This sample chapter is for review purposes only. Copyright © The Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. All rights reserved.

Chapter 12

Driveline and
Wheel
Components

After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

� Identify types of drive axles and drive shafts.
� Explain the design and construction of constant velocity flexible joints.
� Explain the design and construction of cross-and-roller flexible joints.
� Explain the purpose of antifriction bearings.
� Identify types of wheel bearings.
� Match axle types to bearing types.
� Identify types of hubs and axle flanges.
� Identify types of wheel rims.
� Explain rim size specifications.
� Identify tire designs.
� Explain tire ratings.
� Identify wheel fastener designs.

Technical Terms
Independent drive axles Ball bearings Aspect ratio
CV axles Straight roller bearings Load index
Transfer shaft Tapered roller bearings Speed rating
Drive shaft Wheel hub Uniform tire quality grading system
Yokes Axle flange Temperature resistance rating
Slip yoke Wheel rims Traction rating
Constant velocity joints Radial tires Tread wear rating
Universal joint Bias tires Wheel studs
Cross-and-roller joints Tire ratings Lug nuts
Antifriction bearings Section width Tire pressure monitoring systems

251
252
Introduction
This chapter covers the components related to vehicle
drivelines and wheels. While some of these components
are not directly related to the suspension and steering
systems, they can cause vibration, noise, and other
problems. These problems are often blamed on the
suspension and steering components. Therefore, the sus-
pension and steering technician must be familiar with the
design and operation of drivelines and wheels so the real
cause of problems can be determined.
Studying this chapter will illustrate how drivelines and
wheel components fit into the overall vehicle design, and
how they can affect vehicle operation. This chapter
will also discuss the design and materials used in the
construction of these parts.
Driveline Components
Driveline components consist of the drive axles and
shafts, flexible joints, and related parts. Drive axles can be
roughly divided into solid and independent types. As a
general rule, solid axles are used on rear-wheel drive
vehicles and independent axles are used on front-wheel
drive vehicles. There are exceptions to this rule, especially
on sport-utility vehicles and sports cars. The application
and construction of both solid and independent drive axles
is discussed in the following section.
Several types of flexible joints are used on modern
vehicles. The type of flexible joints used depends on the
type of axle. Design and use of flexible joints is also
discussed below.
Independent Drive Axles
Independent drive axles are usually called CV axles
because they use a type of flexible joint called a CV joint.
All front-wheel drive vehicles, as well as a few rear-wheel
drive cars, use CV axles. CV axles are solid steel shafts that
connect the transaxle output shafts to the wheels. A few CV
axles are constructed of hollow tubes to reduce weight and
rotating mass. There are always two CV axles on a front-
wheel drive vehicle. Figure 12-1 shows a typical CV axle
assembly. Note that there are four CV joints, two on each
axle.
On a few vehicles, a transfer shaft, or intermediate
shaft, is used between the transaxle and the CV shaft on
one side of the vehicle, Figure 12-2. Use of a transfer shaft
allows a support bearing to be placed midway between the
transaxle and the wheel. This reduces vibration and strain
on the CV axle components. Transfer shafts are used on
large cars and on cars with manual transaxles when there
is a large distance between the transaxle case and the
wheels.
Auto Suspension and Steering Chapter 12 Driveline and Wheel Components 253
Drive Shafts Some drive shafts are two-piece types, Figure 12-7.
Drive plane Two-piece drive shafts are usually used on large trucks,
All rear-wheel drive vehicles use a drive shaft to where a single drive shaft would be overstressed and
transfer engine power from the transmission to the rear break, and on some luxury cars, where any vibration
axle. Drive shafts are large hollow tubes that are carefully would be objectionable. When a two-piece drive shaft is
balanced to reduce vibration. Flexible joints are installed at used, an extra flexible joint is necessary.
Cage each end through yokes, which are the mounting points for
the joints. Figure 12-5 is an illustration of a typical rear-
Slip Yoke
wheel-drive drive shaft. Four-wheel drive vehicles have a
Inner race front drive shaft that directs power from the four-wheel When the rear wheels move up and down, the
distance between the transmission and rear axle assembly
drive transfer case to the front axle, Figure 12-6.
Figure 12-1. Typical front-wheel drive axle assembly.
C-clip lock
Brake backing plate
Intermediate
Seal
shaft
Rear axle housing
Support bearing
CV
assembly CV axle assembly
Bearing
Figure 12-2. This front-wheel drive vehicle uses an retainer Axle
intermediate shaft assembly. Study the layout. shaft
Bearing Axle
Side
shaft
Bearing gear
A few high-performance or sports cars use an A retainer nut B Ring gear
independent rear axle, with exposed drive shafts
containing CV joints. The construction of these shafts is the Figure 12-3. A—A bearing retainer is used to hold this axle shaft in the axle housing. B—A C-clip lock placed in a grooved slot on
same as those used on a front-wheel drive vehicle. Some the end of this axle shaft holds the shaft in the housing. (General Motors & Dodge)
older independent rear axle shafts use U-joints instead of
Pitman arm
CV joints.
Steering stabilizer
Solid Drive Axles Flexible joint
On most rear-wheel drive cars and trucks, the drive
Steering
knuckle
Connecting rod
assembly
axles are solid steel shafts. The shafts extend from the
differential assembly gears to the wheel rims. Inside the
axle housing, external splines on the axle shafts mate with
internal splines on the differential gears. The shafts are
enclosed in the rear axle housing and are supported by
bearings. Tie rod
Solid axle shafts are held in place by one of two
methods. One design locks the shaft in place with an
external retainer behind the brakes, while the other secures
the shaft with a C-lock located inside of the differential
