MAINTENANCE ENGINEERING

Maintenance Condition based Maintenance

• The main objective of maintenance department is to
keep machinery and plant equipments in good
2.PREVENTIVE

operating condition that prevents failure and

production loss.
• Monitoring of a rotating machine has been a MAINTENANCE
challenging task for engineers in industries.
• There are many monitoring methods available which 1.BREAK DOWN 3.PREDICTIVE

require expensive sensors and specialized tools.

Types of Maintenance Monitoring Techniques

A. Breakdown maintenance • Breakdown monitoring of machines is no longer a
preferred method used in industries.
B. Preventive maintenance
• Preventive and non destructive monitoring
a. Periodic maintenance techniques are, thus, becoming more and more
popular.
b. Predictive Maintenance
The main benefits of such techniques are:
C. Corrective maintenance • Easy and early identification of fault.
• Almost total prevention of breakdown.
• Lesser loss of production time.
• Optimum utilization of machine life period.

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Condition Based Monitoring (CBM) Condition-Based Monitoring

• Breakdown Maintenance costs can be
drastically cut with the help of Condition
Based Monitoring (CBM).
• The idea of CBM is to perform maintenance
only when there is an actual requirement,
while ensuring safety, apparatus reliability and
decrease in total cost
• Condition-Based Monitoring may be defined as
the process of monitoring a parameter of
condition of a machine, any impending technical
failure or fault may become apparent.
Predictive maintenance renders maintenance
activities frequent and scheduled, such that
any failure may be avoided at an early stage

CBM Techniques
• Lubrication Analysis
• Shock impact analysis Vibration signature analysis
• Low frequency monitoring
• Higher-order spectral techniques
• Wear debris analysis
• Ultra Sound Analysis
• Temperature Analysis

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Vibration signature
• Vibration is a cyclic or pulsating motion of a
machine or machine component from its point of
rest.
• Vibration of a machine can be represented in
time domain in terms of its phase and amplitude
(which can be measured as displacement,
velocity or acceleration), and in frequency
domain by its dominant frequencies, harmonics,
etc.
Vibration signature
• However, in case of structural or functional
anomaly or failure, the dynamic characteristics of
the machine changes which is reflected in its
vibration signals
• The nature of the developing fault has unique
vibration characteristics which can be compared
with the vibration signatures of the machine
working under normal operating condition.
• By using various signal analysis techniques one
can determine the exact category/type of fault.
Vibration signature
• Vibration signature analysis (VSA) is a widely
used condition monitoring technique to
determine the overall condition of a machine,
which is based on measurement of vibration
severity of the machine under test.
• Every machine in its working condition
produces vibration and this vibration is a
characteristic signature of the machine which
does not change over time
Vibration signature measurement
• Frequency :
• Displacement:
• Velocity :
• Acceleration
• Phase angle
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Vibration sensors Signal analysis

• Proximity probe • Stationary signal:
• Velocity probe or pickup • These are characterized by time-invariant
• Accelerometer statistic properties like periodic vibrations
caused by a worn out bearing etc.
• Such signals can be adequately analyzed using
spectral techniques based on the Fast Fourier
Transform(FFT)

Signal analysis Signal analysis

Non-stationary signals
These are transient in nature, with duration
generally shorter than the observation
interval.
Such signals are generally generated by the
sudden breakage of a drilling bit, flaking of the
raceway of a rolling bearing, or a growing
crack inside a work piece.
• For analysis of such non-stationary vibration
signals, time-frequency techniques like:
• Short-Time Fourier Transform for fault
detection during impulse testing (STFT),
wavelet transform and Hilbert-Huang
Transform (HHT) are popularly used.

