Food Manufacture - Term 1

Production and processing of food:

- Quality and quantity control in the selection of raw materials for food processing
- Role of food additives in the manufacturing process
- Characteristics of equipment used in different types of production and the factors influencing
their selection
- Production systems used in the manufacture of food, e.g. small scale, large scale, manual,
automated, computerised.
- Machinery differs between small and large scale production
- The amount of automated machines being used is dependent on production size
- The design of equipment needs to be:
- Stronger - to work continuously with large quantities
- Durable - reliability is very important so production is not held up by breakages
- Hygienic - easily cleaned, non-reactive, scratch resistant surfaces
- Efficient - many industrial machines are automated with conveyors transporting
the product from one set of processing equipment to the next. As industrial
equipment may operate 24 hours a day, it also needs to be energy efficient. Gas
is primarily used as a heating source as it is both efficient and cost effective.
- Quality management considerations in industrial practices to achieve safe foods for public
consumption, e.g. hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP); occupational health, safety
and hygiene

Food Manufacture
Raw materials
- A raw material can be defined as any product that is used in the manufacture of another
processed good.
- Raw materials used in food processing are:
- product ingredients such as fruits and vegetables
- processing materials such as steam and water

Quality Control of raw materials

- The raw materials supplied must:
- Be free of contaminants
- Meet the criteria for the specific characteristics required by the manufacturer such as
size, colour, level of moisture, presence of a specific nutritional factor. These
requirements are called the ‘raw materials specifications’
- No raw material is accepted onto a production site unless it has been tested and confirmed as
having met the company’s specifications discussed below.
- These tests are referred to as quality control and are carried out by specialised quality
control technicians
 - All raw materials must meet strict guidelines, because just one delivery of
contaminated material can mean the spoilage and rejection of a complete production
run.
- A production run is the process of taking raw materials and making them into a
finished product within a certain time period.

Setting up raw material specifications:

- Quality control laboratories follow certain criteria when setting up a raw material specification
The following information is prepared for each material:
- A description of the raw material - all tolerances and standards need to be specified:
standards for physical characteristics (size, shape etc.)
- A sampling method for the material - this method should specify the exact number of
samples to e treated to give the required assurance of quality.
- A test for each specified characteristic - there is no value in specifying a characteristic
unless it can be tested
- Action to be taken when the tests have produced a result - the manufacturer can do
one of the three things with the results obtained from the testing procedures
- a) Accept the material if it is within the set standards
- b) Reject the material if it doesn’t not comply with company standards
- c) Start methods of controlling the problem if the material is not outside
the set standards, but looks as if it may be deteriorating to that level

Food additives
- Food additives are substances added to food that are not normally consumed by themselves.
- Food additives are necessary to provide the consumer with wholesome, safe, convenient, and
nutritious foods.
- Without these additives, the modern practices of food preparation and distribution
would be impossible.

Additives and consumer safety

Food Standards Australia New Zealand controls the use of additives in manufactured products sold in
Australia and New Zealand
- Food additives are given numbers to represent their long names as their original names would
take up to much space on packaging and is easier to understand and identify quickly (such as for
people with allergies)

Uses of food additives

There are a wide variety of uses for food additives, They can be used to:
- Improve the stability or the keeping quality of a food
- Restore or improve taste or appearance of processed food
- Provide foods for special dietary needs
- Extend the shelf-life of the product
 ADDITIVE EXAMPLE TYPICAL PRODUCTS

Preservatives Sulfur Dioxide (220) Tomato products

Sorbic acid (200) Brewed soft drinks
Nisin (234) Pickles

Mineral salts Sodium carbonate (500) Low sodium salt

(texture modifiers) Magnesium Carbonate (504) Soda water
Potassium chloride (508) Mayonnaise
Processed meats

Colouring Agents Tartrazine (102) Ice confectionary

Amaranth (123) Soups
Food Green S (142) Biscuits
Caramel (150)

Flavour Enhancers Glutamic acid (620) Soup

(taste modifiers) Maltol (636) Snack foods
Monosodium glutamate (621) Flavoured noodles

