vas
Jobs / multitude and to the salute of 21 guns. It reached Thane at about 4.45 pm. The guests returne
Technical to Bombay at 7 pm on the next day, that is, April 17. On April 18, 1853, Sir Jamsetje
Jobs Jeejeebhoy, Second Baronet, reserved the whole train and traveled from Bombay to Thane an
 back along with some members of his family and friends.
This was the humble beginning of the modern Indian Railway system known today for it
extraordinary integration of high administrative efficiency, technical skill, commercia
enterprise and resourcefulness. Today the Indian Railway (IR) is one of the most specialize
industries of the world.

OTHER MILESTONES
Under the British East India Company's auspices, the Great Indian Peninsula Railway
Company (GIPRC) was formed on July 15, 1844. Events moved at a fast pace. On October 31,
1850, the ceremony of turning the first sod for the GIPRC from Bombay to Kalyan was
performed. The opening ceremony of the extension to Kalyan took place on May 1, 1854. The
railway line from Kalyan to Khopoli was opened on May 12, 1856. It was further extended to
Poona on June 14, 1858 when the traffic was opened for public use.

In the eastern part of India, the first passenger train steamed out of Howrah station for
Hooghly, a distance of 24 miles, on August 15, 1854. This marked the formation of the East
Indian Railway.
This was followed by the emergence for the Central Bengal Railway Company. These
small beginnings multiplied and by 1880, the IR system had a route mileage of 9,000 miles in
India.

The Northeastern Railway also developed rapidly. On October 19, 1875, the train betwee
Hathras Road and Mathura Cantonment was started. By the winter of 1880-81, the Kanpur-
ManagementFarukhabad line became operational and further east, the Dibrugarh-Dinjan line became
Jobs operational on August 15, 1882.
Sitemap
About-Us In South India, the Madras Railway Company opened the first railway line between
Terms of use Veyasarpaudy and the Walajah Road (Arcot) on July 1, 1856. This 63-mile line was the first
section, which eventually joined Madras and the west coast. On March 3, 1859, a length of 119
miles was laid from Allahabad to Kanpur.

In 1862, the railway line between Amritsar and Attari was constructed on the Amritsar-
Lahore route.

Some of the trains started by the British are still in existence. The Frontier Mail is one
such train. It was started on September 1, 1928 as a replacement for the Mumbai-Peshawar
mail. It became one of the fastest trains in India at that time and its reputation in London was
very high.

The Kalka Mail from Howrah to Kalka was introduced with the specific goal of
facilitating the annual migration of British officials, their families and their retinue of servants
and clerks from the imperial capital at Calcutta to the summer capital in Shimla. From Kalka,
there was the remarkable toy train service to Shimla. Plans for this narrow-gauge train had
started as early as 1847, but it was at the intervention of the Viceroy, Lord Curzon, that work
actually began. Hence this train service was also known as the Viceroy's Toy Train. In order to
prevent any head-on collisions on the single-track sections of this railway service, the Neals
Token System has been used ever since the train was inaugurated. The train guards exchange
pouches containing small brass discs with staff on the stations en route. The train driver then
puts these discs into special machines, which alert the signals ahead of their approach. The
Darjeeling toy trains, the Matheran toy train from Neral to Matheran, the Nilgiri Blue Mountain
Railway are other engineering marvels running on routes designed and built by the British.
Trains like the Deccan Queen from Bombay to Secunderabad and the Grand Trunk Express
from Delhi to Madras are some other prominent trains initiated by the British.

With the advancement in the railway system, electrifying railway lines began side by side
and it was in 1925, that the first electric train ran over a distance of 16 km from Victoria
Terminus to Kurala.

THE NEED FOR A RAILWAY NETWORK

The British rule in India was governed by three principal considerations to expand the IR
system. These were the commercial advantages, the political aspect and even more importantly
the inexorable imperial defense of India against the possible military attacks from certai
powerful countries showing signs of extending their orbit of influence into Central Asia.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
Now, to further improve upon its services, the Indian Railways have embarked upon various
schemes, which are immensely ambitious. The railway has changed from meter gauge to broad
gauge and the people have given it a warm welcome. Now, there are the impressive-looking
locomotives that haul the 21st-century harbingers-the Rajdhanis and Shatabdis-at speeds of 145
kmph with all amenities and comfort. With these, the inconvenience of changing to a different
gauge en route to a destination will no longer be felt.