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Advanced Techniques for Vibration
Signature Analysis
• Availability of better sensors has facilitated a huge
quantity of data, that the traditional techniques
were unable to process accurately.
• This short coming was overcome by the advent
of an algorithm based technique, namely
1. Neural Networks.
2. Fuzzy logic
3 . Development of a hybrid system by combining
NN and Fuzzy logic
4. Wavelet Transform analysis
Wear Mechanisms
• Abrasive wear
- polishing, scratching, grinding, etc.
• Adhesive wear
- galling, scuffing, scoring, etc.
• Cavitation ( Interaction with fluid)
• Corrosive wear( Chemical nature)
• Erosive wear
• Fatigue
-delamination
Wear
• Plastic deformation at the interface often
leads to wear, i.e., deformation induced wear.
• Wear can also be caused by chemical
processes.
• There are many different kinds of wear
mechanisms
• We have to analyze these wear mechanisms
using mechanics, thermodynamics, etc.
Wear debris analysis
• When a machine wears, material from the
contacting surfaces enters the lubricant.
• The forces, material and geometry of the wear
site all influence the size, shape and quality of the
final wear product. The wear debris carried away
in the lubricant an be considered to be the
‘signature’ of wear process.
• The signature can be read and interpreted by
wear analysis techniques to asses the machine’s
health and to form a prognosis
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Wear debris analysis
• Wear debris analysis is a useful and cost
effective mechanical condition monitoring
technique
• However, compared with the complementary
technique of vibration analysis, little
information is available to the engineers that
describes the technical details of wear debris
analysis
Wear particle collection techniques
1. Magnetic chip collectors(MCC):
collect ferrous wear debris from the lubricant. The
MCC can be a cost effective method of monitoring
the wearing condition of a machine.
wear particles collected on MCC provide monitoring
information in two ways:
quantity of debris collected per running hour
indicates the wear rate and the size and shape of the
wear particles indicates the wear mechanism
Advantages of wear debris analysis
• There is no large capital investment risked in
evaluating the wear debris analysis technology
• No requirement for a trained specialist
• It can also be a useful technique to
understanding tribology and to identifying
lubrication problem
• However wear debris analysis is the delay in
getting results back from a laboratory
2.Filter debris
• It can also yield important information about
events occurring within a machine
• However, inspecting a filter for wear products
is not as easy as inspecting an MCC or taking
an oil sample
• The filter has the advantage of 100% capture
efficiency above a certain size range and also
collects non-ferrous materials
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3.Ferrography 4.Direct reading ferrography(DR)

• It is a technique that uses an intense
magnetic field to extract ferrous wear
particles in the size range 0.1 to 150 microns
from a sample of oil, and to deposit them
onto a thin glass microscope slide(ferrogram)
• Particles collected by this technique are small,
so high power optical or scanning electron
microscopy is used to study the collected wear
particles
• Similar in operation to the analytical
ferrogrhaphy described above, but uses
optical density sensors to measure the wear
debris deposited.
• optical density figures give an indication of the
amount of ferrous debris in the oil and the
approximate size distribution of the particles

5. Particle counting
• It is included for completeness, but it is very Non-destructive Testing
rarely successful as a wear monitoring
technique
• It is more commonly used to check the
cleanliness of hydraulic or fuel systems
• They produce confusing results

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Definition of NDT (NDE) What are Some Uses

The use of noninvasive
of NDE Methods?
techniques to determine
the integrity of a material, • Flaw Detection and Evaluation

component or structure • Leak Detection

or
• Location Determination
• Dimensional Measurements
quantitatively measure • Structure and Microstructure Characterization Fluorescent penetrant indication
some characteristic of • Estimation of Mechanical and Physical Properties
an object. • Stress (Strain) and Dynamic Response Measurements
• Material Sorting and Chemical Composition Determination

i.e. Inspect or measure without doing harm.

Why Nondestructive? When are NDE Methods Used?