Anti-caking agents Silicon dioxide (551) Salt

(texture modifiers) Talc (553b) Polished rice
Calcium carbonate (170) Beverage whitener
Levels of Production:

Processing equipment
- Machinery differs between small and large scale production
- The amount of automated machines being used is dependent on production size
- The design of equipment needs to be:
- Stronger - to work continuously with large quantities
- Durable - reliability is very important so production is not held up by breakages
- Hygienic - easily cleaned, non-reactive, scratch resistant surfaces
- Efficient - many industrial machines are automated with conveyors transporting
the product from one set of processing equipment to the next. As industrial
equipment may operate 24 hours a day, it also needs to be energy efficient. Gas
is primarily used as a heating source as it is both efficient and cost effective.

Separation Process
1. Physical Separation - (separation of the components of food) e.g taking the skin off an orange,
sifting flour, spinning orange juice in a bowl so the pulp sticks to the sides (centrifuge)
2. Chemical Separation - (separation of components in food) e.g the process of making yogurt,
separating the curds and whey

Size reduction:
- The basic purpose of chopping, grinding or milling any raw material is to reduce its size
- A reduction in size is necessary for:
- To make the raw material easier to handle
- To decrease the size of the raw material to make it more suitable for the final product
- To make a completely new product

Mixing:
- A process that ensures all the ingredients are evenly distributed throughout a batch of product
- Mixers vary from highly computerised systems in places such as bakeries to manually operated
mixers in the food laboratory
- The type of mixer depends on the size of the dough

Heating processes:
- Heat can be transferred to food in 3 different ways
- Conduction - food is heated or cooled by direct contact with a hot or cold surface
- Convection - food is heated or cooled by the movement of liquids, or gases, around the
food
- Radiation - a heat source directly above the food heats the without touching it
- Heating of food products using steam is probably the most frequently occurring process in the
food production plant
 - Canning, Baking, Evaporation, HTST style processes (page 192)

Dehydration
- Cabinet drying, tunnel drying, spray dryer (e.g milk powder)
- Freeze drying - expensive: freeze, heat it up, low pressure chamber → sublimation (from solid to
gas, missed the liquid phase

Cooling processes:
- Chilling
- Cooling is the reduction of temperature of a product
- It is used to slow down or stop the activity of microorganisms and enzymes, and
therefore the storage of food
- Freezing
- The rate of freezing determines the size of ice crystals that are formed: the slower the
freezing, the larger the ice crystals
- For this reason, the most rapid rate of freezing is desirable, so that product quality is not
sacrificed
- In general, there are four categories of freezing equipment for food products
- Air blast freezers
- Plate freezers
- Tunnel freezers
- Immersion freezers

Flow process chart:

- It is closely linked to the quality assurance plan.
- Is a diagrammatic representation of production processes involved in the manufacture of a
specific product.
- It provides an index of the entire process in such a way that:
- Each step of a process can be analysed to determine how effective each step is and how
it contributes to product standards, quality, yields and costs
- New staff can quickly become familiar with each step of the process and assess the
importance of that step to the overall production line
- Critical control points can be identified. Critical control points are those points that
could result in a risk to public health or significant financial loss
- A flow process chart is constructed with the use of 5 basic symbols.
 Step Symbol Description

Operation Indicates a change in the

physical or chemical
characteristics of the material
for example mixing.

Inspection Indicates examination of the

quality or quantity of the
material, for example the
measuring of the protein
content of wheat for pasta

Transportation Transportation occurs when

labour or equipment are used to
move a material from one place
to another without changing the
nature of the material.

D
Delay Indicates temporary storage of
material, for example chilling of
cooked meat for a frozen meal

Storage Indicates controlled or

permanent storage of material,
for example frozen beans.