The Research, Designing, and Standardizing Organization at Lucknow-the largest

railway research organization in the world-was constituted in 1957. It is constantly devising
improvements in the signaling systems, track design and layout, coach interiors for better riding
comfort and capacity, etc., along with improvements in locomotives. Improvements are being
planned by engineers. The workshops of the railways too have been given new equipment to
create sophisticated coaches at Perambur and Kapurthala and diesel engine parts at Patiala.
Locomotives are being made at Chittaranjan and Varanasi. This is in sharp contrast to the
earlier British conviction that only minor repairs would be possible in India, so all spare parts
including nuts and bolts for locomotives would have to be imported from England.

More trains and routes are constantly being added to the railway network and services.
The British legacy lives on in our railway system, transformed but never forgotten. Long live
the Romance of the Rails!

The network of lines has grown to about 62,000 kilometers. But, the variety of Indian
Railways is infinite. It still has the romantic toy trains on narrow gauge hill sections, meter
gauge beauties on other and broad gauge bonanzas as one visits places of tourist interest
courtesy Indian Railways! They are an acknowledgement of the Railways that tourism as an
industry has to be promoted and that India is full of unsurpassed beauty.
 The Calcutta Metro is a fine example of highly complex engineering techniques being
adopted to lay an underground railway in the densely built-up areas of Calcutta city. It is a treat
to be seen. The Calcuttans keep it so clean and tidy that not a paper is thrown around! It only
proves the belief that a man grows worthy of his superior possessions. Calcutta is also the only
city where the Metro Railway started operating from September 27, 1995 over a length of 16.4
km. There is also a Circular Railway from Dum Dum to Princep Ghats covering 13.50 km to
provide commuter trains.
RAIL MUSEUM
A number of the private saloons of erstwhile princes along with other rare railways relics
can be viewed today at the Rail Transport Museum in New Delhi, which was set up in the year
1977 to display the glorious heritage of IR tracing its development from its beginning.

The museum has a collection of 75 real exhibits, including vintage steam, diesel and
electric locomotives, coaches and wagons dating back to 1855. The collection also includes the
steam locomotive called Fairy Queen of 1855, the saloons of the erstwhile maharajas such as
the unique Patiala State Monorail Train way of 1907. Railway staff is available at the site to
conduct the visitors, provide written material, and there are special facilities for the
handicapped and the blind. The museum is located in the setting of a spruce garden of flowers,
shrubs, trees, and lawns. The museum attracts 300,000 visitors each year from abroad and from
various parts of India.

HELPLINES
In time of war and natural disasters, the railways play a major role. Whether it was the
earthquake of 1935 in Quetta (now in Pakistan) or more recently in Latur in Maharashtra, it is
the railways that muster their strength to carry the sick and wounded to hospitals in nearby
towns and to the people of the affected areas. In rehabilitation and reconstruction, too, their role
is vital.

During the Japanese war, the Indian Railways added further laurels to their record as they
extended the railway line right up to Ledo in the extreme northeastern part of Assam and thus
enabled the Allied forces under General Stillwell to combat the Japanese menace. In fact,
several townships in Assam like Margherita and Digboi owe their origin to the endeavors of the
Indian Railways. It was the Assam Railway and Trading Company that opened up the isolated
regions of Assam with the laying of the railway lines and thus providing the lifeline to carry
coal, tea, and timber out of the area and bring other necessary commodities to Assam and the
adjoining countryside.

