Total Crop Management For Greenhouse Production

Bulletin 363 Revised 2016
Total Crop Management

for Greenhouse Production
with an emphasis on
Integrated Pest Management and
Nutrient Management
Bulletin 363 Revised 2016
Total Crop Management

for Greenhouse Production
with an emphasis on
Integrated Pest Management and
Nutrient Management
This publication is a joint effort of the University of Maryland, Virginia Tech and
North Carolinia State University and their specialists in various environmental fields
Integrated Pest Management for Commercial Horticulture

University of Maryland Extension
http://extension.umd.edu/ipm
The University of Maryland, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources programs are open to all
and will not discriminate against anyone because of race, age, sex, color, sexual orientation, physical
or mental disability, religion, ancestry, or national origin, marital status, genetic information, or political
affiliation, or gender identity and expression.
Authors and Publication Coordinators:
Stanton A. Gill, Extension Specialist Debby Smith-Fiola,

Central Maryland Research and Education Center Consultant, Landscape IPM
301-596-9413, sgill@umd.edu landscapeipm@hotmail.com
Co-Authors:
Karen Rane, Plant Pathologist Andrew Ristvey, Extension Specialist

Plant Diagnostic Lab, College Park Wye Research and Education Center
301-405-1611, rane@umd.edu 410-827-8056, aristvey@umd.edu
Chuck Schuster, Extension Educator Joyce Latimer, Extension Specialist

University of Maryland Extension Virginia Tech
301-590-2807, cfs@umd.edu 540-231-7906, jlatime@vt.edu
Not Pictured
Gerald Brust, IPM Vegetable Specialist
Central Maryland Research and Education Center
301-627-8440
Brian Whipker, Extension Specialist Kate Everts, Vegetable Plant Pathologist

North Carolina State University Lower Eastern Shore Research and Education Center
919-515-5374, brian_whipker@ncsu.edu 410-742-8780, keverts@umd.edu
Will Healy, Research and Technical Services Manager

Formatting, Editing, and Ball Horticultural Company
Image Management: (630) 231-3500, whealy@ballhort.com
Suzanne Klick, Technician
University of Maryland Extension Megan McConnell, Lab Technician
Plant Diagnostic Lab, College Park, MD
ii
Preface
This manual is designed for use by growers, greenhouse managers, and Extension educators
involved with the floriculture industry. Our goal with this manual is to help greenhouse growers
produce the highest-quality plants with minimal loss. This publication is based on the extensive
experience of Maryland greenhouse growers, independent Total Plant Management and
Integrated Pest Management (TPM/ IPM) scouts, and faculty and specialists of the University
of Maryland Extension. It is our intent that this manual serve as a valuable tool for improved
management of greenhouse crops. We have created charts for easy access to information and
text for more in-depth information on key subjects.
Disclaimer
Mention of trade names and products is for information only and does not constitute an
endorsement or recommendation of, or discrimination against, similar products not mentioned.
Printed in 2016 by University of Maryland Extension, College of Agriculture and Natural

Resources, University of Maryland College Park. All rights reserved. No part of this publication
may be reproduced or transmitted in any form, by any means (electronic, photocopying, recording,
manual, or otherwise), without the prior written permission of University of Maryland Extension.
The phone number for University of Maryland Extension is (301) 596-9413.
Although this manual contains research-based information, and the contributors and publisher
have used their best efforts in preparing this manual, the publisher and contributors offer no
warranties, express or implied, with respect to the use of this manual. Manual users maintain
complete responsibility for the accurate use and appropriate application of the information in
this manual for their intended purpose(s). In no event shall the publisher or contributors be held
responsible or liable for any indirect, direct, incidental, or consequential damages or loss of profits
or any other commercial damage whatsoever resulting from or related to the use or misuse of this
manual.
Electronic copies of this manual are available on-line

at http://extension.umd.edu/ipm/commercial-horticulture-publications
To purchase paper copies of this manual contact 301-596-9413

or go to the website for an order form
iii
Table of Contents
Part 1: Integrated Pest Management (IPM) for Greenhouse Operations
Chapter 1 Integrated Pest Management: Scouting Overview 3
Chapter 2 Integrated Pest Management: Monitoring Crops for Key Problems 13
Chapter 3 Screening Out Insect Pests 25
Chapter 4 Disinfecting a Greenhouse: Keeping Diseases and Insects in Check 29
Chapter 5 Pesticide Application Equipment: Selection and Calibration 31
Part 2: Insect and Mite Management

Chapter 6 Insecticide and Miticide Classes 37
Chapter 7 Biological Control of Greenhouse Pests 41
Chapter 8 Biopesticides and Reduced-risk Pesticides 61
Chapter 9 Understanding Insect Growth Regulators 75
Chapter 10 Impact of Selected Pesticides on Bees 79
Chapter 11 Insecticides Registered for Greenhouse Ornamentals 83
Chapter 12 Insect Control for Greenhouse Vegetable Product and Herbs 229

Part 3: Disease, Weed, and Algae Management
Chapter 13 Managing Plant Diseases 241
Chapter 14 Weed and Algae Control in Commercial Greenhouses 299

Part 4: Cultural, Water, and Fertility Management
Chapter 15 Plant Growth Regulators for Floricultural Crops 307
Chapter 16 Water Supply, Irrigation, and Management 335
Chapter 17 Too Wet or Too Dry? 343
Chapter 18 Precision Irrigation for Nursery and Greenhouse Crops 345
Chapter 19 Fertility Management 355
Chapter 20 Fertilizer Injection or Fertigation 369
Chapter 21 Care and Calibration of Injector Pumps 375
Part 5: Greenhouse Structures and Environment

Chapter 22 Greenhouse Selection and Placement 381
Chapter 23 Greenhouse Growing Environment: Temperature and Humidity 385
Chapter 24 Greenhouse Systems Maintenance 397
Chapter 25 Greenhouse Substrates 401
Part 6: Appendix
Appendix A Selected Resources 415
Appendix B Conversion Factors 418
Appendix C Images of Insects, Diseases, Abiotic Problems, and Weeds 420

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List of Tables
Table 1.1 Pest Problems And Indicator Plants 7