There are NDE application at almost any stage
• Test piece too precious to be destroyed
in the production or life cycle of a component.
• Test piece to be reuse after inspection –To assist in product development
• Test piece is in service –To screen or sort incoming materials
• For quality control purpose –To monitor, improve or control
• Something you simply cannot do harm to manufacturing processes
–To verify proper processing such as
e.g. fetus in mother’s uterus
heat treating
–To verify proper assembly
–To inspect for in-service damage

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Major types of NDT 1. Visual Inspection

Most basic and common
• Detection of surface flaws inspection method.

Visual Tools include

fiberscopes,
Magnetic Particle Inspection borescopes, magnifying
Fluorescent Dye Penetrant Inspection glasses and mirrors.

• Detection of internal flaws Portable video inspection

unit with zoom allows
Radiography inspection of large tanks
Ultrasonic Testing
and vessels, railroad tank
cars, sewer lines.
Eddy current Testing Robotic crawlers permit
observation in hazardous or
tight areas, such as air
ducts, reactors, pipelines.

2. Magnetic Particle Inspection(MPI) The magnetic particles form a ridge

many times wider than the crack itself,
thus making the otherwise invisible
• The magnetic flux line close to the surface of a crack visible

ferromagnetic material tends to follow the surface

profile of the material
• Discontinuities (cracks or voids) of the material
perpendicular to the flux lines cause fringing of
the magnetic flux lines, i.e. flux leakage
• The leakage field can attract other ferromagnetic
Cracks just below the
particles
surface can also be
revealed

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Magnetic particles
2.4 Advantages of MPI
• Pulverized iron oxide (Fe3O4) or
carbonyl iron powder can be used • One of the most dependable and sensitive methods for
surface defects
• Coloured or even fluorescent
magnetic powder can be used to • fast, simple and inexpensive
increase visibility • direct, visible indication on surface
• Powder can either be used dry or • unaffected by possible deposits, e.g. oil, grease or other
suspended in liquid metals chips, in the cracks
• can be used on painted objects
• surface preparation not required
• results readily documented with photo or tape impression

Examples of visible dry magnetic particle indications

2.5 Limitations of MPI
• Only good for ferromagnetic materials
• sub-surface defects will not always be indicated
• relative direction between the magnetic field and the
defect line is important
• objects must be demagnetized before and after the Indication of a crack in a saw blade Indication of cracks in a weldment

examination
• the current magnetization may cause burn scars on the
item examined

Indication of cracks running between

Before and after inspection pictures of attachment holes in a hinge
cracks emanating from a hole

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Why Liquid Penetrant Inspection?
• To improves the detectability of flaws
There are basically two ways that a penetrant
inspection process makes flaws more easily
seen.
(1) LPI produces a flaw indication that is much
larger and easier for the eye to detect than
the flaw itself.
(2) LPI produces a flaw indication with a high
level of contrast between the indication
and the background.
The advantage that a liquid
penetrant inspection (LPI) offers over
an unaided visual inspection is that it
makes defects easier to see for the
inspector.
3. Dye Penetrant Inspection
Liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) is one of the
most widely used nondestructive evaluation
(NDE) methods. Its popularity can be attributed
to two main factors, which are its relative ease
of use and its flexibility. LPI can be used to
inspect almost any material provided that its
surface is not extremely rough or porous.
Materials that are commonly inspected using
LPI include metals (aluminum, copper, steel,
titanium, etc.), glass, many ceramic materials,
rubber, and plastics.
3.2 Basic processing steps of LPI
1. Surface Preparation: One of the most critical steps of a liquid penetrant
inspection is the surface preparation. The surface must be free of oil,
grease, water, or other contaminants that may prevent penetrant from
entering flaws. The sample may also require etching if mechanical
operations such as machining, sanding, or grit blasting have been
performed. These and other mechanical operations can smear the surface
of the sample, thus closing the defects.
2. Penetrant Application: Once the surface has been thoroughly cleaned and
dried, the penetrant material is applied by spraying, brushing, or immersing
the parts in a penetrant bath.
3. Penetrant Dwell: The penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient time to
allow as much penetrant as possible to be drawn from or to seep into a
defect. The times vary depending on the application, penetrant materials
used, the material, the form of the material being inspected, and the type
of defect being inspected. Generally, there is no harm in using a longer
penetrant dwell time as long as the penetrant is not allowed to dry.
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7. Inspection: Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting to