Now, the Indian Railways system is divided into 9 zonal railways, a metro railway,
Calcutta, the production units, construction organizations, and other railway establishments.
Usually, a general manager heads each division presented in the table below.
SCOPE OF TRAINING
After achieving the proper goal of life an Engineer has enter in professional life
According to this life he has to serve an industry, may be public or private sector or self-own
For the efficient work in the field he must be well aware of practical knowledge as well a
theoretical knowledge. Since we belong to the electronics field it is really helpful to tak
training at a place that clears the doubts and inquisitively regarding the looking-simpl
phenomenon.
The training at Indian Railways is related to many fields of engineering; it is one of th
fastest growing industry in the world. Training at Indian Railways not only improves you
subject theoretical knowledge but also improve the practical skill.
I worked there on study project named “Local Area Networks”. It was a great learning
experience there.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Short term
The main short-term advantage after completing the training was an idea of th
industrial environment, the strict and disciplined schedule of the company. This helped me a lo
to build inside me the zeal to learn more, to be highly precise and accurate in my working.
helped in understanding the relationship that should be maintained between an officer and
worker, officer and a trainee and also between worker and trainee. The good and learnin
environment helped a lot to understand the difficulties or problems faced during the projec
completion. The short term learning objective were to just to see how things works and how
communication is possible
Long term
The introduction to an official as well as industrial environment would help a lot i
future to work in a company concerning to the field of communication, to cope up with th
increasing competition in the market also it would help in building up a good relationshi
between myself and the colleagues. This industrial training has helped me a lot to stand in th
corporate world.

METHODOLOGY
In training at Indian Railways emphasis was given on the latest technologies and th
basic fundamentals of communication which are required to cope up with the diverted needs o
communication and study about the present day services provided by Indian Railways. We wer
given thorough instructions and knowledge about almost all the aspects of Networking. Th
officers also made us familiar with the various equipments being used.
CONTENTS
1) Networking
2) History of LAN
3) OSI reference model
4) Protocols
5) IP Address
6) LAN Topologies
7) Types of LAN Technology
8) LAN Devices

NETWORKING

Computer networking is an integral part of business today. A network is a group o

computers, printers, and other devices that are connected together with cables. Informatio
travels over the cables, allowing network users to exchange documents & data with each othe
print to the same printers, and generally share any hardware or software that is connected to th
network.

Each computer, printer, or other peripheral device that is connected to the network i
called a node. Networks can have tens, thousands, or even millions of nodes.
Local Area Networks (LANs):
A network is any collection of independent computers that exchange information with eac
other over a shared communication medium. Local Area Networks or LANs are usuall
confined to a limited geographic area, such as a single building or a college campus. LANs ca
be small, linking as few as three computers, but can often link hundreds of computers used b
thousands of people. The development of standard networking protocols and media has resulte
in worldwide proliferation of LANs throughout business and educational organizations
Wide Area Networks (WANs):
Often elements of a network are widely separated physically. Wide area networking combine
multiple LANs that are geographically separate. This is accomplished by connecting the severa
LANs with dedicated leased lines such as a T1 or a T3, by dial-up phone lines (bot
synchronous and asynchronous), by satellite links and by data packet carrier services. WAN
can be as simple as a modem and a remote access server for employees to dial into, or it can b
as complex as hundreds of branch offices globally linked. Special routing protocols and filter
minimize the expense of sending data over vast distances.
HISTORY OF LAN
In the days before personal computers, a sight might have just one central computer, wit
users acessing this via computer terminals over simple low-speed cabling.The first LANs wer
created in the late 1970s and used to create high speed links between several large centra
computers at one site. Of many competing systems created at this time, Ethernet and ARCNE
were the most popular.
The growth of CP/M and then DOS based personal computer meant that a single site
began to have dozens or even hundreds of computers. The initial attraction of networking thes
was generally to share disk space and laser printers, which were both very expensive at the
time. There was much enthusiasm for the concept and for several years from about 1983
onward computer industry pandits would regularly declare the coming year to be “the year of
the LAN”

OSI REFERENCE MODEL

The OSI reference model consists of seven layers, each of which can (and typically does
have several sub layers. The upper layers of the OSI reference model (application, presentation
session, and transport—Layers 7, 6, 5, and 4) define functions focused on the application. Th
lower three layers (network, data link, and physical—Layers 3, 2, and 1) define function
focused on end to end delivery of the data.
OSI Reference Model:-
• The model was developed by the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO
in 1984. It is now considered the primary Architectural model for inter-compute
communications.
• The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model is a descriptive networ
 scheme. It ensures greater compatibility and interoperability between various types o
network technologies.
• The OSI model describes how information or data makes its way from applicatio
programmes (such as spreadsheets) through a network medium (such as wire) to anothe
application programme located on another network.
• The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information betwee
computers over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and more manageabl
problems.
This separation into smaller more manageable functions is known as layering.