assembly. Each design is shown in Figure 12-3.
Seals keep lubricant from leaking from the axle
housing. Remember from Chapter 7 that the rear axle may
be called a Hotchkiss axle or a Salisbury axle, depending
on the type of rear springs used.
A few four-wheel drive vehicles have a solid front axle Tie rod jam nut
with solid shafts. To allow the vehicle to turn, the ends of
the shafts are attached to the wheel through flexible joints,
Figure 12-4. Figure 12-4. A four-wheel drive front axle assembly. (Chevrolet)
254
Flexible joint
Slip yoke
Figure 12-5. This drive shaft uses flexible joints on each end and is used on rear-wheel drive vehicles. (Mazda)
Transfer case
Front drive shaft
Front Slip yoke
differential
Retainer
Bolt
Bolt
Retainer
Axle
Figure 12-6. A front drive shaft used on a four-wheel drive
vehicle. (Chevrolet)
changes, Figure 12-8. To allow the drive shaft to
compensate for this change in length, a slip yoke is
installed somewhere on the drive shaft. The slip yoke
consists of an internally splined yoke that slides into the
external splines of a matching part, usually the output shaft
of the transmission. A typical slip yoke is shown in
Figure 12-9.
Flexible Joints
The purpose of all flexible joints is the same: to allow
the drive axle or drive shaft to rotate through an angle.
Since the transmission or transaxle is attached to the
vehicle’s body and the drive wheels move with the road
surfaces, the angle between each end of the drive axle
changes constantly. To do this, the joint must be able to
move through an angle. Several flexible joint designs are
used, including constant velocity joints and universal
joints.
Constant Velocity Joints
Constant velocity joints, or CV joints, are used on all
front-wheel drive vehicles and a few rear-wheel drive
vehicles. The advantage of a CV joint is that it can transfer
rotation through various angles with no variations in drive
shaft speed. The design of a typical CV joint allows the
center of rotation to change without any change in speed
between the two sides of the joint. See Figure 12-10. The
Auto Suspension and Steering Chapter 12 Driveline and Wheel Components 255
Hollow tube Adjusting
Flexible joint Mounting nut Dust boot
flange Intermediate shaft
Bearing
cap
Center support
bearing
Propeller shaft
CV joint can also compensate for changes in drive axle Snap ring Universal joint
length as the wheels move in relation to the transaxle. For
this reason, CV joints are sometimes called plunging joints. Dust deflector
There are two kinds of CV joints: the Rzeppa joint and
the tripod joint. Placement of the two joints varies, but as
a general rule the Rzeppa joint is the joint nearest the Mounting bolt
wheel, and the tripod joint, when used, is the joint nearest
the transaxle. Both types are discussed below.
Nut
Rzeppa Joints Adjusting washer Differential
The Rzeppa joint consists of a series of ball bearings
installed between two sets of channels, or races. A sheet
metal cage holds the balls in place. For this reason the Nut
Rzeppa joint is sometimes called a ball-and-cage joint. Transmission
Propeller shaft assembly
A typical Rzeppa joint is shown in Figure 12-11. One race
is external; the other race is internal. The internal and
external races are connected to opposite sides of the drive Bolt
axle. Power flows through one race, through the balls, and
into the other race. Figure 12-12 shows the relationship
between the internal parts and the drive axle of a typical
Rzeppa joint. The ball bearings can turn to compensate as
the angle between the inner and outer races changes. Figure 12-7. One type of two-piece drive shaft. Note the center support bearing. (Lexus)
Tripod Joints
Tripod joints are also constant velocity joints. They Centrifugal force tends to throw lubricant out of a
consist of a three-pointed assembly called a spider. CV joint. To keep grease from leaving the joint and protect
Propeller shaft Coil
Trunnions on the spider allow the spider to move along
Frame spring
the joint from dirt and water, CV boots are installed over
internal channels in a housing. A typical tripod joint is Transmission the joint.
shown in Figure 12-13. Note that the spider is splined to As the grease is thrown outward, it strikes the inner
the axle shaft. Thin roller bearings called needle bearings cover of the boot. When the vehicle stops, the grease flows
are installed between the spider points and the trunnions. back into the joint. The accordion pleats on the boot allow
Slip yoke
As the axle rotates, the spider is driven by the housing the joint to move in and out as it compensates for changes
and drives the shaft. If the angle between the two sides of
A in axle length. CV boots are held in place by boot clamps.
the joint changes, the tripod can tilt to compensate. See Propeller shaft Typical CV boots are shown in Figure 12-15.
Transmission
Figure 12-14. The spider can also move back and forth Frame
inside of the housing to compensate for changes in axle Universal Joints
length as the wheels move up and down over road The universal joint, or U-joint, is used on drive shafts.
irregularities. Sometimes U-joints are used on the transfer shaft of a front
Bump drive axle. U-joints are often called cross-and-roller joints
CV Joint Lubrication Universal joints
or Cardan joints. The basic U-joint consists of a central
Special grease is used to lubricate CV joints. This B four-pointed cross, or spider, with caps that contain needle
grease resists water and forms a film that retards corrosion bearings. The caps are attached to yokes on the drive shaft
Figure 12-8. The drive shaft (propeller shaft) must compensate
on the CV joint parts. It is supplied in plastic packets that for changes in drive shaft angle. A—Normal operating angle. and corresponding parts. As the drive shaft turns through
are packaged with replacement CV joints and boots. B—A bump forces the differential upward. The angle has an angle, the cross twists within the caps. The needle
Ordinary front-end greases should never be used to changed, and drive shaft is shorter. A slip yoke permits this bearings reduce friction and vibration. A typical U-joint is
lubricate a CV joint. change in length. shown in Figure 12-16.
256 Auto Suspension and Steering Chapter 12 Driveline and Wheel Components 257