Preservation:
- Preservation delays or prevents deterioration and spoilage, allowing food to be stored with
minimum loss of nutrition or sensory qualities and with no threat to food safety.
- Preservation may be for a short term or long term, depending on the purpose and the type of
food product.
- Setting up a quality management system
- Quality assurance is the co-operation of an organisation to achieve quality control of
products.
- A final specification statement of the level of quality to be attained
- Methods for assessing and measuring the quality of the final product
- Clear specifications for all production areas, such as all processing areas to be free of
contaminants.
 - Sampling and testing of the completed product
- Steps of the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point system (HACCP):
- Assessment of hazards
- Identification of critical control points
- Setting standards for each critical control point
- Monitoring of Critical Control Points
- Description of clear procedures for prompt action if standards not met
- Keeping accurate records to identify variations from the standard
- Assessment of the system
Quality management techniques include HACCP and the Work Health and safety (2012)
- Work health and safety:
- The number of accidents and the seriousness of the accidents is quite high compares
with other workplaces, the following examples could easily happen:
- A food worker accidentally drops a knife and reaches to catch it
- A worker drops wet food into a deep fryer and is scalded when the hot fat spits
- An untrained worker operates a mincing machine and uses their hand to push
the meat into the mincer
- The employer in the food industry must, by law, provide basic working conditions. These
include:
- Instruction or training about safety issues
- Equipment that operates correctly when used in the right way
- A safe environment according to the Occupational Health and Safety Act (2012).
- Examples of a safe working environment:
- Clean air, adequate ventilation, appropriate lighting, correct storage of
dangerous chemicals and training in how to use them, adequate toilet facilities.
- An work health and safety committee must be established if there are 20 or more
employees in an organisation.
- Employees are to;
- Take reasonable care for the health and safety of others in the workplace
- Use equipment as instructed and in a safe manner
- Notify the employer in writing of accidents that occur
- Wear necessary protective clothing and use safety equipment provided.
- Critical control points are determined by whether:
- It is a risk to public health
- Or can result in financial loss
- Important to train staff and operate procedures properly
- All manufacturing companies have to follow a quality management procedure/HACCP (e.g
woolworths)
- Reasons for food preservation:
- e.g. safety, acceptability, nutritive value, availability and economic viability
- Most plant foods which are harvested at peak quality start to deteriorate immediately
due to enzymic and environmental factors, resulting in loss of flavour, colour, texture,
and some nutritive value.
- They are prone to over ripening, as well as physical damage from handling,
infestation from insects and rodents, and loss of moisture to the atmosphere.
- The most common microbial spoilage of plant foods is the growth of molds or yeasts
- Short term preservation techniques include processes such as:
- Waxing
- Chilled storage
- Controlled atmosphere
- Modified atmosphere storage (MAP)
1. These techniques may be applied during transport and storage of fresh
foods to delay or prevent deterioration and spoilage, to avoid waste,
ensure safety, retain desirable qualities and acceptability, and extend
the availability of fresh, good quality plant foods throughout the year.
- Long term preservation techniques change the nature of fresh foods to extend shelf life
and provide choices to the producer and consumer.
- Canned, pulped, frozen, juiced, cooked, or dried fruits and vegetables add variety and
convenience to your food supply, and help to give economic viability to food producers
by extending their markets
- Foods from animal sources are most susceptible to bacterial growth, which can result in
spoilage, food poisoning or putrefaction.
- short - term preservation of animal foods is designed to maintain quality and prevent
spoilage for fresh products on their way from the farm to the consumer.
- Longer - term preservation takes place for the same reasons as for plant foods. In many
preservation processes, foods from plants and animals are combined
- For example; in frozen meals, canned soups, or chilled pasta dishes
- Reasons for preserving foods may be summarised as:
- Ensuring food safety
- Retaining or improving food acceptability
- Retaining nutritive value
- Extending food availability and variety
- Preventing food waste
- Maintaining constant food supplies to overcome seasonal and climatic
fluctuations
- Increasing economic viability in food production
 - Food preservation has allowed comparatively small rural populations of food producers
to supply city populations of millions with safe, quality food supplies of enormous
variety. Food preservation is a vital factor in the economy of all countries.