OSI Layer Name Functional Description Examples

Application (Layer 7) Interface between network andTelnet, HTTP
application
software
Presentation(Layer 6) How data is presented SpecialJPEG, ASCII, EBCDIC
processing, such as encryption
Session (Layer 5) Keeping data separate fromOperating systems and
different applications application access
scheduling
Transport (Layer 4) Reliable or unreliable delivery TCP, UDP, SPX
Multiplexing
Network (Layer 3) Logical addressing, which routersIP, IPX
use for path determination
Data link (Layer 2) Combination of bits into bytes, andAccess to the media using
bytes into frames MAC address Error
detection and error recovery
Physical (Layer 1) Moving of bits between devicesEIA/TIA-232, V.35
Specification of voltage, wire
speed, and cable pinouts

LAYER 7: APPLICATION
• The application layer is the OSI layer that is closest to the user.
• It provides network services to the user’s applications.
• It differs from the other layers in that it does not provide services to any other OS
layer, but rather, only to applications outside the OSI model.
• Examples of such applications are spreadsheet programs, word processing programs
and bank terminal programs.
• The application layer establishes the availability of intended communication partners
synchronizes and establishes agreement on procedures for error recovery and control o
data integrity.

LAYER 6: PRESENTATION
• The presentation layer ensures that the information that the application layer of on
system sends out is readable by the application layer of another system.
• If necessary, the presentation layer translates between multiple data formats by using
 common format.
• Provides encryption and compression of data.
• Examples: - JPEG, MPEG, ASCII, EBCDIC, HTML.

LAYER 5: SESSION
• The session layer defines how to start, control and end conversations (called sessions
between applications.
• This includes the control and management of multiple bi-directional messages usin
dialogue control.
• It also synchronizes dialogue between two hosts' presentation layers and manages thei
data exchange.
• The session layer offers provisions for efficient data transfer.
• Examples: - SQL, ASP (AppleTalk Session Protocol).

LAYER 4: TRANSPORT
• The transport layer regulates information flow to ensure end-to-end connectivit
between host applications reliably and accurately.
• The transport layer segments data from the sending host's system and reassembles th
data into a data stream on the receiving host's system.
• The boundary between the transport layer and the session layer can be thought of as th
boundary between application protocols and data-flow protocols. Whereas th
application, presentation, and session layers are concerned with application issues, th
lower four layers are concerned with data transport issues.
• Layer 4 protocols include TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (Use
Datagram Protocol).
LAYER 3: NETWORK
• Defines end-to-end delivery of packets.
• Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identified.
• Defines how routing works and how routes are learned so that the packets can b
delivered.
• The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into smaller packets t
accommodate different media.
• Routers operate at Layer 3.
• Examples: - IP, IPX, AppleTalk.
LAYER 2: DATA LINK