Transmission Drive plane Driven plane Boot clamp

Boot
Boot Boot Boot clamp
clamp
Boot
Cage Outer race
clamp
Output
Inner race
shaft

Propeller Driven
Drive Drive shaft
shaft and
center bearing Differential side Wheel side
Slip yoke
Washer (2) Figure 12-15. A cutaway of a rear drive shaft showing the
Boot CV boots and clamps. (Lexus)
Bolt (2)
Propeller shaft
68 N•m
Clamp (50 ft. lbs.) Bisecting plane Bearing cap
Clamp Clamp
Slip Propeller Figure 12-12. The balls in a Rzeppa joint operate in a bisecting
Seal
yoke shaft plane between the angles of the axle shafts. As the joint
Screw and
revolves, the position of the balls will change so they remain in Needle bearing
washer assembly
this bisecting plane. The position of the balls is controlled by
elongated openings in the cage. (AC Delco) Cross

Balls
Rear propeller Needle rollers
Rear axle assembly
shaft Grooves Spider
Needle
Trunnion Seal
C-clip bearing
Figure 12-9. A two-piece drive shaft showing the slip yoke. (Chrysler)

Drive shaft
Constant velocity Balls (6) Shaft yoke
Brake rotor Strut joint Bearing cap
Inner race (axle)
Wheel Intermediate Retaining clip
Drive Cage
shaft Housing
shaft Figure 12-16. A Cardan universal joint assembly. (Dodge)
Outer race Figure 12-13. Exploded view of a tripod constant velocity joint.
(AC Delco)

Hub Damper Elongated Wheel Bearings

Boot opening
The wheel bearings form a low-friction connection
Support Spider plane
bearing between the rotating wheels and the stationary vehicle. All
Differential Figure 12-11. Exploded view of a Rzeppa (ball-type) constant Housing wheel bearings are antifriction bearings. Antifriction
Constant velocity
joint velocity joint. (AC Delco) bearings consist of three basic parts: the inner race, the
Ball joint rolling element, and the outer race. See Figure 12-18. The
Ball bearing
Due to their design, cross-and-roller U-joints do not rolling elements rotate between the two races, allowing the
Driven races to move in relation to each other with a minimum of
Figure 12-10. Cutaway of both inboard and outboard CV joints. require a surrounding boot. Seals at the ends of the bearing Drive
caps (where they enter the cross) keep lubricant in and friction. The rolling action also draws lubricant between
(Honda)
water and dirt out. Many U-joints are equipped with grease the moving parts. The rolling elements and races are made
fittings. Conventional front suspension lubricant can be Spider of heat-treated steel for maximum durability.
used to lubricate U-joints. assembly The clearances between the parts of an antifriction
bearing must be tight enough to prevent unwanted move-
In operation, the cross of the U-joint transmits power ment and vibration. However, the clearances must be loose
between the two yokes. Since the cross cannot move back enough to keep friction at a minimum, allow lubricant to
and forth, the drive angle changes as the shaft rotates Wheel Components Figure 12-14. Tripod joint operation. The tripod joint uses three
balls on needle bearings to transmit torque between the spider
enter between the moving parts, and compensate for
through an angle. This causes the speed of the driven part expansion as bearing temperature increases.
(splined to the axle shaft) and the housing. As the joint revolves,
of the drive shaft to vary. See Figure 12-17. The greater the The following sections cover the components related the three balls will change their positions to stay in the same Other parts of antifriction bearings include the
angle, the more the vibration. For this reason, U-joints are to a vehicle’s wheels. These components, which include plane as the spider. The balls can move in and out of the hous- bearing cage, which keeps the individual rolling elements
used only where the angle between the yokes is relatively the wheel hubs, bearings, rims, tires, and fasteners, are ing to allow for length changes as the suspension travels up and separated as they turn, and seals or shields, which keep
small. found on both driving and non-driving axles. down. (AC Delco) lubricant in and dirt and water out.
258 Auto Suspension and Steering Chapter 12 Driveline and Wheel Components 259