Principles of food preservation:

Basic hygiene procedures

- Washing hands, ingredients,
- Removal of microorganisms by washing or trimming

Principles of preservation
- Exclusion of air (vacuuming)
- Removal of moisture - high sugar content (biscuits)
- Controlling PH - e.g pickling
- Controlling of temperature - refrigeration or heating

- Causes of food deterioration and spoilage:

- Environmental factors (infestation, oxygen, light and water)
- Food quality can deteriorate as a result of several environmental factors, which
can also affect the rate of food deterioration and spoilage, and the type of
spoilage which occurs
- Growth rates of micro-organisms are affected by conditions of:
1. Moisture
2. Oxygen
3. Light
4. Temperature
- The type of spoilage agent which will affect the food is influenced by
contaminants from the environment.
- Physical damage to foods or to food packaging can provide entry for spoilage
agents.
1. Moisture:
- Foods can either absorb or lose moisture which causes their
textural quality to change and reduces acceptability.
- Example; over time biscuits and breakfast cereals may
absorb moisture and develop a soft texture, while
vegetables, which rely on their water content for
crispness, dry out and wilt.
- Water absorbed from a humid atmosphere may also allow more
rapid growth of micro-organisms in low aw foods.
2. Oxygen:
 - Exposure to oxygen can cause a number of undesirable changes
in food colour, flavour and nutritive value.
- Example; meat develops a grey tinge in the presence of
oxygen, oxidative browning occurs when plant cells are
ruptured, and plant over-ripening occurs more rapidly
when oxygen is present for respiration.
- Oxygen causes rancidity in lipids and destroys vitamin E in plant
oils.
- Oxygen availability is necessary for the growth of most micro-
organisms.
3. Light:
- Exposure to light can affect the colour, flavour and nutritive
value of food.
- Example; sunlight can destroy the riboflavin content
and cause flavour changes in milk.
4. Temperature:
- Temperature changes can alter the physical state of foods and
accelerate deterioration.
- Example; heat softens fats and accelerates rancidity,
causing the development of an unpleasant odour and
flavour
- Frozen foods deteriorate if storage temperatures fluctuate to
cause partial thawing and refreezing.
- Example; ice-cream becomes less smooth with large ice-
crystals, frozen peas lose moisture which refreezes the
peas into a solid mass, and frozen meat loses its juices,
resulting in a drier texture.
- Storage temperatures affect the rate of enzymatic action and
microbial growth.
5. Physical damage:
- Physical damage can cause deterioration by bruising of plant
foods, or crushing and breaking of foods such as biscuits, bread
or eggs.
- Physical damage spoils the quality, appearance and appeal of
fresh foods, and allows entry of contaminants
- Damage which results in broken packages or punctured cans of
manufactured foods will allow entry of spoilage events.
6. Contamination and infestation:
- Contamination by micro-organisms can be introduced from the
environment as spores or as active organisms.
- This can occur from:
- Exposure to the atmosphere
 - Poor hygiene in food handling, preparation or storage
- Infestations
- Infestation refers to insects, such as weevils, cockroaches,
moths or their grubs, or rodents.
- Example; mice and rats can introduce micro-organisms
to a food.
- Infestations are most common in products such as rice,
flour, bread, but can occur in many other foods.

- Enzymatic activity
- Enzymes are proteins present in all living cells.
- They are responsible for catalysing the chemical reactions that occur during the
life of the cell, and for the chemical changes which take place after the death of
the organism.
- Chemical reactions are accelerated in warm conditions, and generally require
moisture, which is present in most foods.
- Enzymes in animal cells are responsible for texture changes during the staling of
eggs and the tenderising of meat during storage.
- The cells of plant foods continue to live and respire after harvesting, and their
enzymes catalyse ripening processes leading to changes in flavour, colour,
texture, and developments such as sprouting in onions and potatoes.
- When plant cells are ruptured by bruising or cutting, they release enzymes
which react with oxygen.
- This reaction produces a discolouration known as oxidative browning, which
spoils the appearance of the food.
- You can see this effect on cut surfaces exposed to air
1. Example; in sliced apples, pears, or peaches, or in broken lettuce leaves.
- Microbial (microorganism) contamination (mould, yeast, and bacteria)
- Why food goes off/spoils
1. Physical damage can occur when a product is being transported or moved.
Examples include the bruising of fruit, denting of cans and wilting of vegetables.
2. Enzymatic activity is involved in the ripening and eventual breakdown of fruit
and vegetables and the decomposition of meat. Enzymes exist naturally in both
plants and animals and have important functions while the organism is alive.
3. Microbial activity by bacteria, viruses, yeasts and mould (already present on the
product or from the surrounding environment) causes food to spoil. Examples
include old bread and sliminess on ageing meat.
4. Rodent activity or infestation of bugs or other animals
5. Environmental factors include warm temperatures, air, moisture and light.
These factors speed up the rate of spoilage from other causes - e.g in warm
environments enzymes and microbes are more active and oxidative reactions
occur quickly.
- Growth of microorganisms
- Enzymes may result in the physical deterioration of food, but they do not affect the
safety of the food if consumed.
- Micro-organisms, however, may be pathogenic (meaning they have the potential to
make the consumer very ill) and so need to be controlled through food manufacturing
and preservation processes.
- As micro-organisms grow, they pass through a series of phases.
- The first part of the growth curve is the lag phase. This is the time required for the
bacteria to become adjusted to the new environment.
- During the next stage, the logarithmic phase, the bacteria cells grow and multiply
because they have adjusted to the environment and are encouraged by the ideal
conditions needed for rapid growth.
- The logarithmic phase levels off to the stationary phase. During this period, the number
of bacteria remains constant. In other words, the number of cells being formed is equal
to the number of cells that die.
- During the death phase, the food needed by the bacteria is usually all gone and the
bacteria die of starvation.
- When defrost food → room temp