• The data link layer provides access to the networking media and physical transmissio
across the media and this enables the data to locate its intended destination on
network.
• The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical link by using th
Media Access Control (MAC) addresses.
• The data link layer uses the MAC address to define a hardware or data link address i
order for multiple stations to share the same medium and still uniquely identify eac
other.
• Concerned with network topology, network access, error notification, ordered deliver
of frames, and flow control.
 • Examples: - Ethernet, Frame Relay, FDDI.
LAYER 1: PHYSICAL
• The physical layer deals with the physical characteristics of the transmission medium.
• It defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional specifications fo
activating, maintaining, and deactivating the physical link between end systems.
• Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data rates
maximum transmission distances, physical connectors, and other similar attributes ar
defined by physical layer specifications.
• Examples: - EIA/TIA-232, RJ45, NRZ.
ISO OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION (OSI) MODEL
PROTOCOLS
After a physical connection has been established, network protocols define the standard
that allow computers to communicate. A protocol establishes the rules and encodin
specifications for sending data. This defines how computers identify one another on a network
the form that the data should take in transit, and how this information is processed once
reaches its final destination. Protocols also define procedures for determining the type of erro
checking that will be used, the data compression method, if one is needed, how the sendin
device will indicate that it has finished sending a message, how the receiving device wi
indicate that it has received a message, and the handling of lost or damaged transmissions o
"packets".
The main types of network protocols in use today are: TCP/IP (for UNIX, Windows NT
Windows and other platforms); IPX (for Novell NetWare); DECnet (for networking Digita
Equipment Corp. computers); AppleTalk (for Macintosh computers), and NetBIOS/NetBEU
(for LAN Manager and Windows NT networks)
TCP/IP:
TCP/IP encompasses a lot of smaller protocols, the Transmission Control Protocol and th
Internet Protocol. TCP performs only part of the functions necessary to deliver the data betwee
applications, and the role that it plays is directed toward providing services for the application
that sit at the endpoint computers.

TCP Functions
Function Description

Multiplexing Function that allows receiving hosts to decide the correct

application for which the data is destined, based on the port
number.
Error recovery (reliability) Process of numbering and acknowledging data with
sequence and acknowledgment header fields
Flow control using Process that uses window sizes to protect buffer space and
windowing routing devices
Connection establishment Process used to initialize port numbers and sequence and
 and termination acknowledgement fields
Ordered data transfer Continuous stream of bytes from upper-layer process that is
“segmented” for transmission

USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP):

UDP provides a service for applications to exchange messages. Unlike TCP,
UDP is connectionless and provides no reliability, no windowing, and no function to ensure tha
the data is received in the order in which it was sent. However, UDP provides some function
of TCP, such as data transfer and multiplexing, and it does so with fewer bytes of overhead i
the UDP header. The only difference in UDP (compared to TCP) sockets is that, instead o
designating TCP as the transport protocol, the transport protocol is UDP. UDP data transfe
differs from TCP data transfer in that no reordering or recovery is accomplished. Application
using UDP are tolerant of the lost data, or they have some application mechanism to recove
lost data. For example, DNS requests use UDP because the user will retry an operation if th
DNS resolution fails. The Network File System (NFS) performs recovery with application laye
code, so UDP features are acceptable to NFS.

COMPARISON BETWEEN TCP AND UDP:

Function Description (TCP) Description (UDP)
Data transfer This involves a continuous stream ofThis involves message
ordered data. (datagram) delivery.
Multiplexing Receiving hosts decide the correct Receiving hosts decide the
application for which the data iscorrect application for which
destined, based on the port number. the data is destined, based on
the port number.
Reliable Acknowledgment of data uses theThis is not a feature of UDP.
 transfer sequence and acknowledgment fields in
the TCP header
Flow control This process is used to protect bufferThis is not a feature of UDP.
space and routing devices.
Connections This process is used to initialize portDP is connectionless.
numbers and other TCP header fields.
IP ADDRESS

An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a unique number that devices use in order t
identify and communicate with each other on a computer network utilizing the Internet Protoco
standard (IP). Any participating network device — including routers, computers, time-servers
printers, Internet fax machines, and some telephones — must have its own unique address.

DYNAMIC AND STATIC IP ADDRESSES:

IP addresses may either be assigned permanently (for example, to a server which i
always found at the same address) or temporarily from a pool of available addresses.
Dynamic IP address:
Dynamic IP addresses are issued to identify non-permanent devices such as personal computer
or clients. Internet Service Providers (ISPs) use dynamic allocation to assign addresses from
small pool to a larger number of customers. This is used for dial-up access, WiFi and othe
temporary connections, allowing a portable computer user to automatically connect to a variet
of services without needing to know the addressing details of each network.
Static IP address:
Static IP addresses are used to identify semi-permanent devices with constant IP addresses.
Servers typically use static IP addresses. The static address can be configured directly on the
device or as part of a central DHCP configuration which associates the device's MAC address
with a static address.