One revolution of propeller shaft Axial loads occur when the vehicle is turned. The
steering linkage turns the front wheels, but the body wants
to keep moving forward. In the rear, the tires tend to keep
moving in the same direction while the vehicle body is
30° turning. This places a sideways, or axial, load on the
1200
bearings. See Figure 12-20. Axial loads are sometimes
Speeds of called thrust loads. Axial loads are always parallel to
driven shaft 1100 the shaft.
for driving 1000
shaft speed of 900
1000 RPM 800 Wheel Bearing Types
0 Acceleration 90 Deceleration 180 Acceleration 270 Deceleration 360
All modern wheel bearings are antifriction types.
Conventional universal joint Constant velocity universal Three types of antifriction bearings are used on late-model
showing fluctuations joint, no fluctuations vehicles: ball bearings, straight roller bearings, and tapered
Figure 12-17. Speed fluctuation chart. As a universal joint turns, the angle formed by the cross changes. It never divides the angle roller bearings. The type of bearing used varies with
equally between the two shafts, (except for one brief moment as the cross angle shifts from one extreme to the other). This causes the weight placed on the bearing, whether it is used on a
Double-row
an acceleration-deceleration fluctuation that transmits torque in a jerky fashion. The dotted line illustrates the even speed that is steering or non-steering axle, and whether it is used on a assembly
achieved when a constant velocity (later) universal joint is used. The undulating (waving) line represents the speed fluctuation pres- driving or non-driving axle. ball bearing
ent when a conventional universal joint is used. (General Motors)
Ball Bearings
Inner Roller Outer race Bearing Loads Ball bearings are used on the front axles of some front-
race Cage wheel drive vehicles. Most of these applications use two Steering
Any load on the bearing tends to push the bearing
ball bearing assemblies. In some cases, two rows of knuckle Lug
Spindle parts together. The resulting pressure increases friction and bolt
Cotter bearings are contained in a single housing. A dual ball
pin Outer race heat. There are two types of loads placed on wheel
Seal bearings: radial loads and axial loads. Radial loads are bearing assembly is shown in Figure 12-21. In addition to
Axle
Hub caused by the weight of the vehicle passing through the splitting the weight, each bearing assembly can take axial
hub
Inner spindle or axle, through the bearing and hub, and to the loads in one direction. Pairing the ball bearings handles
race rim and tire. As the vehicle moves, bearing rotation causes axial loads in both directions. Note in Figure 12-22 the
centrifugal force, which tends to make the bearing rollers inner and outer races are designed to accept axial loads in
Grease
opposite directions. Modern ball bearings have the balls Axle hub nut
cap move outward. This combination of vehicle weight and
centrifugal force produces a radial load. Radial loading and races in a single sealed unit. Preload is factory set and
Speed sensor rotor
occurs at a right angle to the bearing and shaft. This is cannot be adjusted.
Nut lock
shown in Figure 12-19. Disc
Straight Roller Bearings
Straight roller bearings, Figure 12-23, are used on the
rear axles of many rear-wheel drive vehicles. Flat roller
Grease Hub
cavity bearings can absorb radial loads, but they cannot handle
G Ball bearing
F H
Figure 12-18. Cutaway of a roller bearing and front hub used on
Figure 12-21. A dual ball bearing assembly used on the front
a two-wheel drive truck. (Dodge) Housing axle hub. Note the speed sensor rotor, which is used by the
I
E Shaft anti-lock brake system. Do not damage rotors when working
Wheel Bearing Design with bearings, hubs, etc. (Lexus)
Wheel bearings must be carefully selected to deal
with types of loads, maximum bearing speed, where the D LOAD J
bearing will be used on the vehicle, and what the vehicle
is used for. Overall bearing size, as well as the size of the Thrust load axial loads. Straight roller bearing assemblies are
rolling elements, must be determined to give the longest K (axial) self-contained units, and preload is not adjustable.
C On a few older cars, the axle shaft serves as the inner race.
service without unnecessary weight and size.
Another factor that must be calculated carefully is Thrust
bearing preload. Preload is the amount of pressure placed B L load Tapered Roller Bearings
A
on the bearing before it is put into service. In other words, Tapered roller bearings are used in both front and rear
preload is how tightly the rolling elements and races fit axles. They can be found on driving and non-driving
together before other loads are placed on the bearing. Too axles. Their tapered design allows them to handle any
little preload will cause the rolling elements to rock and Outer ring Inner ring combination of axial and radial loads. As with ball
Shaft
vibrate, damaging the bearing. Insufficient preload also retained retained bearings, tapered roller bearings are installed in pairs to
intensifies the effect of shock loads. Too much preload will Figure 12-19. A radial-loaded ball bearing. Ball “A” is carrying Figure 12-20. Two roller bearing applications illustrating axial absorb sideways loads. See Figure 12-24. On most tapered
press the rolling elements too tightly against the races, cre- the greatest load, while balls E, F, G, H, and I are carrying the (thrust) loading. Note that the thrust load is parallel to the shaft roller bearing designs, the inner race, rollers, and cage are
ating unnecessary friction and heat. smallest load. (Federal-Mogul) or housing. (Federal-Mogul) a single unit. The outer race is pressed into the hub.
262 Auto Suspension and Steering Chapter 12 Driveline and Wheel Components 263

Width Axle housing

Axle housing
Outside Snap ring
Inside face face
Straight Bearing retainer
roller
bearing
Leaf spring O-ring Rear axle shaft
Brake drum
Axial Oil
clearance seal

Outside face I.D.