Table 1.2 Samples of Greenhouse IPM Crop Information Collection Forms 10
Table 2.1 Key Pests and Cultural Requirements of Greenhouse Ornamental Crops 14
Table 2.2 Key Pests of Vegetable Transplants Grown in the Greenhouse 19
Table 2.3 Monitoring Pests In The Greenhouse 22
Table 5.1 Optimum Spray Drop Sizes For Various Targets 31
Table 5.2 Theoretical Spray Coverage 32
Table 6.1 Mode of Action (MoA) Classification of Insecticides and Miticides 38
Table 7.1 Compatibility of Pesticides and Biological Control 43
Table 7.2 Biological Control of Aphids 49
Table 7.3 Biological Control of Caterpillars 50
Table 7.4 Biological Control of Fungus Gnats and Shore Flies 52
Table 7.5 Biological Control of Mealybugs 53
Table 7.6 Biological Control of Broad and Cyclamen Mites 54
Table 7.7 Biological Control of Spider Mites 54
Table 7.8 Biological Control of Scale Insects 55
Table 7.9 Biological Control of Thrips 58
Table 7.10 Biological Control of Whiteflies 60
Table 8.1 Biopesticides, Reduced-risk Pesticides and Their Uses 64
Table 9.1 Product Names and Distributors of Commonly Found IGRs for Greenhouse Use 75
Table 9.2 Insect Growth Regulators And The Pests They Control 76
Table 10.1 Alternatives to Neonicotinoids 81
Table 11.1 Insecticides for Aphid Control 85
Table 11.2 Insecticides for Caterpillar Control 102
Table 11.3 Nematicides for Foliar Nematode Control 115
Table 11.4 Insecticides for Fungus Gnat Control 117
Table 11.5 Insecticides for Leafminer Control 129
Table 11.6 Insecticides for Mealybug Control 142
Table 11.7 Miticides for Tarsonemid Mite Control 157
Table 11.8 Miticides for Spider Mite Control 163
Table 11.9 Insecticides for Scale Control 176
Table 11.10 Insecticides for Shore Fly Control 188
Table 11.11 Pesticides for Slug Control 193
Table 11.12 Insecticides for Thrips Control 197
Table 11.13 Insecticides for Whitefly Control 213
Table 12.1 Insecticides for Greenhouse Vegetable Production 230
Table 13.1 Products for Managing Bacterial Diseases 244
Table 13.2 Fungicides for Managing Botrytis Blight 247
Table 13.3 Fungicides for Managing Downy Mildew 253
Table 13.4 Fungicides for Managing Fungal Leaf Spots 258
Table 13.5 Fungicides for Managing Fusarium Root Rot 264
Table 13.6 Fungicides for Managing Powdery Mildew 268
Table 13.7 Fungicides for Managing Phytophthora Foliar Blight 274
Table 13.8 Fungicides for Managing Pythium and Phytophthora Root and Crown Rots 278
Table 13.9 Fungicides for Managing Rhizoctonia Root and Crown Rot 281
Table 13.10 Fungicides for Managing Rusts 285
Table 13.11 Fungicides for Managing Sclerotinia Blight and Crown Rot 289
Table 13.12 Fungicides for Managing Thielaviopsis Root Rot 292
vi
Table 13.13 Fungicides and Bactericides for Greenhouse Vegetable Production 295
Table 14.1 Herbicides Labeled for Use in Controlling Weeds in Greenhouses 300
Table 14.2 Algae Control With Chemicals 303
Table 15.1 Plant Growth Regulators Used To Reduce Plant Height 320
Table 15.2 Other Plant Growth Regulators Used In Production of Floricultural Crops 323
Table 15.3 Growth Regulators for Floricultural Crops in Greenhouses 325
Table 15.4 Dilution Table for Amount of Formulated Produce per Gallon of Solution 334
Table 17.1 Five Soil Moisture Levels 343
Table 17.2 Optimum Soil Moisture Levels During Plug Production 344
Table 19.1 Formulas, Molecular Masses, and Compositions of Common Macro Fertilizers 359
Table 19.2 Formulas, Molecular Masses, and Compositions of Common Micro Fertilizers 360
Table 19.3 Commercially Available Fertilizers That Either Acidify or Increase Substrate
pH Based on Potential Acidity or Basicity 361
Table 19.4 Suggested Rates for Fertilizing Different Crop Types (ppm N) 363
Table 19.5 Injection Ratios And Nitrogen Concentration For Constant Feeding 364
Table 19.6 Suggestions and Precautions for Controlled Release Fertilizer Use 367
Table 21.1 Maintenance Schedule for Injector System 376
Table 25.1 Effects Of pH On Nutrient Availability In Soilless Substrates 405
Table 25.2 Intrepreting Electrical Conductivity Values From Different Methods 409
List of Figures
Figure 3.1 Evaporative Cooling Pad 25

Figure 3.2 Manometers 25
Figure 3.3 Resistance Curve 26
Figure 3.4 Air Movement With Screening 26
Figure 3.5 Ventilation Air Flow 27
Figure 16.1 Irrigation Filters 339
Figure 18.1 A Schematic of a Farm-scale WSN for Precision Irrigation Scheduling 347
Figure 18.2 Different Data Collection Scenarios 349
Figure 18.3 Typical Container Moisure Dynamics Before and After Irrigation Events 350
Figure 19.1 Law Of The Minimum Principle 355
Figure 19.2 Concentration Ranges of Several Nutrients Found In Plant Leaves 356
Figure 19.3 Effects of pH on Nutrient Availability in Soilless Organic Substrates 357
Figure 20.1 Using Proportioners For Fertilizer Applications 370
Figure 20.2 Venturi Injection 371
Figure 20.3 Positive Displacement Proportioner 372
Figure 21.1 Parts of an Injector 375
Figure 21.2 Concentrate Filter 376
Figure 21.3 An EC Meter 377
Figure 23.1 Greenhouse Heating 387
Figure 23.2a HAF Fans (2) 389
Figure 23.2b HAF Fans (4) 389
Figure 23.3 Greenhouse Ventilation 390
Figure 23.4 Mechanical Greenhouse Ventilation 391
Figure 23.5a Winter Moisture Control 393
Figure 23.5b Greenhouse Air Exchange 394
Figure 23.6 Control Sensors 394
Figure 25.1 Substrate, Irrigation and Fertilizer Triangle 401
Figure 25.2 Suggested Substrate pH Ranges For Greenhouse Crops 406
vii
Part 1
Integrated Pest Management
(IPM) for Greenhouse
Operations
Chapter 1 Integrated Pest Management: Scouting Overview
Chapter 2 Integrated Pest Management: Monitoring Crops for Key

Problems
Chapter 3 Screening Out Insect Pests
Chapter 4 Disinfecting a Greenhouse: Keeping Diseases and Insects in