DOMAIN NAMES:
A network lookup service, the Domain Name System (DNS), provides the ability to ma
hostnames to an IP address. This allows humans to easily remember a name and not a series o
numbers. DNS allows multiple addresses and names to point to one Internet resource.
Another reason for DNS is to allow, for example, a web site to be hosted on multiple
servers (each with its own IP address) provides for rudimentary load balancing.

LAN TOPOLOGIES
LAN topologies define the manner in which network devices are organized. Four common
LAN topologies exist: bus, ring, star, and tree. These topologies are logical architectures, but
the actual devices need not be physically organized in these configurations. Logical bus and
ring topologies, for example, are commonly organized physically as a star.
A bus topology is a linear LAN architecture in which transmissions from network stations
propagate the length of the medium and are received by all other stations.
 A ring topology is a LAN architecture that consists of a series of devices connected to on
another by unidirectional transmission links to form a single closed loop. Both Token
Ring/IEEE 802.5 and FDDI networks implement a ring topology.

A star topology is a LAN architecture in which the endpoints on a network ar

connected to a common central hub, or switch, by dedicated links. Logical bus and rin
topologies are often implemented physically in a star topology.
A tree topology is a LAN architecture that is identical to the bus topology, except tha
branches with multiple nodes are possible in this case.

TYPES OF LAN TECHNOLOGY

ETHERNET:
Ethernet is the most popular physical layer LAN technology in use today. It defines th
number of conductors that are required for a connection, the performance thresholds that can b
expected, and provides the framework for data transmission. A standard Ethernet network ca
transmit data at a rate up to 10 Megabits per second (10 Mbps). Other LAN types includ
Token Ring, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, 10 Gigabit Ethernet, Fiber Distributed Dat
Interface (FDDI), Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and Local Talk.
Ethernet is popular because it strikes a good balance between speed, cost and ease o
installation. These benefits, combined with wide acceptance in the computer marketplace an
the ability to support virtually all popular network protocols, make Ethernet an ideal networkin
technology for most computer users today.
The Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers developed an Ethernet standar
known as IEEE Standard 802.3. This standard defines rules for configuring an Ethernet networ
and also specifies how the elements in an Ethernet network interact with one another. B
adhering to the IEEE standard, network equipment and network protocols can communicat
efficiently.
FAST ETHERNET:
The Fast Ethernet standard (IEEE 802.3u) has been established for Ethernet networks tha
need higher transmission speeds. This standard raises the Ethernet speed limit from 10 Mbps t
100 Mbps with only minimal changes to the existing cable structure. Fast Ethernet provide
faster throughput for video, multimedia, graphics, Internet surfing and stronger error detectio
and correction.

There are three types of Fast Ethernet: 100BASE-TX for use with level 5 UTP cable
100BASE-FX for use with fiber-optic cable; and 100BASE-T4 which utilizes an extra tw
wires for use with level 3 UTP cable. The 100BASE-TX standard has become the most popula
due to its close compatibility with the 10BASE-T Ethernet standard.
GIGABIT ETHERNET:
Gigabit Ethernet was developed to meet the need for faster communication networks wit
applications such as multimedia and Voice over IP (VoIP). Also known as "gigabit-Ethernet
over-copper" or 1000Base-T, GigE is a version of Ethernet that runs at speeds 10 times faste
than 100Base-T. It is defined in the IEEE 802.3 standard and is currently used as an enterpris
backbone. Existing Ethernet LANs with 10 and 100 Mbps cards can feed into a Gigab
Ethernet backbone to interconnect high performance switches, routers and servers.
10 GIGABIT ETHERNET:
10 Gigabit Ethernet is the fastest and most recent of the Ethernet standards. IEEE 802.3a
defines a version of Ethernet with a nominal rate of 10Gbits/s that makes it 10 times faster tha
Gigabit Ethernet.
Unlike other Ethernet systems, 10 Gigabit Ethernet is based entirely on the use of optica
fiber connections. This developing standard is moving away from a LAN design that broadcast
to all nodes, toward a system which includes some elements of wide area routing. As it is sti
very new, which of the standards will gain commercial acceptance has yet to be determined.
TOKEN RING:
Token Ring is another form of network configuration. It differs from Ethernet in that all
messages are transferred in one direction along the ring at all times. Token Ring networks
sequentially pass a “token” to each connected device. When the token arrives at a particular
computer (or device), the recipient is allowed to transmit data onto the network. Since only one
device may be transmitting at any given time, no data collisions occur. Access to the network is
guaranteed, and time-sensitive applications can be supported. However, these benefits come at
a price. Component costs are usually higher, and the networks themselves are considered to be
more complex and difficult to implement. Various PC vendors have been proponents of Token
Ring networks.
COLLISIONS
Ethernet is a shared media, so there are rules for sending packets of data to avoid
conflicts and protect data integrity. Nodes determine when the network is available for sending
packets. It is possible that two nodes at different locations attempt to send data at the same time
When both PCs are transferring a packet to the network at the same time, a collision will result
This can slow the performance of the network from the user's point of view. Segmenting the
network, where a network is divided into different pieces joined together logically with a bridg
or switch, is one way of reducing an overcrowded network.