4. Excess Penetrant Removal: This is the most delicate part of the inspection detect indications from any flaws which may be present.
procedure because the excess penetrant must be removed from the
surface of the sample while removing as little penetrant as possible from
defects. Depending on the penetrant system used, this step may involve 8. Clean Surface: The final step in the process is to thoroughly clean the part
cleaning with a solvent, direct rinsing with water, or first treated with an surface to remove the developer from the parts that were found to be
emulsifier and then rinsing with water. acceptable.
5. Developer Application: A thin layer of developer is then applied to the
sample to draw penetrant trapped in flaws back to the surface where it will
be visible. Developers come in a variety of forms that may be applied by
dusting (dry powdered), dipping, or spraying (wet developers).

6. Indication Development: The developer is allowed to stand on the part

surface for a period of time sufficient to permit the extraction of the
trapped penetrant out of any surface flaws. This development time is
usually a minimum of 10 minutes and significantly longer times may be
necessary for tight cracks.

3.4 Primary Advantages 3.5 Primary Disadvantages

• The method has high sensitive to small surface discontinuities.
• The method has few material limitations, i.e. metallic and nonmetallic, magnetic and
nonmagnetic, and conductive and nonconductive materials may be inspected.
• Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be inspected rapidly and at low
cost.
• Parts with complex geometric shapes are routinely inspected.
• Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a visual
representation of the flaw.
• Aerosol spray cans make penetrant materials very portable.
• Penetrant materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive.
• Only surface breaking defects can be detected.
• Only materials with a relative nonporous surface can be inspected.
• Precleaning is critical as contaminants can mask defects.
• Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapor blasting must be removed
prior to LPI.
• The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.
• Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
• Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled.
• Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
• Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.

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4. Radiography
Radiography involves the use of penetrating
gamma- or X-radiation to examine material's and
4.2 Film Radiography
product's defects and internal features. An X-ray High Electrical Potential
machine or radioactive isotope is used as a source The part is placed between the radiation source
of radiation. Radiation is directed through a part and a piece of film. The part will stop some of the
and onto film or other media. The resulting Electrons
shadowgraph shows the internal features and radiation. Thicker and more dense area will stop
soundness of the part. Material thickness and + -
more of the radiation.
density changes are indicated as lighter or darker
areas on the film. The darker areas in the
radiograph below represent internal voids in the X-ray Generator or
component. Radioactive Source
Creates Radiation
• The film darkness (density) will
vary with the amount of radiation
reaching the film through the
X-ray film test object.
Radiation • Defects, such as voids, cracks,
Penetrate inclusions, etc., can be detected.
the Sample
= less exposure
Exposure Recording Device
= more exposure
Top view of developed film

4.3 Areas of Application 4.4 Limitations of Radiography

• Can be used in any situation when one wishes to view the
interior of an object
• There is an upper limit of thickness through which
• To check for internal faults and construction defects, e.g. the radiation can penetrate, e.g. -ray from Co-60
faulty welding can penetrate up to 150mm of steel
• To ‘see’ through what is inside an object • The operator must have access to both sides of an
• To perform measurements of size, e.g. thickness object
measurements of pipes
• Highly skilled operator is required because of the
Standard: potential health hazard of the energetic radiations
ASTM • Relative expensive equipment
– ASTM E94-84a Radiographic Testing
– ASTM E1032-85 Radiographic Examination of Weldments
– ASTM E1030-84 Radiographic Testing of Metallic Castings

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4.5 Examples of radiographs

Cracking can be detected in a radiograph only the crack is propagating in a direction Burn through (icicles) results when too much heat causes excessive weld metal to
that produced a change in thickness that is parallel to the x-ray beam. Cracks will appear penetrate the weld zone. Lumps of metal sag through the weld creating a thick
as jagged and often very faint irregular lines. Cracks can sometimes appearing as "tails" globular condition on the back of the weld. On a radiograph, burn through appears
on inclusions or porosity. as dark spots surrounded by light globular areas.