Check
Chapter 5 Pesticide Application Equipment: Selection and Calibration

Chapter 1
Integrated Pest Management: Scouting Overview
Deborah Smith Fiola, Independent IPM Scout
Stanton A. Gill, Extension Specialist
Introduction
Greenhouse production of bedding plants and vegetable transplants is a profitable business; nevertheless
plants will be attacked by pests at some point in time. No matter how vigilant the growers, all will still
face dilemmas from nutrient problems, diseases, insects, and mites. The best approach to reduce the
amount of pest damage in the greenhouse is through Integrated Pest Management (IPM) methods. IPM is
a scientifically proven, practical system of pest control. It includes a combination of methods that reduces
pest populations by merging good horticultural practices with research-based control tactics while keeping
in mind environmental safety and realistic commercial standards. Control strategies include cultural,
mechanical, physical, biological, and chemical methods. Biological control includes the use of live
organisms that have been commercially proven to provide acceptable levels of pest control without the use
of chemical pesticides.
The key to IPM is preventing problems, while being proactive once problems are found. The greenhouse
should be clean prior to starting a new crop; i.e. free of old plant material, debris, and weeds. Vents and fans
should be inspected and screened to prevent pests from entering. New crop plants, cuttings, or plugs coming
in should be examined for pests and isolated if there is any suspicion of infection/infestation. Regular
plant inspections (monitoring or scouting) are indispensable when conducted on a regular basis (weekly
monitoring is suggested).
Once a pest is found, pest control strategies are chosen that effectively control the target pest with limited
negative impact upon the surrounding environment. Using the appropriate application equipment and
applying sprays properly will improve effectiveness. Repetitive pesticide applications can be circumvented
by cultural, biological, and alternative tactics (e.g., sterilizing soil, screening vents, sanitizing greenhouse
areas, eliminating weeds, releasing natural enemies, and treating with insecticidal soaps/horticultural oils).
If pesticides are used, they should be applied in a rotation that alternates products with different modes of
action against the target pest (e.g., rotating different chemical classes). The chemical class of each pesticide
is listed in this publication in order to make this process easier.
Regular, systematic monitoring of the greenhouse is the backbone of a successful Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) program. Insect and disease organisms can (and do) appear “suddenly”. Instead of
reacting immediately to the pest (typically by spraying a pesticide), the IPM manager is proactive by
regularly monitoring the pest population and treating only if and when necessary.
Monitoring is the key to predicting and managing pest populations. Monitoring (also called scouting) is
the regular inspection of plant material, as well as the surrounding benches, floors, etc., for the presence
and identification of any insect, disease, cultural, abiotic, weed and nutrient problems. By inspecting the
greenhouse on a systematic basis (e.g. every 7-10 days during the crop season) pests that arise can be
controlled before populations become economically intolerable. Small greenhouses (<4,000 sq.ft.) can
be monitored as one unit. Larger greenhouses should be divided into 2,000 to 3,000 square foot sections
3
for easier monitoring. IPM control decisions are all based on information gathered during monitoring.
Smaller, immature pests are easier to control and can be managed with the least toxic methods. Monitoring
information is used to locate and interpret all causes that directly and indirectly affect the problem (e.g. the
pest, site, predators, and environment and management practices).
Record Keeping
The monitoring process usually begins by creating a diagram of the greenhouse which can easily be done
on a computer. A formal record keeping system that is consistently used while monitoring is essential to
a successful IPM program. Many scouts create maps that chart the location of benches, fans, entry areas,
and irrigation hoses. A new map is used for each crop cycle. Monitoring forms (or datasheets) are used
to quickly record monitoring information, particularly on a large-scale basis. Monitoring forms used by
professional IPM scouts in Maryland can be spreadsheets, check-off lists, or charts (Table 1.2). Forms can
be very simple or quite detailed, and should be personally modified for ease of use and evaluation. The goal
is to set up a clear, concise way of recording and communicating all plant and pest monitoring information
so growers can make informed decisions. The datasheet ultimately needs to record what, where, and how
many pests (as well as beneficial insects) are present.
Consistent and detailed record keeping is very important not only to improve overall control tactics, but to
ultimately document the success of the program. Datasheets can be easily compared to one another over
time. It is important that all records have the same standard format since they can only be compared if they
uniformly and consistently report the same facts.
The base map/datasheet should include some background information, including the history of each crop,
particularly that of past pest problems and exactly where the problems occurred. Mark greenhouse drainage
patterns, as well as the sun/shade patterns and any applications of fertilizer and other materials. For each
monitoring visit, the date, temperature, and humidity levels are recorded. The bulk of the datasheet is then
used to record any pests or disorders found, where and when they were found, what was done, and any
pertinent issues such as temperature inversions, residues, etc..
Specific information to include on the form/datasheet: (Use a scale of 1-10 for levels):
• Date(s) of monitoring
• Minimum and maximum temperatures for each day
• Growing medium pH and soluble salts of plants in growing blocks
• Specific crop observation (height, leaf color, bud development, etc.)
• Visual health/appearance level of the plant
• Root health based on weekly check of random plants
• Specific pest/problem encountered and life stage
• Exact location of the pest
• Counts of pests on the plants, including stage of growth (egg, immature, adult)
• Insect or disease severity level (or counts of pest population levels)
• Presence/absence of beneficial organisms and competitors that are naturally occurring or released
• Results of control tactics
• Insect counts from sticky cards (change cards weekly)
Notes on unusual weather patterns, any existing damage, or predisposing pest factors can be included or
recorded in a “comments” column. Predictive information may also be included, such as an insect or disease
appearance timetable and susceptibility of certain cultivars or plant species. Most charts rate the severity
of the infestation using either a rating system of 1 to 10, or a rating ‘check-off’ system of “low-moderate-
high” levels present. It is also helpful to estimate the percentage of bench area damaged. The area of pest
4
infestation on the map can then be either highlighted to document the location or color coded to indicate
specific pests.
Carry the datasheet (or pocket PC) throughout each monitoring visit, recording monitoring notes directly.
When a control tactic is initiated, note exactly when, where, and what was done. During the next monitoring
visit, inspect and comment on the success of the control. Proper monitoring should identify specific areas
within a crop where pests are absent or where pests are present at levels well below those necessary to cause
damage, thus preventing unnecessary control applications and expenditures. By determining the focal point
of an infestation early, a few plants can be either spot treated or rogued by placing them in a plastic bag
before removal. The rest of the crop can be then be treated more effectively.
Weekly summaries of all monitoring observations should be recorded and the information should be
itemized for each greenhouse, according to the pests detected, the counts, and any unusual circumstances
found in the greenhouse. As the season progresses and pest trends develop, a direction for pest management
decisions will become apparent.
Spray records are also important. State and federal regulations require growers to maintain detailed and up-
to-date pesticide application records. Monitoring records should also include spray information, including
the date and time of application, areas treated, name of the pest, pesticide used, rate and amount applied,
method of application, time required to apply the pesticide, and effectiveness.
Recording the fertilizer analysis, rate applied (PPM), and frequency will also provide a valuable guide for
future growing. It is important for the scout to have access to fertilization and irrigation application records
in order to make more appropriate recommendations regarding the fertility of the crop. The best way to
access this information is for the greenhouse grower or employee to post a chalkboard, clipboard, or data
sheet to fill out with all the necessary pesticide application, irrigation, and fertilization information -- as well
as minimum and maximum temperatures.
Scouting equipment
IPM scouts often use a backpack to carry monitoring equipment with them as they scout a greenhouse.
A hand lens is the most useful tool used to detect live insects and disease symptoms. Scouts should wear
clothing that is not attractive to insects to avoid inadvertently carrying insect pests into the greenhouse (e.g.
shades of yellow and blue can attract thrips, whiteflies or other pests).
Some equipment suggestions include:
• Hand lens (preferably 16x)