Drum
Rear brake retaining
assembly screw
Axle flange
Inside face I.D.

Free I.D.

Bore dia.

Figure 12-31. The brake drum mounts to the solid axle flange, which is forged as an integral part of the axle. (Toyota)
Shaft dia.

Mounting holes Stamped bracket

Seal lip Lug nut
Wheel
Seal O.D.

cover
Axle shaft

Lock
Brake bolt
backing plate

Brake drum Figure 12-33. Cross-sectional view of a wheel and tire. When
Tension spring the tire is inflated, the flanges hold the tire to the wheel. The
Spider
safety ridges help hold the tire on the wheel if the tire goes flat
(center section) Rim
Figure 12-28. A cross-sectional view of one type of oil seal. Figure 12-29. An oil seal pressed into the axle housing bore. while the vehicle is moving. (Chrysler)
(General Motors) Drop center section
Note that this axle uses straight roller bearings.
(General Motors)
Tire
stationary vehicle. On most vehicles, the hub is also the bead
mounting surface for the brake drum or rotor. On non- area
Tapered roller Hub
driving axles, the hub often contains the bearing races.
bearing Tapered roller
Note the relationship between the hub, the tapered roller bearing Figure 12-32. A steel drop-center wheel. The center section
bearings and the spindle in Figure 12-30. This design is may be welded or riveted to the rim. This particular wheel is
often used on front or rear non-driving wheels. welded together. (Chrysler)
The front hubs used on many front-wheel drive
vehicles are pressed onto the axle. Splines on the hub and the wheel mounting holes. On some wheels, an extra
the axle allow the axle to drive the hub. The hub may be stamping is used to attach the wheel cover, Figure 12-33.
pressed into the bearings. The flange holds the tire in place once it is installed and
When solid axles are used, such as on the rear of rear- inflated.
Spindle
wheel drive vehicles, the axle and drum are connected Steel rims are relatively light and reduce the amount
Seal
through the use of an axle flange, Figure 12-31. The axle of unsprung weight. They are also durable and cheap to
flange is forged as part of the axle, or it is welded on later. manufacture. Some steel rims are chrome plated for
The flange forms a mounting surface for the wheel Figure 12-30. This cross section shows the relationship appearance, while others are painted and used with wheel
assembly. between the hub, the tapered roller bearings, and the spindle.
covers.
(Hyundai)
Modern vehicles are increasingly using rims made of
materials other than steel. These rims are usually called Figure 12-34. This custom wheel is made of aluminum. (Nissan)
Wheel Rims Rim Construction custom rims. Common materials for custom rims are
Wheel rims are the connection between the hub and In many cases, rims are made of stamped steel, aluminum, aluminum-magnesium alloys, and composites
the tire. The tire is installed on the rim, and the Figure 12-32. Parts of the rim are stamped into shape and of graphite and plastic. Figure 12-34 shows a typical
rim is bolted to the hub. then welded into a final form. The center section contains custom wheel.
264 Auto Suspension and Steering Chapter 12 Driveline and Wheel Components 265

The rim design used today is called the drop-center Tires P 205 / 70 R 15 95S
wheel. The center section of the rim is lowered (or
dropped), which allows the tire to be pulled to one side for Tires perform two jobs: they cushion shocks and
easier removal. Most rims have a small ridge behind the provide traction. In their role as cushioning devices, they Load index
Tire type
tire bead to hold the tire in place if a blowout occurs. can be considered part of the suspension system. As P–Passenger
These are called safety rims. See Figure 12-35. traction devices, they transmit engine power, as well as T–Temporary Speed symbol
braking and turning efforts, to the road. LT–Light truck