5. Ultrasonic Testing
5.1 Introduction

In ultrasonic testing, high-frequency sound waves are

transmitted into a material to detect imperfections or to
locate changes in material properties.

The most commonly used

Gas porosity or blow holes
are caused by accumulated
gas or air which is trapped by
the metal. These
discontinuities are usually
smooth-walled rounded
cavities of a spherical,
elongated or flattened shape.
Sand inclusions and dross
are nonmetallic oxides,
appearing on the radiograph
as irregular, dark blotches.
ultrasonic testing technique is
pulse echo, whereby sound is
introduced into a test object and
reflections (echoes) from internal
imperfections or the part's
geometrical surfaces are returned
to a receiver. The time interval
between the transmission and
reception of pulses give clues to
the internal structure of the
material.

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Ultrasonic Inspection (Pulse-Echo)

High frequency sound waves are introduced into a material and they are
Generation of Ultrasonic Waves
reflected back from surfaces or flaws.
Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, and inspector can • Piezoelectric transducers are used for
converting electrical pulses to mechanical
visualize a cross section of the specimen showing the depth of features that
reflect sound.

f vibrations and vice versa

• Commonly used piezoelectric materials are
initial
quartz, Li2SO4, and polarized ceramics such
as BaTiO3 and PbZrO3.
pulse

back surface

• Usually the transducers generate ultrasonic

echo
crack

waves with frequencies in the range 2.25 to

echo

crack

0 2 4 6 8 10 plate 5.0 MHz

Oscilloscope, or flaw
detector screen

5.2 Equipment & Transducers 6. Eddy Current Testing

5.2.1 Piezoelectric Transducers
The active element of most acoustic transducers
is piezoelectric ceramic. This ceramic is the heart
of the transducer which converts electrical to
acoustic energy, and vice versa.
A thin wafer vibrates with a wavelength that is
twice its thickness, therefore, piezoelectric
crystals are cut to a thickness that is 1/2 the
desired radiated wavelength. Optimal impedance
matching is achieved by a matching layer with
thickness 1/4 wavelength.
Direction of wave
propagation
Electrical currents are generated in a conductive material by an induced alternating
magnetic field. The electrical currents are called eddy currents because the flow in
circles at and just below the surface of the material. Interruptions in the flow of eddy
currents, caused by imperfections, dimensional changes, or changes in the
material's conductive and permeability properties, can be detected with the proper
equipment.
• Eddy current testing can be used on all electrically conducting materials
with a reasonably smooth surface.
• The test equipment consists of a generator (AC power supply), a test coil
and recording equipment, e.g. a galvanometer or an oscilloscope
• Used for crack detection, material thickness measurement (corrosion
detection), sorting materials, coating thickness measurement, metal
detection, etc.

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6.1 Principle of Eddy Current Testing (I) Principle of Eddy Current Testing (II)

• When a AC passes through a test • The strength of the secondary

coil, a primary magnetic field is field depends on electrical and
set up around the coil magnetic properties, structural
• The AC primary field induces integrity, etc., of the test object
eddy current in the test object • If cracks or other
held below the test coil inhomogeneities are present,
the eddy current, and hence
• A secondary magnetic field the secondary field is affected.
arises due to the eddy current

6.2 Eddy Current Instruments

6.4 Applications
Voltmeter
Coil's •Crack Detection
Coil magnetic field •Material Thickness
Measurements
•Coating Thickness
Measurements
Eddy current's
•Conductivity Measurements For:
magnetic field
•Material Identification
Eddy
currents •Heat Damage Detection
•Case Depth Determination
Conductive •Heat Treatment Monitoring
material