• Pruners (for taking plant samples)
• Plastic bags (for taking plant samples)
• Pocket microscope
• Beating tray
• Flags/flagging tape to identify problem areas or for height control
• Ruler (to measure plant height)
• Vials with rubbing alcohol (to collect small insect samples for identification)
• Apron (extra)
• Sticky cards (or other traps for monitoring flying insect populations)
• Gloves
• Waterproof permanent marker, pencil
• Plastic spoons and small paper cups/bags (for taking soil samples)
• Plastic bag for sample collection
5
• Small digital camera (that can take good close-up images)
• Conductivity and pH meters
• Resource information (small books with photographs of key pests, pesticide labels)
• Soil thermometer
• On-site diagnostic test kits
• Smart phone (camera, note-taking, pesticide labels, references)
Monitoring Plan
Monitoring must be done in a thorough manner to be successful. The number of plants, their size, and the
location of the benches will all influence the time and pattern needed to monitor. Start by following a route
or pattern that will cover all areas of the greenhouse. Try to always begin from a major doorway, since this
area is typically where pest problems commence.
Scouts should aim to walk down every aisle and move from bench to bench in a zig-zag pattern. Choose
individual plants at random; inspections should include checking for insects, mites, or disease symptoms.
Spend at least 10 minutes inspecting 20 or more plants from every 1,000 square feet of production area. At
least three plants on every bench should be inspected from the edge, the middle and as far into the bench as
can be reached. Any plants that visibly appear discolored or dissimilar should be inspected more closely.
Inspection starts by looking for deviations from normal crop growth, height and color. Pick up each plant
and visually examine it beginning at the soil line. Scan the whole plant, inspecting the stem and undersides
of the lower leaves for discoloration, signs or symptoms of pests, and indications of nutrient disorders.
Look first at lower, older leaves, then the upper, younger leaves and finally, the new tip growth. Pay special
attention to tip growth, buds and blooms. Because insects and some diseases are found on the underside of a
leaf, it is important to turn the leaves over to check for pests. Invert and remove the pot to examine the roots.
Pay special attention to plants on the outside rows of benches. Remember to also inspect hanging baskets.
Keep in mind that most pests are not distributed evenly throughout the crop. It is therefore very important to
check all the leaves on the plant, especially when the crop is young. Never assume to know exactly where
the pests are located (Table 2.3).
Once an infestation is detected, monitoring should occur more frequently. The customary monitoring route
should also change at this point. Using scouting records, monitor the least infested areas first and the most
heavily infested areas last. This approach will help prevent the spread of any pests from an infected area to
a new area. Likewise, examine stock plants before inspecting cuttings in order to reduce the possibility of
infesting the stock plants.
Indicator Plants
Indicator plants are highly susceptible host plants (Table 1.1). They are often grown purposely, either among
the commercial crop or at the edge of the crop/benches. Since these indicator plants are the first plants to
become infested/infected, the scout knows that the adjacent main crop may be attacked soon. Indicator
plants therefore aid in predicting pest problems.
Indicator plants are marked with a stake or flagging tape so they can be easily located and examined
repeatedly to study pest establishment. Rechecking the same plant gives the scout an opportunity to closely
examine an ongoing pest population -- or symptoms – before they spread to surrounding plants. Tracking
pest establishment rates provides information regarding the rate at which the pest’s life cycle is developing,
as well as the best time to apply pest control measures. Indicator plants can also be used to check if control
treatments are effective.
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Table 1.1 Pest Problems and Indicator Plants
Pest Problem Indicator Plants

Aphids Sweet peppers and fuschias
Impatiens Nectoric Spot Virus Fava beans, petunias, impatiens
Spider Mites Marigolds and roses
Thrips Marigolds, dracaena spikes, verbena, petunias and impatiens
Whiteflies Tomato, lantana, gerbera daisy, poinsettia, and eggplant
For example, peppers and eggplants are prone to aphid and thrips infestations. Therefore, if peppers are
purposely grown near susceptible bedding plants, they will be the first to be attacked by these pests. In this
way, they will also indicate that an early thrips population is present in the greenhouse.
The best indicator plants to detect the presence of thrips carrying both Impatiens Necrotic Spot Virus and
Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus are fava beans and certain cultivars of petunia. These plants will develop viral
symptoms within one week if fed on by the infected thrips.
The following steps are recommended when using petunias and fava beans as indicator plants:
• Remove flowers from indicator plants to encourage feeding on foliage where symptoms can be
observed.
• Place a blue non-sticky card in each pot at plant height. The blue card will attract thrips to the
indicator plant. Blue plastic picnic plates also work well.
• Plant 1-2 fava bean seeds per 4-inch pot and place them at 12 pots per 1,000 ft2.
• Remove fava beans plants if symptoms are observed because the virus is systemic in these plants.
Viral symptoms appear as dark brown angular lesions on leaves or yellow to light green ring
spots. Dark necrotic areas can also be seen on the stem. Fava beans have dark black spots on their
stipules that should not be confused with viral symptoms.
Traps
A monitoring program includes utilizing sticky cards to determine initial pest levels as well as pest
population trends. Sticky cards attract insect pests which become stuck on the sticky coating of the trap. The
traps come in two colors, either a bright yellow or a medium blue. The yellow traps attract flying aphids,
fungus gnats, whiteflies, leafminers, thrips, and other insects. Blue sticky traps are used primarily to attract
thrips.
Sticky cards are placed in a grid pattern approximately every 1,000 square feet. They are positioned just
above the plant canopy from 4 inches to 16 inches above the top foliage. One way to easily position sticky
cards is to attach each card vertically to a bamboo stake with a clothespin. As the crop grows, cards can be
moved up. Place additional sticky cards near all entryways and vents.
Designate the location of each sticky card on the greenhouse datasheet. Check the sticky cards every
scouting visit (twice a week if possible). Record the total number of whiteflies, thrips, fungus gnats, winged
aphids, and shore flies from each card on the field data sheet. Use a hand lens to identify insects found on
the sticky traps. When handling the sticky traps, it helps to wear gloves or have some waterless hand cleaner
nearby.
The time spent counting insects on sticky traps can be reduced by counting the insects within a one inch
wide vertical column on the trap. Since insects are not distributed evenly horizontally across the trap,
columns counted should be vertical towards the middle of the trap. For example, aphids and thrips tend to be
7
caught on the bottom half of the traps, while leafminers are caught more often along the top half. Wasps and
whiteflies, on the other hand, have a tendency to be spread uniformly throughout the trap. Aphids tend to be
caught in the middle vertical columns.
Setting Thresholds and Timing Actions in the Greenhouse

