AP Calculus AB Midyear Study Guide

Limits
Limit is the value of a function, f(x), approaches as x approaches a
• The limit of f(x) as x approaches a exists if and only if x→a lim− f (x) = lim+ f (x)
x→a
• limits fail to exist when the right and left hand sides are not equal, when there is oscillating
behavior, for discontinuous functions, or when there are vertical asymptotes or infinite limits
• If r(a) is defined for a rational function, then lim r(x) = r(a)
x→a
• if r(a)=0/0 then factor out a term and try again to see if there’s a limit or vertical asymptote
• if the function is irrational and cannot be factored, rationalize the function and plug in
• if it is a piecewise function find the right and left hand limits in order to find the limit
L’hospital’s Rule: Let f and g be functions that are differentiable on an open interval (x1,x2)
containing a, if the limit of f(x)/g(x) as x approaches a produces 0/0 or ± ∞ /± ∞ , then
•Infinite limits are the limit of a function as x approaches ∞
f (x) f '(x) lim f (x) = L and the equation is y=L
lim = lim •there is a horizontal asymptote is x→±∞
x→a g(x) x→a g'(x)
•the end behavior of non constant polynomials, x2, is infinity
• the end behavior of rational functions, 1/x2, is 0
• the end behavior of constants is that constant
• if the highest power of the numerator of a rational function is greater than the highest
denominator then the limit does not exist or is infinity
• if the highest power of the denominator of a rational function is greater than the highest
power of the numerator then the limit is 0
• if the highest powers of the numerator and denominator of a rational function are the same
then the limit is equal to the ratio of its coefficients
• Continuity in limits
• f(x) is continuous at x=c if the limit exists and is finite, f(c) is defined, and the limit is equal
to the defined point
• a removable discontinuity is when the limit exists but does not equal f(c)
• an infinite discontinuity is when there’s an asymptote at x=a
• a jump or non-removable continuity exists when there’s a break in the graph and the limit
does not exist; if the limit doesn’t exist then it is non-removable
Intermediate Value Theorem: if f is continuous on a closed interval [a,b] and u is any number
between f(a) and f(b), inclusive, then there is at least one number, c, such that f(c)=u; if a
polynomial changes signs at the end points, then f(c)=0 for at least one value of c
Asymptote when a number approaches but does not meet a number
• horizontal asymptotes occur when the numerator is 0 or the limit at infinity
• vertical asymptotes occur when there is a non-factorage item in the denominator
Derivatives
Derivative at a point is the slope of the tangent line denoted f’(x)
• the slope of the tangent is the limit of the slope of the secant; the equation f (x) − f (x0 )
of the tangent line to the curve y=f(x) at (x0,f(x0)) is y-y0=mtan(x-x0) where mtan = x→x lim
0 x − x0
• the domain of f’(x) consists of all values of x in the domain of f for which
the limit of the difference quotient exists
 • f is differentiable on (a,b) is if f’(x) exists for all in (a,b)
• dy/dx refers to the derivative of y with respect to x
Average Velocity: the distance traveled over the time which has passed; the slope of the secant
Instantaneous Velocity: the derivative of s(t) where s is a function that shows an object’s position
over t, time; the slope of the tangent
• Factor Rules: (xn-an)=(x-a)(xn-1+axn-2+a2xn-3+…+an-1)
• Differentiability
• f is not differentiable is there is a vertical tangent line, a cusp or soft corner, a sharp corner, or
is discontinuous at x=c
• f is locally linear at x=a is f’(a) exists; differentiability implies local linearity
• if a function is differentiable at x=c, then it is continuous at x=c
• f(x) is differentiable if and only if f’(x) exists and is a real number
• the derivative of a piecewise or absolute value function is the derivative of each part if the
function is continuous
• Rules for Differentiation dy dy 1 −f'
• Constant Rule dx dy c=0 =
dy • Reciprocal Rule dx f (x) f 2
• Scalar Rule dy dx cf (x) = c dx f (x) • Product Rule
dy
fg = f ' g + fg'
f (x) n
=
• Power Rule dx dy f (x) f ' g − fg'
nx n−1
dx
• Sum and Difference Rule dy f ± g = f '± g'
• Quotient Rule dx g(x) = g 2 • Chain Rule dy f (g(x)) = f '(g(x))g'(x)
dx