Rim Sizes
There are three measurements of rim sizes. The rim Tire Construction
diameter is most commonly used to describe rim size. Rim The external parts of the tire are the tread and the
width is the size of the rim between the flanges. The flange sidewalls. Tread designs vary depending on the tire’s
height is how far the flange extends above the bead seat. application. The sidewalls form the support for the treads.
Figure 12-36 illustrates the three measurements of a rim. The tread and sidewalls are a blend of natural rubber and
These measurements apply to both steel and custom a synthetic rubber called neoprene.
wheels. The internal parts of the tires are composed of plies
and belts. The plies are layers of tire cord that form the
general shape of the tire. Tire cords can be made of various
fabric materials, including nylon, rayon, polyester, aramid,
Kevlar, or fiberglass. The belts are installed directly under
the tread and can be made of the same materials as the
plies. Some belts are made of steel.
All modern tires are radial tires. In a radial tire, the
Safety ridges
Tire cords in the plies cross the centerline of the tire at a right
angle to the tread. Older tires were called bias tires. In a
bias tire, the cords cross the centerline on a bias, or a slant.
Drop center
Almost all radial tires have one or two belts, which reduce
Flange
Wheel tread squirming, Figure 12-37.
Figure 12-35. A safety rim holds the tire in place in the event of
a blowout. (Chrysler)
Center section
Flange height
Lug bolt
hole
Diameter
Section
width Rim
Stabilizer (millimeters) diameter
belts 205 (inches)
215 14
Radial cord Etc. 15
body plies 16
Figure 12-37. Typical construction of a radial tire. Sidewall plies Aspect
ratio Construction type
are parallel with each other and at right angles to tread center-
(Section height) R–Radial
line. Belts are under tread area. (Firestone)
(Section width) B–Bias–Belted
60 D–Diagonal (bias)
70
Tire Ratings
Modern tire ratings are designated by a system that
uses a series of numbers and letters. The ratings are
stamped into or molded into the tire’s sidewall. An
Section
example of the rating that would be found on the sidewall
width Section height
of a typical tire is given in Figure 12-38.
The letter P designates the tire as a passenger car tire,
Figure 12-39. Other letters used in this position are LT for
light truck, T for temporary (such as a space saver spare), Figure 12-39. Tire sidewall markings and their meanings.
and C for commercial (large trucks and construction vehi- (Buick)
cles). On tires that are suitable for both cars and trucks, this
letter is not used. The letter R indicates a radial tire. Other letters that
The number 205 is the section width, which is could appear here are B and D for bias and belted tires.
measured at the tire’s widest point. The section width is a The number 15 is the rim size in inches. The most
good indication of tread width, and is generally considered
common rim sizes are 13, 14, and 15. A few vehicles have
to be the tire size. The section width ranges from about 175 12-, 16-, or 17-inch rims, but these are uncommon.
on small tires to about 235 on large tires. The number 95 is the load index. The load index is an
The number 70 is the aspect ratio, or the relationship assigned number that corresponds to the amount of axle
of the tire section width to its height, Figure 12-39. Low weight the tire can carry. In this case, a 95 load index indi-
numbers indicate a wide, low tire. The larger the number, cates the tire can support 1521 lb. (690 kg). Load indexes
the taller the tire. usually range from 75–110.
The letter S is the speed rating. The speed rating
indicates the maximum speed at which the tire should be
operated. Speed rating letters range from B, with a maxi-
mum speed of 31 mph (50 km/h), to Z, with a maximum
speed of 149 mph (240 km/h). This number is also
eliminated on some tires.

Bolt circle Tire

Tire Quality Ratings
sidewall As standardized by the United States Department of
Transportation (DOT), tires are graded according to the
Rim uniform tire quality grading system. The tire grades are
Valve stem hole stamped on the sidewall of the tire. This grading system
establishes several quality grades, including the tempera-
Rim ture resistance rating, the traction rating, and the tread
width wear rating.
Figure 12-38. Tire ratings are molded or stamped on the tire’s
Figure 12-36. The three most common rim measurements are diameter, rim width, and flange height. Another common sidewall. All-season tires are generally marked with “M+S,” The temperature resistance rating rates the tire’s
measurement is wheel offset. Wheel offset is measured from the flange edge to the back of the center (spider) section. (Isuzu) which means they are mud and snow rated. (Buick) resistance to heat generation. Note that this grade is the
resistance to generating heat, not its resistance to the heat
266 Auto Suspension and Steering Chapter 12 Driveline and Wheel Components 267