A certain number of insects, mites, and other pests can be tolerated on greenhouse crops. The degree of
tolerance depends on many factors, including the stage of growth in the plant cycle, the plant species,
the amount of time until market, and the intended market audience. For example, if the market audience
is parents of horticulture students growing the plants, tolerance for the presence of insects may be high,
especially if students can reassure parents that these pests will not noticeably harm the plant. However, most
people have very low thresholds if they are paying for plants. A University of Maryland study showed that
garden center customers could discern that a plant was injured at a mere 5% injury level. In general, as the
time of marketing a crop for the general public grows nearer, tolerance for obvious pest presence grows very
low.
Few, if any, action thresholds have been published for pest levels on greenhouse crops. For some pests and
diseases the threshold is relatively easy: no tolerance at all. One example is the western flower thrips (WFT)
and the tospovirus that causes Impatiens Necrotic Spot Virus (INSV). The tolerance level for the disease
and for its insect vector, WFT, is near zero because once this disease and its vector are established in a
greenhouse, many or all of the plants can potentially be destroyed.
The large number of species and cultivars grown in the greenhouse makes it difficult to set specific
thresholds. Goals of the end user also influence the choice of threshold levels. For example, flower thrips
cause a small amount of stippling damage to foliage and flowers that most customers would not notice. A
greenhouse manager may tolerate a number of flower thrips on plants leaving the greenhouse if the customer
is a plant- and insect-savvy consumer. Since flower thrips are not vectors of INSV, as the western flower
thrips are, growers can be more tolerant of populations of the former on most flowering bedding plants.
However, if the crop is to be sold to a garden center (where the plants may be held for a week or more and
then sold to the general public), the flower thrips may become noticeable on the flowers and foliage, which
could deter sales for the garden center.
How can the threshold level be determined that prompts some sort of action? It is suggested to closely
monitor one plant species at a time and follow that crop for an entire growing cycle, taking judicious records
to determine what pests you noted on the plants (and when) during the season. Note at what population
levels damage begins to be detected on the plants. This data, collected over several crop cycles, will help
with pest control decisions such as when the insect population is no longer tolerable or when it is time to
start treatment. Knowing the susceptibility of common greenhouse crops to specific insects and mites can
help identify which plants to monitor closely for potential insect or mite activity. Monitoring efforts can
therefore be focused upon the plants with apparent pest problems, and pests can accordingly be predicted for
future monitoring.
When using biological control, start treatment at the first detection of the pest in the greenhouse. Using
biological control with low threshold levels is the most effective way to approach pest management in a
greenhouse. If chemical control is used, start treatments when populations are visible and a small amount of
damage is detected. If that point occurs well before market time, foliar sprays can be applied to many pests
to ensure that most minor pest populations are reduced by a well-directed spray.
Yellow sticky cards can also be used to set insect thresholds. For example, sticky cards can be used to attract
fungus gnat adults in a pansy crop. Since pansies are highly susceptible to damage from fungus gnat larvae,
card counts of adult fungus gnats can indicate a growing problem in the crop. If large numbers of fungus
8
gnat adults are detected early in the crop cycle a grower may decide that adult activity indicates egg laying
by adult females, which in turn will result in high larval populations in the crops’ root system. Therefore,
treat when adult levels on sticky cards are high (50 or more per 7-day period).
IPM Decision Making

Each week, summarize all generated monitoring information in order to make control decisions. The
monitoring records will also indicate whether or not control measures were successful or if they need to
be repeated. Before deciding upon a control tactic, make absolutely sure of the identity of the target pest
present. Accurate diagnosis is the key to management, regardless of the specific control choice. Many
pesticides and most natural enemies are often specific to just one pest or group of pests. If you are having
trouble diagnosing a problem, contact your Extension Educator or Extension Specialist.
If you suspect a disease, determine if you can identify the causal agent or take a plant sample for further
diagnosis and testing to the University diagnostic lab in your state (Appendix A). Entire plants are the best
samples to send to a lab for diagnosis. Fasten a plastic bag around the root ball and wrap the entire plant
in dry newspaper or paper towels. Include information on severity of the problem, timing of symptom
development and pesticides applied. Use submission forms developed by the diagnostic lab when available.
Send samples showing a range of symptoms.
Use the following questions to help make the necessary treatment decisions:
Is the population increasing, decreasing, or remaining the same?

Is it absolutely necessary to spray to prevent unwanted damage?
Are insects migrating from weeds under the benches to your crops?
Is the treatment from last week working?
At the end of each week, the scout should review the monitoring information with the greenhouse owner/
grower. Use the summary records (numbers of pests recorded from sticky card counts and foliar inspections,
any resulting pest population trends, and the use of indicator plants and located reservoirs of pests) to
determine the pest management strategy.
Summary
Monitoring ensures the early detection of pests, which in turn results in better pest management. When
problems are detected early, there will be better pesticide coverage due to a smaller plant canopy. Problem
crops and problem areas within a crop can be identified and spot treated which reduces the need for blanket
pesticide applications. In addition, bio-pesticides and natural enemies (biological control organisms) tend to
be more successful on immature or low level pest populations.
9
Table 1.2 Samples of Greenhouse IPM Crop Information Collection Forms
The following are sample templates that can be used to record scouting data. When developing a form, be
sure to include the date, reporting person (if an additional scout is hired) and the greenhouse. Different
areas within a greenhouse can be identified as ‘Greenhouse Management Units (GMU). Examples include
‘Greenhouse Area 1 (left side)’, ‘Greenhouse Area 2 (back)’, and ‘Greenhouse Area 3 (front)’.
Be sure to make a map of each greenhouse to be able to track the progress of each crop and insect, disease
and cultural problems.
Crop Information Form:
Plant Species Number of Plants or Planting Date Expected Harvest

Containers Date
Fertility Information Form:
Application Applicator Plants or Areas Fertilizer Applicaton Comments

Date Treated Source Rate (PPM)
Insect Control Information Form:
Date Greenhouse Product Applicator Application Evaluation Evaluation

Applied Designation Applied Rate Comments Method
(Card count
decrease or
reduction
of pests on
plants)
10
Disease Control Information Form:
Date Greenhouse Product Applicator Application Evaluation Evaluation
Applied Designation Applied Rate Comments Method
(Card count
decrease or
reduction
of pests on
plants)
Weed Control Information Form:

Application Date Greenhouse Applicator Product Applied Application
Designation (or Rate
outdoors)
Electroconductivity (EC) and pH Levels Form:

Date: _________
Plant Species EC Levels pH Levels Reasons For Testing
Note pH and EC testing method (i.e. 1 = saturated pest method or 2 - PourThru Method
Root Health Form:
Date: _________
Location Plant Rating Comments

(good, fair, poor)
11
Insect and Mite Activity Form: Sticky Card Counts
Date: _________
Location Card Whitefly Thrips Count Fungus Gnat Shorefly Winged

Number Count per per Card Count per Count per Aphid
Card Card Card Count
per
Card
1
2
3
4
5
Insect and Mite Activity Form: Whole Plant Counts

Date: _________
Location Plant Numbers Pest Number Average Increase Plant

of Plant of Pests Number or Damage
Sampled Found of Pests Decrease Noted
per Plant Found from (%)
Previous
Count
Disease Activity Form:

Date: _________
Location Plant Disease Increase or Plant Damage
Decrease in (%)
Severity
12
Chapter 2
Integrated Pest Management: Monitoring Crops for
Key Problems
Deborah Smith Fiola, Independent IPM Scout
Kate Everts, Vegetable Plant Pathologist
Introduction
Bedding plants and vegetable transplants may only be in the greenhouse for a short period of time, yet still
must be kept pest-free and of high quality. A challenge when growing vegetable transplants is that there
are few pesticides labeled for them. There is only one plant growth regulator, Sumagic, labeled for fruiting
vegetables. Most pesticides labeled for ornamental greenhouse bedding plants are not labeled for vegetable
bedding plants.
Integrated pest management (IPM) tactics offer the most practical way to effectively manage pests on
vegetable transplants and ornamental bedding plants. Growers can improve bedding plant production while
minimizing their reliance on routine pesticide applications through the use of regular monitoring of fertility
and pH levels, root health and insect and disease problems. The utilization of many different management
options (cultural, physical, mechanical, biological and chemical) is the best way to minimize both pest
problems and pesticide use and costs.
Knowing the cultural requirements and likely pests of each crop will help with the monitoring process and
diagnosing problems (Tables 2.1 and 2.2). Pay particular attention to scheduling times, light, temperature,
and nutritional requirements in order to grow healthy crops. The key to an effective program is monitoring,
early detection, proper identification, and early intervention.
13
Table 2.1 Key Pests and Cultural Requirements of Greenhouse Ornamental Crops
Key to Levels of Fertilization:

*Light fertilization—SME and PourThru EC of 0.25 to 0.50 mS/cm;
**Medium fertilization— SME and PourThru EC of 0.50 to 1.5 mS/cm;
***Heavy fertilization—SME and PourThru EC of 1.50 to 2.5 mS/cm.
Plant Major Pests; Insects, Major Diseases Cultural Comments

(Common name/ Mites, Arthropods,
Latin name) Mollusks
African Violet Cyclamen mite, Botrytis, Phytophthora Very sensitive to cold.
Saintpaulia mealybugs, whiteflies blight, foliar nematode, Water must be room
ionantha powdery mildew, Pythium temperature or injury that
root rot, Rhizoctonia stem/ resembles a virus or leaf
crown rot, tospovirus spot disease can occur.
Ammonium toxicity can
cause leaf yellowing.
pH: 5.9–6.4.
Light fertilization*
Ageratum Aphids, whiteflies None serious Leave seed exposed to
Ageratum light during germination.
houstonianum Light fertilization*
Azalea Lace bugs Foliar nematode, Sensitive to salt
Rhododendron Cylindrocladium blight, root Light fertilization*
obtusum rot, Phytophthora root and
R. simsii crown rot
Bacopa Spider mites None serious Use well-drained mix.
Sutera cordata
Begonia Broad mites, fungus Bacterial leaf spot, crown pH: 5.7–6.3
Begonia x gnats, thrips gall, cucumber mosaic virus, Light fertilization*
semperflorens tospovirus, foliar nematode,
cultorum (Begonia powdery mildew, root rots
tuberhybrida)
(Begonia socotrana
x B. tuberhybrida)
Black-eyed Susan Spider mites, whitefly, Rhizoctonia, Pythium root rot pH: 5.8–6.2
vine aphids, leafminer Medium fertilization**
Thunbergia alatus
Bougainvillea Aphids, mites Medium fertilization**
Bougainvillea spp.
Browallia Aphids, mites Tospovirus pH: 5.8-6.2
Browallia speciosa Medium fertilization**
Calla lily Aphids, spider mites, Virus, bacterial soft rot of Light fertilization*
Zantedeschia sp. thrips rhizomes
Carnation Fungal leaf spots pH: 6.2–6.8

Dianthus Medium fertilization**
caryophyllus
14
(continued)
Celosia Aphids Rhizoctonia damping-off, Sensitive to cold and to
Celosia cristata bacterial leaf spot salt
C. plumosus Light fertilization*
C. spicata
Chrysanthemum, Aphids, thrips Pythium root and stem rot, Requires high nitrogen
Florists’ tospovirus, Botrytis, bacterial levels pH: 5.7–6.2
Dendranthema leaf spots, fungal leaf Light fertilization*
grandiflora spots, Fusarium wilt, foliar
nematode
Cineraria Aphids Tospovirus, Botrytis, Light fertilization*
Pericallis x hybrida Rhizoctonia and Pythium
damping-off
Coleus Aphids, slugs, Tospovirus, downy mildew, Very sensitive to salt
Solenostemon whiteflies, mealybugs Rhizoctonia root rot/blight, Light fertilization*
scutellarioides Botrytis
Cyclamen Fungus gnats, thrips, Tospovirus, Rhizoctonia root pH: 5.1–5.8

