Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Magnetism

Magnetic Field Intensity

• Whenever a magnetic flux, φ, exist in a conductor or
component, it is due to the presence of a magnetic field
intensity, H, given by U
H=
where l
– H = magnetic field intensity [A/m]
– U = magnetomotive force [A] or ampere turns
– l = length of the magnetic circuit [m]
50 A
– example
find the magnetic field intensity at the circle
U 50 A ρ = 5 cm
H= = =159 A/m
2πρ 2π (0.05 m )
 Magnetic Flux Density
• For a magnetic flux φ, there exists a magnetic flux
density, B, given by B = φ
where A
– B = flux density [T] (tesla)
– φ = flux in a component [Wb ] (weber)
– A = cross section area [m2]
– example
I
find the flux density h = 10cm
d = 20cm
φ 360×10 −6 Wb
B= = = 1 .8 T
d h (0.01m )(0.02 m )
φ = 360µWb
 Relationship between B-H in Free Space
• In free space, the magnetic flux density B is directly
proportional to the magnetic field intensity H
• The constant of proportionality for free space is called
the permeability constant, µ0
B = µ0 H mT
2.0
– in the SI system, B 1.5
µ0 = 4π×10-7 H/m 1.0
[henry/meter]
0.5

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 A/m
H
 B-H Characteristic of Magnetic Material
• The flux density is influenced by the magnetic property
of the material in which the flux passes
– instead of specifying a permeability for every material, a
relative permeability is defined, µr = µ / µ0
– relative permeability is unitless
B = µ0 µr H
2.0 T

B 1.5 silicon iron (1%)

• for many materials, the 1.0
cast iron
relative permeability is 0.5
not constant but varies 0
free space

nonlinear w.r.t. B 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 kA/m

H
 Determining Relative Permeability
• One can find the relative permeability in a material by
taking the ratio of the flux density in the material to the flux
density that would have been produced in free-space
B B
µr = ≈ 800,000
µ0 H H

– Example
Determine the relative
permeability of relay
steel (1% silicon) at a
flux density of 0.6 T
and 1.4 T
 Faraday’s Law
• Electromagnetic induction
– If the flux linking a loop (or turn) varies as a function of
time, a voltage is induced between its terminals
– The value of the induced voltage is proportional to the
rate of change of flux
• In SI units, ∆Φ
E=N
where ∆t
– E = induced voltage [V]
– N = number of turns in the coil
– ∆Φ = change of flux inside the coil [Wb]
– ∆t = time interval of the flux changes [s]
Faraday’s Law
– Example
• a coil of 2000 turns surrounds a flux of 5 mWb produced
by a permanent magnet
• the magnet is suddenly withdrawn causing the flux inside
the coil to drop uniformly to 2 mWb in 0.100 s
• what is the induced voltage?
 Voltage Induced in a Conductor
• It is often easier to calculate the induced voltage on a
segment of conductor instead of the voltage on a coil
E = Bl v
where
– E = induced voltage [V]
– B = flux density [T]
– l = active length of
conductor in the
magnetic field [m]
– v = relative speed of
the conductor [m/s]
 Lorentz Force
• A current-carrying conductor sees a force when placed
in a magnetic field
– fundamental principle for the operation of motors
– the magnitude of the force depends upon orientation of
the conductor with respect to the direction of the field
– force is greatest when the conductor is perpendicular to
the field
• The Lorentz or electromagnetic force: F = B l I sinθ
where
– F = force acting on the conductor [N]
– θ = angle between the flow directions of current and flux
Lorentz Force on a Conductor
– Example
• a conductor of 1.5 m long is
carrying a current of 50 A and
is placed in a magnetic field
with a density of 1.2 T
• calculate the force on the
conductor if it is perpendicular
to the lines of flux
• calculate the force on the
conductor if it is parallel
to the lines of flux
 Direction of Force
• A current carrying a current is
surrounded by a magnetic field
• The flux lines of two magnetic
fields never cross each other
– the flux lines of two magnet
fields are vectorally added
– the generated mechanical force
tends to push the lines of flux
back to an even distribution
 Direction of Force
• Right hand rule
– Fingers point in the direction of current flow
(positive to negative)
– Bend fingers into the direction of the magnetic field
(north to south)
– Thumb points in the direction of force
 Residual Flux
• Metals that have a strong
magnetic attraction can be

S
N
modeled as being composed of S

N
N S N
many molecular size magnets S
– orientation of the magnets are
normally random
– by applying an external

S
magnetic field (e.g. using a coil N
with a current flow), the S φ

N
S N
molecular size magnets will N
S
align themselves with the
external field
 Residual Flux
• When the external magnetic field
decreases, the magnetic domains
tend to retain their original S N S N φ
orientation
S N S N
– this is called residual induction

S N S N φR
S N S N
 Hysteresis Loop
• To eliminate the residual flux, a
reverse coil current is required to
generate a field H in the opposite
direction
– the magnetic domains gradually
change their previous orientation
until the flux density becomes zero
– Hc is the coercive force
– energy is required to overcome the
molecular friction of the domains to
any changes in direction
• AC magnets have ac flux changing
continuously and will map out a
closed curve call a hysteresis loop
 Hysteresis Losses
• With an external ac flux, the B/H
characteristics of a magnetic
material traces out a curve from S N S N φ
– (+Bm +Hm) to (+Br 0) to (0 -Hc) to
(-Bm -Hm) to (-Br 0) to (0 +Hc) S N S N
• magnetic material absorbs energy
during each cycle and the energy
is dissipated as heat

N
– the heat released per cycle [J/m3]
S
is equal to the area [T-A/m] of the
φ N

S
S
hysteresis loop
S N

N
 Eddy Currents
• An ac flux φ linking a rectangular-shaped
conductor induces an ac voltage E across
its terminals φ
• If the conductor terminals are shorted, a
substantial current flows E
• The same flux linking smaller coils induce
lesser voltages and lower currents
I4 I1 φ
• A solid metal plate is basically equivalent
to a densely packed set of rectangular-
shaped coils
• The induced currents flowing inside the
plate are eddy currents, and flow to oppose IE φ
the change in flux
 Eddy Current Losses
• Eddy currents become a problem
when iron must carry an ac flux
– eddy currents flow throughout the IC
entire length of the iron core IE1
– resistance in the iron causes energy
to be dissipated as heat
φ
• Losses can be reduced by splitting
the core into sections (lamination)
– subdividing causes the losses to I E1 > I E 2
decrease progressively IC
– varnish coatings insulate the IE2
laminates from current flows IE2
– silicon in the iron increases the
resistance
φ
 Homework
• Problems:
– 1-90, 1-91, 1-97
– 2-4, 2-5, 2-7, 2-8, and 2-9