itself. The three grades are A, B, and C. A provides the
greatest resistance to heat; C provides the least.
The traction rating is also designated by the letters A,
B, and C. A tire with an A rating has the best traction on
wet surfaces, while a tire with a C rating has the least.
The tread wear rating is designated by a set of
numbers. These numbers range from 100 to 500. A tire
with a rating of 200 should last about twice as long as a tire
rated at 100.
Wheel Fasteners
An important factor in wheel and tire design is the
way the rim is mounted to the hub or axle flange. On
almost all cars and trucks, the hub or axle flange contains
the wheel studs, Figure 12-40. Most wheel studs are
threaded bolts or studs pressed into the hub or flange. A
knurled area on the rear section of the stud cuts into the
hub or axle metal to keep the stud from loosening. The
head of the stud resembles a bolt head and is wider than
the hole in the hub or flange. The head keeps the stud from
coming completely through the hole. To precisely center
the wheel, a central part of the hub or flange is slightly
raised and holds the center of the rim in position.
To install the wheel, the holes in the center section of
the rim are placed over the studs and lug nuts are threaded
Wheel studs
onto the studs. The lug nuts can then be tightened in a
cross or star pattern. The tapered end of each lug nut
matches a tapered area in the wheel mounting hole. The
matching tapers help center the wheel. On most steel
wheels, the lug nuts can be tightened by hand or with an
impact wrench. Custom wheels have different metal
expansion rates than the steel and iron hubs, and the lug
nuts must be tightened to a specific torque.
A few imported vehicles use a somewhat different
design. Instead of studs, the hub or flange has threaded
holes. Tapered lug bolts, Figure 12-41, are installed
through the wheel and threaded into the holes. As with lug
nuts, tightening is very important.
Tire Pressure Monitoring
Every set of tires has an ideal pressure for best han-
dling, braking and tire life. Even new tires lose some air
over time. For this reason, tire air pressure must be moni-
tored and air added when necessary. The simplest way to
check tire pressure is with a mechanical pressure gauge.
Most drivers, however, rarely remember to check tire pres-
sure. For this reason, many modern vehicles are equipped
with a tire pressure monitoring system. The tire pressure
monitoring system routinely checks pressure in each vehi-
cle tire. If low pressure is detected, an instrument panel
Tapered head Indirect pressure monitoring systems do not have sen-
Tire sors at each tire. Instead, they use the vehicle’s anti-lock
lug bolt
brake system, or ABS, to monitor tire pressure. Modern
Valve Locking lug anti-lock brake systems have wheel speed sensors on each
stem bolt wheel. The ABS control module compares relative wheel
Locking lug speeds of all tires. When a tire loses air, the distance
bolt key between the tire tread and the center of the wheel
decreases. This smaller diameter causes a tire’s speed to
Cap increase. The control module reads the higher speed and
compares it with the speed of the other tires. If tire speed
passes a set threshold, the module turns on an instrument
panel warning light.
Both systems have advantages and disadvantages. The
Balance Hub cap
direct system is more accurate, but requires wheel sensors,
weight which must be handled carefully when the tire is removed
clip Balance from the rim. A recalibration procedure must be performed
weight Steel wheel
whenever tires are rotated. The indirect system does not
require any wheel hardware, and recalibration is usually
Figure 12-41. This wheel is secured to the hub or flange (not
shown) with tapered lug bolts. (Audi) simpler. However it is less accurate and cannot detect
some common tire pressure problems, such as all four tires
gradually losing air.
warning light illuminates, informing the driver that one or
more tires are underinflated. The driver can then add air or
have the tire(s) serviced as necessary.
Pressure monitoring systems are either direct or indi-
rect systems. The direct pressure monitoring system con-
Summary
sists of a central control module and wireless pressure
Common driveline components are the drive axles
transmitters at each wheel. The transmitters send a signal to
and shafts, flexible joints, and related parts. Generally,
the module. If any transmitter signals low pressure, the
solid axles are used on rear-wheel drive vehicles and
module illuminates an instrument panel warning light,
independent axles are used on front-wheel drive vehicles.
Figure 12-42.