LAN DEVICES

MODEM:
Modem is the short form for modulator-demodulator. A modem is a device or
program that enables a computer to transmit data over, for example, telephone or cable lines
Computer information is stored digitally, whereas information transmitted over telephone line
is transmitted in the form of analog waves. A modem converts between these two forms.
SERVER:
A computer or device is a network that manages network resources. For example, a fil
server is a computer and storage device dedicated to storing files. Any user on the network ca
store files on the server. A print server is a computer that manages one or more printers, and
network server is a computer that manages network traffic. A database server is a compute
system that processes database queries. Servers are often dedicated, meaning that they perform
no other tasks besides their server tasks. On multiprocessing operating systems, however,
single computer can execute several programs at once. A server in this case could refer to th
program that is managing resources rather than the entire computer.
UTP:
Short for unshielded twisted pair, a popular type of cable that consists of two unshielde
wires twisted around each other. Due to its low cost, UTP cabling is used extensively for local
area networks (LANs) and telephone connections. UTP cabling does not offer as hig
bandwidth or as good protection from interference as coaxial or fiber optic cables, but it is les
expensive and easier to work with.

Cable Grade Capabilities

Cable Makeup Frequency Data Rate Network

Name Support Compatibility
Cat-5 4 twisted pairs of copper wire100 MHz Up to ATM, Token
-- terminated by RJ45 1000Mbps Ring,1000Base-T,
 connectors 100Base-TX, 10Base-
T
Cat-5e 4 twisted pairs of copper wire100 MHz Up to 10Base-T, 100Base-
-- terminated by RJ45 1000Mbps TX, 1000Base-T
connectors
Cat-6 4 twisted pairs of copper wire250 MHz 1000Mbps 10Base-T, 100Base-
-- terminated by RJ45 TX, 1000Base-T
connectors

NETWORK INTERFACE CARDS:

Network Interface Cards, commonly referred to as NICs, and are used to connect a PC
to a network. The NIC provides a physical connection between the networking cable and th
computer's internal bus. Different computers have different bus architectures. PCI bus slots ar
most commonly found on 486/Pentium PCs and ISA expansion slots are commonly found o
386 and older PCs. NICs come in three basic varieties: 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit. The larger th
number of bits that can be transferred to the NIC, the faster the NIC can transfer data to th
network cable. Most NICs are designed for a particular type of network, protocol, and medium
though some can serve multiple networks.
Many NIC adapters comply with plug-and-play specifications. On these systems, NICs ar
automatically configured without user intervention, while on non-plug-and-play systems
configuration is done manually through a set-up program and/or DIP switches.
Cards are available to support almost all networking standards. Fast Ethernet NICs ar
often 10/100 capable, and will automatically set to the appropriate speed. Gigabit Etherne
NICs are 10/100/1000 capable with auto negotiation depending on the user’s Ethernet speed
Full duplex networking is another option where a dedicated connection to a switch allows
NIC to operate at twice the speed.