- Principles behind food preservation techniques:

- Temperature control:
- Cooking a food by heating is probably the simplest and most commonly used
method of food preservation. When a food is cooked, the process normally
involves three specific stages.
1. The food is warmed as the cooking begins.
2. The food is held at its cooking temperature for a certain period of time.
3. The food is cooled or eaten hot.
- As food is warmed, two important events occur. Enzymic reaction rates begin to
increase and micro-organisms can be activated. As the temperature rises,
enzymic reaction rates begin to slow, and then fall rapidly as the optimum
temperature for that enzyme (20–40°C) is exceeded.
- Micro-organisms have a similar optimum temperature, and when this
temperature is exceeded their metabolism will slow; eventually the heat will kill
them.
- Enzymes and microbes are damaged by temperatures over 60 °C, and a few
minutes at 100 °C will destroy all enzymes and kill most forms of bacteria.
- However, some spore-forming micro-organisms, such as Clostridium
botulinum, can survive at 100 °C for up to five hours.
- Restriction of moisture:
- Processes which remove moisture from food, such as dehydration and
evaporation, are effective in preventing the actions of both enzymes and micro-
organisms.
 - This is because both enzymes and microbes need water to be active - and not
just any water: clean, liquid water.
- If the water is not pure of if it is ice, it is unavailable to microbes.
- Enzymes can still be active in freezing conditions, but their activity occurs very
slowly - this is the reason why foods cannot be stored in the freezer indefinitely.
- Evaporated foods still contain quite a high moisture content and so may be
susceptible to mould growth.