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6.5 Advantages of ET
•Sensitive to small cracks and other defects
•Detects surface and near surface defects
•Inspection gives immediate results
•Equipment is very portable
•Method can be used for much more than flaw detection
•Minimum part preparation is required
•Test probe does not need to contact the part
•Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive materials
7. Common Application of NDT
• Inspection of Raw Products
• Inspection Following Secondary
Processing
• In-Services Damage Inspection
Limitations of ET
•Only conductive materials can be inspected
•Surface must be accessible to the probe
•Skill and training required is more extensive than other techniques
•Surface finish and and roughness may interfere
•Reference standards needed for setup
•Depth of penetration is limited
•Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to the probe coil winding and
probe scan direction are undetectable
Inspection of Raw Products
• Forgings,
• Castings,
• Extrusions,
• etc.
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Inspection Following Inspection For

Secondary Processing In-Service Damage
• Machining
• Welding
• Grinding • Cracking
• Heat treating • Corrosion
• Plating • Erosion/Wear
• etc.
• Heat Damage

Power Plant Inspection Wire Rope Inspection

Periodically, power plants are
shutdown for inspection.
Inspectors feed eddy current
probes into heat exchanger
tubes to check for corrosion
damage.
Electromagnetic devices and visual
inspections are used to find broken
wires and other damage to the wire
rope that is used in chairlifts, cranes
and other lifting devices.

Pipe with damage Probe

Signals produced
by various
amounts of
corrosion
thinning.

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Storage Tank Inspection
Robotic crawlers use
ultrasound to inspect the
walls of large above
ground tanks for signs of
thinning due to corrosion.
Cameras on long
articulating arms
are used to inspect
underground
storage tanks for
damage.
Jet Engine Inspection
• Aircraft engines are overhauled
after being in service for a period
of time.
• They are completely disassembled,
cleaned, inspected and then
reassembled.
• Fluorescent penetrant inspection
is used to check many of the parts
for cracking.
Aircraft Inspection
• Nondestructive testing is used
extensively during the
manufacturing of aircraft.
• NDT is also used to find cracks
and corrosion damage during
operation of the aircraft.
• A fatigue crack that started at
the site of a lightning strike is
shown below.
Pressure Vessel Inspection
The failure of a pressure vessel
can result in the rapid release of
a large amount of energy. To
protect against this dangerous
event, the tanks are inspected
using radiography and
ultrasonic testing.
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Rail Inspection Bridge Inspection

Special cars are used to inspect • The US has 578,000
thousands of miles of rail to find highway bridges.
cracks that could lead to a
derailment. • Corrosion, cracking and
other damage can all
affect a bridge’s
performance.
• The collapse of the Silver
Bridge in 1967 resulted in
loss of 47 lives.
• Bridges get a visual
inspection about every 2
years.
• Some bridges are fitted
with acoustic emission
sensors that “listen” for
sounds of cracks growing.

Pipeline Inspection Special Measurements

NDT is used to inspect pipelines
to prevent leaks that could Boeing employees in Philadelphia were given the privilege of
damage the environment. Visual evaluating the Liberty Bell for damage using NDT techniques. Eddy
inspection, radiography and current methods were used to measure the electrical conductivity of
electromagnetic testing are some the Bell's bronze casing at a various points to evaluate its uniformity.
of the NDT methods used.

Remote visual inspection using

a robotic crawler.

Magnetic flux leakage inspection.

This device, known as a pig, is
placed in the pipeline and collects
data on the condition of the pipe as it
is pushed along by whatever is being
transported.
Radiography of weld joints.