Dash Pressure
display sensors

Rear
hub

Brake disc
Lug nut
Flat screw

Center
cap

Warning Pressure Warning Sensor Receiver Pressure

light sensor chime signal sensor
Aluminum wheel

Figure 12-40. This aluminum wheel is fastened to the rear hub with wheel studs and lug nuts. (Honda) Figure 12-42. If a pressure sensor detects low tire pressure, it sends a radio signal to a receiver in the passenger compartment. This
signal triggers a warning light on the dash. (Toyota)
268
Independent drive axles are usually called CV axles.
CV axles are solid steel shafts or hollow tubes that connect
the transaxle output shafts to the wheels. There are always
two CV axles on a front-wheel drive vehicle. Some front-
wheel drive vehicles have a transfer shaft on one side. A
few high-performance or sports cars use an independent
rear axle with CV joints. Some older independent rear
axles have U-joints.
On most cars and trucks with rear-wheel drive, the
drive axles are solid steel shafts that extend from the
differential assembly to the wheel hubs. Some four-wheel
drive vehicles have a solid front axle. All front-engine, rear-
wheel drive vehicles use a drive shaft between the
transmission and rear axle. Some drive shafts are two piece
types. Four-wheel drive vehicles also have a front
drive shaft.
Several types of flexible joints are used on modern
vehicles. The type of flexible joint used depends on the
type of axle being used. CV joints are used on all
front-wheel drive vehicles and a few rear-wheel drives.
They are able to transmit power through an angle without
causing variations in shaft speed. There are two kinds of
CV joints, the Rzeppa joint and the tripod joint.
The Rzeppa joint consists of a set of ball bearings
inside of two sets of races. The ball bearings can move
between the channels to compensate for changes in angle.
Tripod joints consist of a three point spider and trunnions
that rotate on roller bearings. The spider and trunnions are
placed in a housing. As the axle rotates, the trunnions and
spider are driven by the housing and tilt to compensate for
angle changes. CV joint boots keep lubricant in and dirt
and water out.
The U-joint, or Cardan joint, is used with drive shafts.
U-joints consist of a four-point cross and caps that turn on
needle bearings. The cross can twist as it rotates to
compensate for shaft angle changes. U-joints are used
when the angle change between rotating parts is
not too great.
Wheel bearings form a low-friction connection
between the wheels and the vehicle. All wheel bearings
are antifriction bearings consisting of three basic parts: the
inner race, the rolling element, and the outer race. There
are two kinds of bearing loads. Radial loads are caused by
the weight of the vehicle and by centrifugal force. Axial
loads are sideways loads that occur when the vehicle
is turned.
The three types of antifriction wheel bearings are the
ball bearing, the flat roller bearing, and the tapered roller
bearing. Ball bearings are found on the front axles of many
front-wheel drive vehicles. The balls and races are in a
single sealed unit. Straight roller bearings are often used on
the rear axles of rear-wheel drive vehicles. Tapered roller
bearings are used in front and rear axles and are always
installed in pairs to absorb sideways loads. Tapered roller
bearing preload is adjustable.
Most tapered wheel bearings are packed with wheel
bearing grease, which must be periodically renewed. Some
ball bearings and straight roller wheel bearings are greased
Auto Suspension and Steering Chapter 12 Driveline and Wheel Components 269
for life. Oil splash from the rotating gears is often used as a 13. All wheel bearings have a series of _____ elements (B) too little preload will damage the bearing
lubrication method on solid rear axles. between inner and outer _____. because of vibration.
The two main classes of wheel bearing lubricants are 14. A tapered roller bearing always has a threaded nut, (C) too little preload intensifies the effect of shock
wheel bearing greases and gear oils. Most wheel bearings which is used to adjust _____. loads.
are lubricated by grease. Some solid rear axle wheel (D) too much preload will create unnecessary fric-
15. What lubricates the wheel bearings on a solid rear
bearings are lubricated with gear oil. The wheel bearings tion and heat.
axle?
on most modern vehicles call for EP lithium grease. Wheel
16. Tires perform two jobs. What are they? 6. EP lubricant is a type of _____.
bearings used in solid rear axles are sometimes lubricated
with the gear oil used to lubricate other rear axle parts. 17. Nylon, rayon, polyester, and fiberglass are used to (A) hypoid oil
Bearing seals keep the oil or grease in, and water out. make tire _____. (B) gear oil
The wheel hubs and axle flanges are the mounting 18. The letters LT at the front of a tire rating indicate that (C) lithium grease
surface for the wheel rims and tires. The hub may contain the tire is intended for use on a(n) _____ _____. (D) long fiber grease
the bearing races. Front hubs used on front-wheel drive 19. The number 14 at the end of a tire rating indicates 7. Technician A says that the purpose of the garter
vehicles are often pressed onto the axle. the _____ size. spring is to hold the lip of a seal to the shaft.
Wheel rims are the connection between the hub and
20. Wheel studs are usually _____ into the hub or axle Technician B says that the purpose of the garter
the tire. The rim design used today is called the drop-
flange. spring is to create an oil film between the shaft and
center wheel. Rims are made of stamped steel or various
lip. Who is right?
alloys. Rim size determines what type of tire will be used,
(A) A only.
and is composed of diameter, width and flange height.
Tires have the job of cushioning road shocks and pro- ASE-Type Questions—Chapter 12 (B) B only.
viding traction. External parts of the tire are the tread and (C) Both A and B.
the sidewalls. Internal parts are the plies and belts. Modern (D) Neither A nor B.
1. Technician A says that front-wheel drive vehicles
tires are radial tires. Older tires were called bias tires. Tire 8. All of the following statements about tire construc-
always have four CV joints on the front axles.
ratings and quality grades are stamped on or molded into tion are true except:
Technician B says that front-wheel drive vehicles
the side of the tire.
always have transfer shafts. Who is right? (A) the cords in radial tire plies cross the centerline
The wheel rim is mounted to the hub or axle flange
(A) A only. of the tire at a right angle to the tread.
through wheel studs and lug nuts. A few vehicles use
tapered bolts instead of lug nuts and studs. (B) B only. (B) belts are installed directly under the tire tread.
(C) Both A and B. (C) tire cords are made of a combination of natural
(D) Neither A nor B. rubber and neoprene.
(D) some belts are made of steel.
Review Questions—Chapter 12 2. Why are some CV joints called plunging joints?
(A) They allow the axle shaft to move parallel to the 9. Which of the following is NOT a common rim size?
vehicles centerline. (A) 12 inches.
1. Why are front-wheel drive independent axles called
CV axles? (B) They allow the axle shaft to change length. (B) 13 Inches.
(C) They prevent grease loss. (C) 14 inches.
2. While most CV axles are _____ steel shafts, a few are
_____ to reduce weight. (D) There is no reason. (D) 15 inches.
10. The tapered areas of the lug nut and wheel mounting
3. A four-wheel drive vehicle has two _____. 3. Technician A says that CV boots keep CV joint
holes help to _____ the wheel rim and tire.
4. What is the purpose of a drive shaft slip yoke? grease from flying out of the joint as it turns.
Technician B says that CV joints can be lubricated (A) balance
with any kind of quality EP grease. Who is right? (B) center
Matching (A) A only. (C) cool
Match the drive axle with the type of flexible joint. (B) B only. (D) seal
(C) Both A and B.
5. Independent front axle. a. CV joint.
(D) Neither A nor B.
6. Independent rear axle. b. U-joint.
4. Which of the following flexible joints is the most
7. Solid rear axle. c. No flexible joint.
likely to be equipped with grease fittings?
8. Rear-wheel drive shaft. (A) Tripod CV joint.
9. Front-wheel drive shaft, four-wheel drive.
(B) Rzeppa CV joint.
10. A Rzeppa joint uses _____ between the races to (C) Plunging CV joint.
allow angle changes. (D) Cross-and-roller U-joint.
11. A tripod CV joint uses three _____, which are sepa-
5. All of the following statements about bearing preload
rated from the spider by needle bearings.
are true except:
12. All wheel bearings are known as what kind of (A) preload is how tightly the rolling elements and
bearings? races fit together after all vehicle weight is placed
on the bearing.