- Exclusion of air:
- Most microbes require oxygen to be active.
- By removing air from around the food, the environment becomes unfavourable
and microbes become dormant.
- Some bacteria are anaerobic, and care must be taken with processing and
packaging options for susceptible foods or food poisoning may result.
- Manufacturers exclue air from packaging, creating a vacuum when the product
cools.
- Vacuum packing and gas flushing (inserting gases other than oxygen into the
package) are among other methods manufacturers use to exclude air from
packages
- Vacuum packing does not prevent enzyme activity but it can minimise non-
enzymic oxidative reactions.
- The substitution of nitrogen and other gases in modified atmosphere packages
does reduce enzyme activity.
- Control of pH:
- Dissolving other substances in water, such as salt and sugar, chemically alters
the water, making it unavailable to microbes and enzymes.
- Adding acids to foods can minimise spoilage by denaturing enzymes and
destroying micro-organisms.
- The presence of acids also reduces the time and temperature of heat processing
needed to preserve food.
- Additives, in the form of chemical preservatives, food acids and smoke, can be
used to help retard or destroy micro-organisms depending on the
concentrations used.
1. Example; Bacon, tomato salsa, jam and dill pickles are just a few of the
foods eaten daily that use chemicals to inhibit microbe growth.
- Preservation processes, including canning, drying, pasteurising, freezing, and fermenting
- Canning
- Similar to bottling
- Canning is used commercially
- Canning is for low acid foods such as beans + meat
 - Involves preserving food in metal containers, while bottling involves the use of
glass or plastic containers.
- Canning is a heat process which sterilises the food within the package, giving it a
shelf-life of more than two years.
- Traditional canning methods use equipment called retorts to heat the sealed
packages.
- Static retorts were used both commercially and domestically (for home bottling)
- The cans/bottles were filled and sealed, then placed in a vat (called a retort) of
boiling water for the required amount of time.
- The time for processing varied according to the bacterial risks associated with
the food being preserved.
- Blanching
- Enzymatic browning occurs during storage e.g apples. To prevent this browning
vegetables are blasted with steam or passed through hot water (88-100
degrees) to destroy surface enzymes
- Blanching is a processing method, not a cooking method
- Is used for low-intensity heat transfer methods
- Pasteurization
- (controlling temperature) specific type of heat treatment and will kill or heat
sensitive organisms or significantly reduce the number but doesn't completely
sterilize the food. E.g beer, wine, fruit
- HTST (high temperature short time) most common type of pasteurization
- Destroys pathogenic bacteria in a high temperature in a short amount of time
e.g juices and sauces
- UHT : ultra high temperature - heats to 140 degrees to kill thermo files → need
to get it as high as possible (UHT Milk lasts long in the cupboard)
- Chilling
- Slows down the growth of microorganisms, does not kill it
- Products can be cooled by using heat exchangers in which the steam has been
replaced by chilled water
- The other common cooling equipment is the refrigerator - the refrigerator
simply lower the temperature of the product during processing and storage
- Once food comes out the refrigerator and defrosts microorganisms start to
multiply
- Not a harsh form of preservation, danger is when it is reheated
- Freezing
- Freezing occurs at -18 degrees
- Quick freezing takes place during the commercial process and in some domestic
freezers which have a quick freeze control.
- Two types of freezing include: slow freezing and quick freezing
- Four categories of freezing equipment including air blast freezers, plate freezers,
tunnel freezers and immersion freezers
 - Dehydration
- Microorganisms need moisture to grow and survive , dehydration removes the
moisture so dehydrated food will last longer and the microorganisms won’t
survive
- Examples of drying include - cabinet drying (big oven with door), tunnel drying,
roller dryer, spray dryer (used for liquids including milk, egg and desserts,
powdered coffee)
- Freeze drying (expensive) - example strawberries
- 1) Food is frozen using some normal way of freezing
- 2) Raise the temp of the frozen food in a chamber of low pressure (why
its expensive)
- 3) The ice turns into a gas without turning into a liquid (sublimation)
- Freeze drying skips the liquid stage

Packaging, storage & distribution:

- Functions of packaging
- Packaging contains the product:
- The majority of foods need to be put in some sort of container for easy storage
& distribution.
- Packaging is continually changing with advancements in technology
- Packaging protects the product:
- Packaging must protect the product from physical and mechanical damage.
Consumers are unlikely to accept goods that are broken, scratched, dented or
chipped. Sturdy boxes are often used to protect the product packaging
- Manufacturers must choose packaging that not only contains the product, but
protects it from damage for example during the process of transportation when
loads are subjected to rail shunting, emergency road breaking or even the
pitching and rolling motion of ships.
- The main danger is vertical impact - this occurs when the load is dropped.
Compression can occur when other goods are placed on top of a product
causing unnecessary pressure.
- Excess rain and moisture will cause irreversible damage to the product, the
packaging must be designed to withstand high levels of moisture if the product
may be exposed to such conditions
- A products packaging also protects the food from physical damage during
storage at home - for example foods that are laminated with wax or plastic film
to be stored in the freezer/fridge.
- Packaging preserves the product:
- Packaging plays an important role in preventing or at least hampering the
spoilage of food products.
- Packaging must:
 - Decrease the changes or prevent contamination by micro-organisms
that cause food poisoning especially in dairy and seafoods.
- Prevent moisture that enters dry food
- Prevent loss of moisture from product that contain water
- Allow products such as fresh fruits & vegetables to breathe
- Prevent the process of rancidity of fats, which needs oxygen
- Protect light-sensitive products from ultraviolet light.
- No single packaging material is able to perform all these functions, which helps
to explain why many types of packaging are used for food.
- Packaging informs the consumer and promotes the product
- The package is usually the only contact between the consumer and the
manufacturer
- The packaging is used on a specific product acts as a beacon by which the
consumer recognises the product.
- The packaging of a product can build up or destroy the image of a brand of
product.
- Packaging helps the consumer to use and choose the products they buy.
- The package:
- Identifies the product and brand (shape, colour, brand, name, and logo)
- Displays the quantity and price
- Explains the product’s features
- Provides directions for use (and may offer recipes and serving
suggestions)
- Provides health and consumer-protection information required by law
(use-by dates, nutritional information, warnings, ingredients lists, and
the name and address of the manufacturer)
- Packaging provides convenience:
- Many packages allow the consumer to use the product directly from the
package (for example; microwavable containers) or save the consumer effort in
preparation (for example; whipped cream in a can)
- Recent packaging designs also include features that allow the consumer to use
the product anywhere it is convenient to them (for example; ring pull cans and
plastic salad bowls with forks)