ETHERNET SWITCHES:
LAN switches link multiple networks together and have two basic architectures: cu
through and store-and-forward. In the past, cut-through switches were faster because the
examined the packet destination address only before forwarding it on to its destination segmen
A store-and-forward switch works like a bridge in that it accepts and analyzes the entire packe
before forwarding it to its destination.

Both cut-through and store-and-forward switches separate a network into collision

domains, allowing network design rules to be extended. Each of the segments attached to an
Ethernet switch has a full 10 Mbps of bandwidth shared by fewer users, which results in better
performance (as opposed to hubs that only allow bandwidth sharing from a single Ethernet).
Newer switches today offer high-speed links, either Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, 10 Gigabit
Ethernet or ATM. These are used to link switches together or give added bandwidth to high-
traffic servers

REPEATERS:
 A repeater is a physical layer device used to interconnect the media segments of an
extended network. A repeater essentially enables a series of cable segments to be treated as a
single cable. Repeaters receive signals from one network segment and amplify, retime, and
retransmit those signals to another network segment. These actions prevent signal deterioration
caused by long cable lengths and large numbers of connected devices. Repeaters are incapable
of performing complex filtering and other traffic processing. In addition, all electrical signals,
including electrical disturbances and other errors, are repeated and amplified.

HUB:
A hub is a physical layer device that connects multiple user stations, each via a dedicate
cable. Electrical interconnections are established inside the hub. Hubs are used to create
physical star network while maintaining the logical bus or ring configuration of the LAN. I
some respects, a hub functions as a multiport repeater.

BRIDGES:
Bridges connect two LAN segments of similar or dissimilar types, such as Ethernet an
Token Ring. This allows two Ethernet segments to behave like a single Ethernet allowing an
pair of computers on the extended Ethernet to communicate. Bridges are transparent therefor
computers don’t know whether a bridge separates them.

ROUTER:
A router is a device that forwards data packets along networks, and determines which wa
to send each data packet based on its current understanding of the state of its connecte
networks. Routers are typically connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs o
WANs or a LAN and its Internet Service Provider’s (ISPs) network. Routers are located a
gateways, the places where two or more networks connect.
Routers filter out network traffic by specific protocol rather than by packet address
Routers also divide networks logically instead of physically. An IP router can divide a networ
into various subnets so that only traffic destined for particular IP addresses can pass betwee
segments. Network speed often decreases due to this type of intelligent forwarding. Suc
filtering takes more time than that exercised in a switch or bridge, which only looks at th
Ethernet address. However, in more complex networks, overall efficiency is improved by usin
routers.

LAN EXTENDER:
 A LAN extender is a remote-access multilayer switch that connects to a host router. LAN
extenders forward traffic from all the standard network layer protocols (such as IP, IPX, and
AppleTalk) and filter traffic based on the MAC address or network layer protocol type. LAN
extenders scale well because the host router filters out unwanted broadcasts and multicasts.
However, LAN extenders are not capable of segmenting traffic or creating security firewalls.

ACHIEVEMENTS

The main achievements of the training at Indian Railways are that we got familiar wit
the latest technologies and principles of networking. The main achievement could be said to ge
knowledge about recent technologies of LAN. We got experience as to how to organize th
things. After the completion of the training we consider ourselves capable of facing any othe
challenge of that type. The training at Indian Railways cultivated the zeal of inquisitiveness an
the excitement to know more than more about this field in limited duration.

CONCLUSION

Indian Railways, as an organization is a very vast center of telecommunication in itsel

Today the telecommunicating world is getting it’s roots, grabbing the new era more firmly. W
think that our training was an success and we think that Indian Railways was an excellen
training institute for inquisitive emerging engineers. In Indian Railways, training is given t
engineering aspirant desiring to secure future in the dynamic world of Telecommunication.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. www.lantronix.com

2. www.wikepedia.com

3. www.google.com

4. www.howstuffworks.com

5. www.indianrailways.org.in

6. “Computer Networks” by” Tenin Baum

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