• Derivatives
dy
of Trig Functions dy
dx
sin x = cos x cos x = − sin x
• dx • dx
dy dy
• dx tan x = sec x
2
• dx cot x = − csc x
2

• dy sec x = sec x tan x • dy csc x = − csc x cot x

dx dx
• Implicit Differentiation
1. Assuming that y is a function of x, differentiate both sides with respect to x
2. Solve for dy/dx in terms of x and y
3. Input values into the expression for x and y to find the slope of the tangent at a point
• Related Rates
1. Determine the changing quantities
2. Find an equation to relate these rates
3. Differentiate with respect to t
4. Substitute the given values to find rate, and in more complicated problems relate
addition values to each other
• Inverse Derivatives
• If f(x) is differentiable1
and one-to-one with its inverse, then for and x such that f’(f-1(x))≠0 at
−1
(x,y), f (x) = f '( f −1 (x)) ; set f(x) equal to the value of y and solve for x, then evaluate f-1 here
• The First Derivative Test
• Identify where f’ is 0 or undefined and plot these points on a number line
• Choose a test value in each interval to determine the sign of f’
• f’ > 0 then f is increasing
• f’ < 0 then f is decreasing
• f’ = 0 then f is constant
• if f changes from + to - then there is a local maximum
 • if f changes from - to + then there is a local minimum
• a critical point for a function, f, is a point in the domain where there is a tangent line or f is
not differentiable
• The Second Derivative Test
• f’’ > 0 then f is concave up or f’ is increasing
• f’’ < 0 then f is concave down or f’ is decreasing
• at a critical point (f’=0 / DNE), if f’’ < 0 then it is a local maximum; if f’’ > 0 then it is a local
minimum
• if the concavity of a function, f, changes at x=c, then (c,f(c)) is a point of inflection
• a stationary point is the critical point where f’=0 and the point is defined
• Linear Approximation
1. take function f and find its derivative
2. find the tangent line at a point close to the one you are approximating
3. plug the number you are approximating into the tangent line of the equation you
calculated; you overestimate if f is concave down and underestimate if f is concave up
Extreme Value Theorem: If f is continuous and defined on the closed interval, [a,b], then f must
assume an absolute minimum and absolute maximum value; look at critical and end points
Mean Value Theorem: the average rate of change will equal the derivative of a function at some
value, c, if a function is continuous and differentiable on [a,b]
Rolle’s Theorem: Let f(x) be continuous on [a,b] and differentiable on (a,b). If f(a)=f(b) then
there is at least one number, c, such that f’(c)=0.
• Optimization
1. Draw an appropriate figure and label the quantities which are relevant
2. Find a formula for a quantity to be maximized or minimized
3. Find an equation relating the variables using the constraints
4. Put optimization equation in terms of one variable
5. Find the derivative of this equation, find the critical points, and determine the absolute
maximum or minimum
• Rectilinear Motion
• v(t) > 0 then the object moves in the positive direction; v(t) < 0 then it moves in the negative
direction; v(t) = 0 then the object is at rest
• a(t) = v’(t) = s’’(t)
• if a(t) and v(t) have the same sign they are speeding up; if they have different signs then it is
slowing down
Review
• Values of Trig Functions
Degrees Radians Sin Cosine

0º 0 √0 / 2 √4 / 2
30º π/6 √1 / 2 √3 / 2
45º π/4 √2 / 2 √2 / 2
Degrees Radians Sin Cosine

60º π/3 √3 / 2 √1 / 2
90º π/2 √4 / 2 √0 / 2
• Exponential and Logarithmic Rules