- Determining the best packaging for the job:

- Manufacturers must choose a packaging that fulfils all these functions - but no one
packaging style or material is suitable for all foods.
- Consideration must be given to the following when designing and selecting packages:
- Characteristics of the food such as its level of moisture and how fragile it is
- Likely causes of spoilage or loss of quality - for example; physical damage
(bruising, crushing), microbial growth and enzyme activity.
 - Shelf life requirements of the food - for example, sauces require a more durable
package then bread
- Intended usage by consumers - the package must be a suitable size, shape, and
weight for handling and storage. For example, pepper and spices in small
canisters that allow for sprinkling.
- Company image - the shape and choice of packaging material can create
expectations of a superior product in consumers minds - for example, oils, and
gourmet jams in hexagonal jars.

- Packaging materials
- Glass containers are selected for a variety of reasons.
- Glass is chemically inert, does not react with foods to produce
- Flavour changes
- Is impermeable and non porous
- Is usually transparent, which permits the contents to be inspected at the time of
packaging and at the point of purchase
- Is odourless and hygenic
- Has great strength, and is being made stronger, lighter and thinner each year
- Is easy to open and to reseal to store unused contents
- Comes in a wide variety of shapes, sizes and colours
- Provides a means of long-term storage and extended shelf life
- Can be recycled or reused
- Paper and board:
- Paper packaging is used for a wide range of products because it is versatile and
cost effective.
- Different types of paper can be made into packaging of different shapes,
textures, and thicknesses , depending on the needs of the product.
- It is possible to treat paper to suit the type of product being packed.
- When packaging food products such as confectionary and butter, greaseproof
papers are used because they offer a barrier to unwanted odors and moisture
- Waxed papers are tasteless, odorless, non-toxic and inert - can be used for
many different foods
- Thicker basedackaging can be laminated with other materials to produce
strength and moisture resistance, for example for frozen meals and the Tetra
Paks used for longlife products such a fruit juices.
- Cans:
- The metal can is one of the cheapest and most widely used types of packaging in
Australia
- The advantages are good protection for contents, prevents undesirable gains or
losses in moisture content.
- Cans are relatively easy to handle, in terms of filling sealing and pacing
- Cans can be stored for long periods
 - The steel can is impact resistant and virtually unbreakable
- The two most common types of can used in the food manufacture is aluminum and steel
- Rigid plastic packaging:
- Plastic has advantages over other types of packaging because it:
- Is lightweight yet strong
- Has a high resistance to breakage. Some plastic bottles have high impact
resistance, being able to withstand a 1 - 2 metre drop onto a hard
surface without damage to the bottle.
- Is available in a large variety of colours, shapes and sizes
- Adds to the sales appeal of the product
- Cheap to produce
- High density polyethylene (HDPE) - used for sturdier flexible packages
- Polypropylene (PP) used for packaging snack foods such as chips,
biscuits, and 2 minute noodles
- Plastics can be laminated, to change thickness and make it stronger, can withstand
moderate variations in heat → tetra paks (UHT packs)
- Classification of packaging:
- Combination packages consist of two or more separate packaging materials that
function independently of each other.
- Manufacturers may also use multiple levels of packaging
- Primary packaging is the package in which the food is sold to the consumer
- Six tetra paks of juice
- Secondary packaging for ease of bulk handling and distribution,