Cyclamen persicum cyclamen mites rot, Fusarium corm rot/wilt, Light fertilization*
bacterial soft rot of corms,
Botrytis
Dahlia Aphids Tospovirus, root knot Medium fertilization**
Dahlia x hybrida nematode, foliar nematode,
Botrytis, Pythium, and
Rhizoctonia stem/root/cutting
rot, other viruses
Daisy, sunscape Thrips None serious pH: 5.8-6.2
Osteospermum Medium fertilization**
Dusty miller Aphids None serious Medium fertilization**
Senecio
Flowering tobacco Whiteflies TMV, other viruses, damping Expose seed to light
Nicotiana off during germination.
Medium fertilization**
Fuchsia Whiteflies Botrytis, tospovirus, black Light fertilization*
Fuchsia x hybrida root rot, rust
Gardenia Aphids, mealybugs, Botrytis Overwatering or
Gardenia spider mites temperature swings can
jasminoides cause bud drop
Gazania Thrips None serious pH: 5.6-6.2
Gazania Mediium fertilization**
Gerbera daisy Aphids, thrips Tospovirus, powdery mildew pH: 5.6–5.9
Gerbera jamesonii Light fertilization*
15
(continued)
Gloxinia Aphids, fungus gnats, Tospovirus, Botrytis, pH: 5.6–5.9
Sinningia speciosa thrips Phytophthora crown rot Light fertilization*
Hibiscus Aphids, mealybugs, Bacterial leaf spots, fungal Medium fertilization**
Hibiscus spider mites, whiteflies leaf spots, foliar nematode
rosa-sinensis
Hydrangea Whiteflies Powdery mildew, virus Medium fertilization**
Hydrangea
macrophylla
Impatiens Aphids, fungus gnats, Pythium root rot, Light fertilization*
Impatiens wallerana thrips Rhizoctonia root rot,
tospovirus; If plugs come in
with leaf spots (bacterial or
fungal) it can be troublesome;
otherwise leaf spots are
uncommon.
Ivy geranium Fungus gnats Botrytis, bacterial blight Oedema, salt sensitive
Pelargonium (Xanthomonas). May be Light fertilization*
peltatum a symptom-free host for
bacterial blight: never grow
near zonal geranium.
Lantana Thrips, whiteflies Foliar nematode pH: 5.6-6.2
Lantana camara Heavy fertilization***
Lilies Aphids, fungus gnats, Viruses, Botrytis, Pythium pH: 6.1–6.4
(Asiatic and thrips root rot, Rhizoctonia root rot Medium fertilization**
Oriental)
Lilium hybrids and
Easter lily
Lilium longiflorum
Lobelia Spider mites, thrips Tospovirus Medium fertilization**
Lobelia erinus
Marigolds Aphids, whiteflies Botrytis, fungal leaf spots, Some varieties very
Tagetes white mold (Sclerotinia), sensitive to air pollution.
Rhizoctonia web blight pH: 6.0–6.5
New Guinea Broad mites, fungus Tospovirus, Pythium root rot, pH: 5.7–6.2.
impatiens gnats, thrips Rhizoctonia root rot/blight Light fertilization*
Impatiens x hawkeri Myrothecium leaf blight.
Pansy Aphids, variegated Black root rot, Pythium root pH: 5.4–5.8
Viola x wittrockiana fritillary caterpillar, rot, Rhizoctonia blight, Light fertilization*
whiteflies fungal leaf spots, anthracnose
(Colletotrichum), Botrytis
16
(continued)
Periwinkle Thrips Tospovirus, Phomopsis blight Can be a “hidden host”
Vinca minor, (V. minor) for tospovirus because
V. major symptoms can be
inconspicuous.
Periwinkle, Green peach aphids Tospovirus, other viruses, pH: 5.4–5.8
Madagascar black root rot, Pythium root Very sensitive to cold.
Catharanthus roseus rot, Phytophthora crown rot Minimum temperature:
60 °F
Petunia Aphids, thrips Tobacco mosaic virus, Some varieties sensitive
Petunia x hybrida tospovirus, other viruses, to ozone. pH: 5.4–5.8
and other species Rhizoctonia damping-off,
black root rot, Botrytis
Phlox Aphids Botrytis, fungal leaf spots, Medium fertilization**
Phlox drummondii foliar nematode, stem and
bulb nematode (Ditylenchus),
powdery mildew, viruses
Poinsettia Fungus gnats, Lewis Botrytis, Pythium root rot, Fertilization is cultivar
Euphorbia mite, mealybugs, Rhizoctonia, poinsettia scab dependent.
pulcherrima twospotted spider mites,
Whiteflies
Primrose Thrips, whiteflies Tospovirus, other viruses, Light fertilization*
Primula acaulis Botrytis, fungal leaf spots
Regal geranium Thrips, whiteflies Virus, Botrytis. May be pH: 6.0–6.5
Pelargonium x a symptom-free host for Medium fertilization**
domesticum bacterial blight: never grow
near zonal geraniums.
Salvia Whiteflies, green peach Pythium and Rhizoctonia pH: 5.4–5.8 100 ppm
Salvia splendens aphids, melon aphids damping-off, tospovirus, based on nitrogen
S. farinacea downy mildew Light fertilization*
Salvia x superba
Scaevola TMV, Pythium root rot pH: 5.5-5.9
Scaevola aemula Medium fertilization**
Snapdragon Aphids, thrips Tospovirus, Pythium root rot, Chill seeds for several
Antirrhinum majus downy mildew, rust days before sowing to
improve germination.
pH: 5.4–5.8
100–200 ppm based on
nitrogen and potassium
Stock Aphids Rhizoctonia root Light fertilization*
Matthiola incana rot, black root rot
17
(continued)
Sweet alyssum Aphids Rhizoctonia root rot pH: 5.8-6.2
Lobularia maritima Needs light for
germination
Sweet William Aphids Anthracnose, fungal leaf pH: 6.2–6.8
Dianthus chinensis spots, Pythium root rot Medium fertilization**
Verbena Whiteflies, thrips Rhizoctonia damping-off, Seed can be difficult to
Verbena x hybrida black root rot, powdery germinate.
mildew, Botrytis, viruses Medium fertilization**
Zinnia Aphids Bacterial leaf spot Very sensitive to
Zinnia elegans (Xanthomonas), powdery cold: Minimum
mildew, Botrytis, Alternaria soil temperature for
leaf spot, Rhizoctonia germination: 70 °F
damping-off, tospovirus Obtain clean seed:
bacterial leaf spot and
Alternaria can be in the
seed.
Zonal geranium Aphids, cyclamen mites Pythium and Rhizoctonia Oedema pH: 6.0–6.5
Pelargonium x root rot/cutting rots, Light fertilization*
hortorum black root rot, bacterial
blight (Xanthomonas),
rust (Puccinia pelargonii-
zonalis), Botrytis
18
Table 2.2 Key Pests of Vegetable Transplants Grown In The Greenhouse
Key to Levels of Fertilization:

*Light fertilization—SME and PourThru EC of 0.25 to 0.50 mS/cm
**Medium fertilization— SME and PourThru EC of 0.50 to 1.5 mS/cm
***Heavy fertilization—SME and PourThru EC of 1.50 to 2.5 mS/cm