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NDE TECHNIQUES
1.VIBRATION MONITORING
NDT TECHNIQUES IN 2.ACOUSTIC EMISSION (AE)
CONDITION MONITORING
3.INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY (IRT)

4.FERROGRAPHY

5.FIELD SIGNATURE MAPPING (FSM)

6. LUBRICATION OIL ANALYSIS

VIBRATION METER (HAND HELD)

1. VIBRATION MONITORING INSTRUMENTATION

• VIBRATION MEASURING AND ANALYSIS SYSTEM

CHANNEL FREQUENCY
MACHINE VIBROMETER
RECORDER
SELECTOR ANALYSER

SPM VIB-11
fig,(1.a) SIGNAL FLOW DIAGRAM by SKF

Vibration Meter : for imbalance, structural weakness, loose parts etc

• MINI COMPUTERS
• PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION ANALYSIS INDUSTRIAL MACINERY CLASSIFICATION
Class 2: Medium size machines without special foundation
• BY INSPECTION Class 3: Large machines on rigid foundations
Class 4: Large machines on soft foundations.

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2. Acoustic Emission Acoustic Emission cont…

• Acoustic Emission Testing (AET) is a condition • In machines sources of AE include impacting,
monitoring technique that is used to analyze emitted cyclic fatigue, friction, turbulence, material
sound waves caused by defects or discontinuities. loss, cavitations, leakage, etc.
• These acoustic emissions (AE) are transient elastic
waves induced from a rapid release of strain energy
• These acoustic emissions propagate on the
caused by small deformations, corrosion or cracking, surface of the material as waves and the
which occur prior to structure failure. displacement of these waves is measured by
AE sensors

ACOUSTIC EMISSION MONITORING ACOUSTIC-EMISSION METHOD

AE sensors respond with amazing sensitivity to motion in the low ultrasonic frequency
range (10 kHz - 2000 kHz). Motions as small as 10-12 inches and less can be detected
This method is based on the registration of the elastic compression waves that are
emitted by the defects developing in the stressed constructions.

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ACOUSTIC EMISSION SYSTEMS
AE data collection systems
•Laptop based AE system
•DSP Systems (any number of channels can be used)
• Portable AE test system (lunch box)
3. Infrared thermography
• Temperature is one of the most common indicators
of the structural and functional health of equipment
and components.
• Infrared thermography(IRT) is the process of using
thermal imagers to capture infrared radiations
emitted by an object to locate any abnormal heat
pattern or thermal anomaly which indicate possible
fault, defects or inefficiencies within a system or
machine asset(Planck’s law and Stefan-Boltzmann’s
law)
Data acquisition and analysis
Data analysis can be done by two approaches.
• parameter based approach:
(basic signal parameters such as the rate, energy and amplitudes
etc.)
• waveform analysis technique:
(which is based on the complete waveform rather than on the
parameters.)
signal processing methods like:
Wavelet-based acoustic emission characterization,
second generation wavelet transform, etc.
Types of thermography
• passive and active thermography
• In passive thermography, the temperature gradients are
naturally present in the materials and structures under
test. However in some cases the thermal gradient is not
so prominent in case of deeper and smaller defects and is
not visible on the surface using passive thermography.
• This is overcomed by the use of active thermography
where the relevant thermal contrasts are induced by an
external stimulus
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IR THERMOGRAPHY CASE STUDY

raw thermo graphic data.

data after removing the noise and vertical

gradient.

correspond to low strength

welds.
high strength welds

• Infrared thermography is based on the principle of detection and measurement of

infrared radiations QR) arising from the natural or stimulated thermal radiation of an data processed for the local gradient in surface
object21 temperature. Fig setup for infrared testing of lap joints

I R MEASURING SYSTEMS Condition monitoring of machine using

IRT
• Two approaches to analyze:
• Quantitative :
exact temperature values of the objects are considered
with ambient temperature as reference
• Qualitative:
ThermaCAM S60
relative temperature values of a hotspot with respect to
VARIOSCAN
Type
3021 ST •highly sensitive thermal imaging,
Spectral range
8 ... 12
•precision temperature measurement, other parts of the equipment with similar conditions are
considered
[µm] •enhanced connectivity options including
Detector high speed data transfer
Hg, Cd, Te
material •extensive thermal analysis capabilities
Detector cooling Stirling-cooler