- shrink wrapping of palettes
- Current developments in packaging:
- Developments in new packaging materials are limited only by the technology and
imagination of inventors and designers
- Shopper demands fresher and more convenient products
- Energy costs and raised awareness of environmental issues - leading to reduction of
over packaging
- Age of population - easy opening systems
- Demand for consumer safety - tamper evident closures
- Legislation on the labelling requirements of packages
- New packaging developments are in the areas of:
- Cans
- Active packaging
- MAP packaging
- Sous vide
- Plastics development
- Smart packaging - dot on package changes colour when fruit is ripe (when
ethylene is emitted from the fruit)
- Cans:
- Steel alloys are being used nowadays to reduce costs and allow
for introduction of ring pull cans
- Plastic cans are being developed which are:
- Capable of being heated to 120 degrees celsius
- Provide strength and gas barrier
- Are more expensive but allow consumers to see inside
- Active packaging:
- Involves the use of sachets or films to either remove or add
gases to the package headspace
- Oxygen scavengers - reduce oxygen to delay browning of foods
- Dried apples, potato chips, delay rancidity
- Ethylene scavengers - trap ethylene and delays the
ripening process
- Carbon dioxide scavengers - absorb CO2 reducing gas
build up in packaging
- Coffee packaging
- MAP packaging
- Modified atmosphere packaging
- Starting atmosphere is changed to produce a as that will
increase shelf life
- Removal of oxygen and replaced with carbon dioxide and
nitrogen
- Sous Vide
- Cook → chill method
- Use to extend the shelf life and keeping qualities of fresh food
- Once cooked it is blast chilled to 3 degrees celsius
- The sous vide technique involves ingredients being vacuum
packed and then slowly cooked in water at an accurately
controlled temperature
- The exclusion of air in the vacuum bag greatly reduces the
growth of aerobic bacteria, and this delays the contents from
spoiling
- Plastics development:
- Dual ovenable plastic is capable of withstanding microwave and
conventional heating
- TV dinners etc
 - This is very expensive but convenient
- Packaging innovations:
- Example:
- Biodegradable packaging
- Lindt packaging tray
- Intelligent packaging
- Ethylene gas changes colour on package when fruit is ripe
- RFID tags storing information that don’t need to be scanned - trolleys
- Smart fridges
- Tamper proof change in colour - convenience
- Self heating cans, elderly - shake can
- Environmental issues of packaging: (page 228 and 220)
- Provides protection for the product
- Convenience for consumer
- Marketing opportunity for manufacturer
- Choice of packaging is its effect on the environment
- Energy is used to: and provides waste:
- Raw materials
- Materials manufacture
- Product manufacture
- Product use or consumption
- Final disposition, landfill, recycling, reuse
- Social implications:
- It is difficult to say whether food manufacturing technology has changed our lifestyles or
has the consumers way of life made manufacturing companies change their
technologies
- This is always an area of debate in exams
- Consumers are demanding these things - convenience and freshness

Examples of production techniques with product:

- UHT milk
- Ultra high temperature
- A septic - no oxygen
- Coffee
- Freeze drying
- Wine
 - Fermentation
- Instant soup
- Freeze drying
- Butter
- Emulsifiers
- Packaged cheese
- Refrigerated
- Air tight
- Yogurt:
- Lactic acid added
- Jam:
- Bottling
- Jam making - so much sugar organisms can’t live
- Juice poppers
- Uht
- Frozen peas
- freezing
- Apricots
- Sun Drying
- Icecream
- Pasteurization
- Quick freezing
- Skim milk powder:
- Spray drying
- Canned Pineapple
- Canning
- Ham:
- Salt - nitrates (bad)
- Smoking
- Tuna
- Canning
- Salami
- Nitrates / salt
- Baked beans
- Canning
- Bolognese sauce
- Bottling
- Bread
- Fermentation