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Analysis of Condition monitoring of Analysis of Condition monitoring of machine

machine using IRT using IRT cont..
• Manual method • In the final stage, uses the extracted current
• Automatic method features and compares them with a prior
Three steps of analysis: created database using advanced learning
• acquisition of infrared images of the machine methods like artificial neural networks(ANN)
under test. and fuzzy based decision making
• extracting the region of interest (ROI)
containing the potentially faulty portion of the
machine using techniques like image
segmentation , thresholding.

4. FERROGRAPHY MEASURING INSTRUMENT

1.WEAR DEBRIS ANALYSIS
MODE: ABRASION, IMPACT, FATIGUE, EROSION, CORROSION
RATE : CONCENTRATION OF WEAR DEBRIS
SEVERITY : SIZE OF DEBRIS INDICATES
LOCATION : COLOUR OF THE PARTICLES

2.SPECTROMETRIC ANALYSIS
•OIL ELECTRICALLY EXCITED TO THE POINT WHERE LIGHT IS EMITTED.

•ELEMENT EMITS A LIGHT OF ITS OWN PARTICULAR COLOR AND

FREQUENCY. ModelT2FM Analytical Ferrograph.
This measure the effects Bi chromatic microscope.
•SPECTROMETERS TRANSLATES THE INTENSITY OF THIS RAINBOW OF COLORS of Contamination and Video camera.
INTO A COMPUTERIZED READOUT. electro-chemical changes Video capture card.
that occur in synthetic Image capture software.
and petroleum based oils industrial standard personal computer.

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5.FIELD SIGNATURE MAPPING
• The FSM Inspection Tool (FSM) is a new
technology for monitoring and inspection of
metallic pipes and structures, pipelines and
storage vessels
• Reduce life cycle inspection costs
• Reduce inspection time
• The Field Signature Mapping (FSM) is based on feeding a
current through a selected section of the structure to be
monitored and sensing the electric field pattern by
measuring small potential differences set up on the surface
of the monitored object.
• The first measurement (signature) is unique to the
geometry of the object. When general or local corrosion
occurs the pattern of the electric field will change and can
be compared with the signature.
• By proper interpretation of the changes in the potential
differences, conclusions can be drawn,
regarding general wall thickness reduction or localized
corrosion.

INDUSTRIAL ARRANGEMENT

FIELD PATTERN Sensing pins (electrodes) in an

Graphical plots indicating the
severity and location of corrosion,
and calculates actual corrosion
and metal loss
array over the monitored
A typical refinery monitors high temperature
area to detect changes
in the electrical field pattern. areas such as heater bends in the distillation
unit.
The voltage = the signature.

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6. Lubrication oil analysis SUMMARY OF APPLICABILITY AND CAPABILITY OF VARIOUS

NDT TECHNIQUES
NON
• Lubrication oil analysis (LOA) includes: fluid
NDT DETECTION AUTOMATED DEFECT
CONTACT
TECHNIQUE CAPABILITY INSPECTION SIZING

property analysis (fluid viscosity, additive

INSPECTION

level, oxidation properties and specific gravity)

VIBRATION VOLUMETRIC POSSIBLE POSSIBLE POSSIBLE

• fluid contamination analysis (moisture, ACOUSTIC

VOLUMETRIC POSSIBLE POSSIBLE
NOT

metallic particles, coolant and air)

EMISSION POSSIBLE

• wear debris analysis

I R THERMO- SURFACE ,
POSSIBLE POSSIBLE POSSIBLE
GRAPHY NEAR SURFACE

POSSIBLE
FERROGRAPHY VOLUMETRIC POSSIBLE POSSIBLE

SURFACE,
FSM POSSIBLE POSSIBLE POSSIBLE
NEAR SURFACE

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