(Common name/Latin Mites, Arthropods,
name) Mollusks
Broccoli Aphids, caterpillars Rhizoctonia root rot, Obtain clean seed
Brassica oleracea bacterial black rot because bacterial black
rot is seed-borne.
Brussels sprouts Aphids, caterpillars Rhizoctonia root rot, Obtain clean seed
rot is seed-borne.
Cabbage Cabbage-root fly, slugs, Rhizoctonia root rot, Obtain clean seed
Brassica oleracea caterpillars Xanthomonas (black root because bacterial black
rot) rot is seed-borne.
Include micronutrients.
Cantaloupe Aphids, mites, whiteflies Pythium damping- Susceptible to sunscald
Cucumis melo off, leaf spotting from when removed from
bacterial fruit blotch, greenhouse and
watermelon fruit blotch transplanted outside.
Sensitive to cold.
Minimum night
temperature: 60 °F.
CauliBroccoli Aphids Rhizoctonia root rot, Obtain clean seed
rot is seed-borne.
Cauliflower Aphids, caterpillars Rhizoctonia root rot and Obtain clean seed
Brassica oleracea damping-off, bacterial because bacterial black
black rot rot is seed-borne.
Medium fertilization**
Include boron in
fertilizer.
Chives, common Aphids Rhizoctonia root rot and Light fertilization*
Allium schoenoprasum damping-off
Collards Caterpillars Rhizoctonia root rot, Obtain clean seed
Brassica oleracea bacterial black rot, downy because bacterial black
mildew rot is seed-borne.
Light fertilization with
micronutrients*
19
Table 2.2 Key Pests of Vegetable Transplants Grown In The Greenhouse (continued)

name) Mollusks
Cucumber Slugs and snails, spider Rhizoctonia root rot Sensitive to cold (min.
Cucumis sativus mites and damping-off, leaf/ night temperature is
cotyledon spot from 60 °F). Susceptible to
bacterial fruit blotch sunscald when removed
from greenhouse and
transplanted outside.
Eggplant Aphids Pythium and Rhizoctonia Very sensitive to cold.
Solanum melongena root rots and damping- Injury occurs below
off; stunting and leaf spot 40 °F. Minimum night
from tospovirus temperature: 60 °F.
Endive Aphids, slugs Pythium and Rhizoctonia Light fertilization*
Cichorium endivia root rot and damping-off
Escarole Slugs Pythium root rot Light fertilization*
Cichorium endivia
Kale Caterpillars, slugs Rhizoctonia root rot, Obtain clean seed
Brassica oleracea bacterial black rot, downybecause bacterial black
mildew rot is seed-borne.
Kolrabi Caterpillars Rhizoctonia root rot, Obtain clean seed:
Brassica oleracea bacterial black rot, downybacterial black rot
mildew is seed-borne. Light
fertilization with
micronutrients*
Lettuce Root aphids, aphids on Pythium and Rhizoctonia Tospovirus causes leaf
Lactuca sativa foliage, slugs damping-off; tospovirus spot and stunting
Okra Rhizoctonia and Pythium Difficult to germinate;
Abelmoschus root rot and damping-off, need to scarify seed.
esculentus tospovirus
Onions Onion fly Rhizoctonia damping-off Pre-germinate
Allium cepa Pythium root rot,
Rhizoctonia root rot and
damping-off
Parsley Pythium root rot,
Petroselinum crispum Rhizoctonia root rot and
damping-off
Peppers Aphids, spider mites, Leaf spot mosaic from Light fertilization*
Capsicum spp. thrips tospovirus and other
viruses; stunting, leaf
distortions, and mosaic
from tobacco mosaic
virus (TMV); bacterial
leaf spots; Phytophthora
root rot and wilt
20
Table 2.2 Key Pests of Vegetable Transplants Grown In The Greenhouse (continued)

name) Mollusks
Pumpkins Aphids, thrips Pythium root rot and Light fertilization*
Cucurbita spp. damping-off, downy
mildew
Spinach Leaf miner, slugs Pythium and Light fertilization*
Spinacia oleracae Rhizoctonia root rot
damping-off, white rust,
downy mildew
Squash Slugs, black bean Pythium and Rhizoctonia Sensitive to cold
Cucurbita spp. aphids, aphids damping-off Light fertilization*
Tomato Aphids, mites, thrips, Bacterial spot; bacterial Very sensitive to
Lycopersicon spp. whiteflies canker; Bacterial spot; herbicide drift, especially
bacterial canker; bacterial from 2,4-D, applied near
speck; Septoria leaf greenhouse. Obtain clean
spot; damping-off from seed: many bacterial and
Pythium; Rhizoctonia fungal diseases may be
stem canker from seed-borne.
Sclerotinia; sclerotiorum Medium fertilization**
(timber rot); Botrytis;
tospovirus-causing
leaf spot and stunting;
tobacco mosaic virus
causing distortions,
mosaic, and stunting;
damping-off from
Pythium and Rhizoctonia;
Cotyledon and leaf
spot from bacterial fruit
blotch; Alternaria solani
Watermelon Spider mites, whiteflies Sensitive to cold.
Citrullus vulgaris Light fertilization*
21
Table 2.3 Monitoring For Pests In The Greenhouse
Pest Best Monitoring Identification Features Potential Biological

Method Control
Aphids (general) Yellow sticky cards Each species differs in size, Green lacewings
to indicate aphid color, location on plant, and (Chrysoperla carnea
migration into crop preference. Most aphids and Chrysoperla
greenhouses in spring, are 1–4 mm in size, pear-shaped rufilabris), Aphid
summer, and fall. and soft bodied with 2 cornicles midge (Aphidoletes
Inspect plant foliage (tailpipes) at rear of abdomen. aphidimyza),
weekly. Presence Legs and antennae are typically Parasitic wasp
of cast skins and/or long and slender. Winged forms (Aphidius colemani)
honeydew is a good found on cards; wingless forms Entomopathogenic
indicator of aphids. found on plants. fungus (Beauveria
bassiana - Naturalis-O
and BotaniGard).
Aphid, Found only on Shiny, reddish-brown to See aphid section
Chrysanthemum chrysanthemum blackish-brown. Cornicles above.
(Macrosiphoniella species. are short, stout, and black. No
sanborni) indentation between antennae.
Aphid, Green Inspect plant foliage Range in color from light green, See aphid section
peach weekly. Found light yellow, green, gray-green, above.
(Myzus persicae) on wide range of pink to reddish. Pronounced
May damage plants perennials. Prefer new indentation between antennae on
through disease growth. front of head. Cornicles are long,
transmissions as thin, and slightly swollen in the
well as from feeding middle. Tip of cornicles are dark
and slightly flared.
Aphid, Melon Found on a wide range Color varies from light yellow See aphid section
(Aphis gossypii) of perennials. to dark green. No indentation above.
between antennae. Distinct
cornicles always dark in color for
entire length.
Caterpillars Several species feed Most caterpillars have Microscreening over
(general) on greenhouse crops. appendages, called prolegs, on vents and greenhouse
Most adult butterflies abdomen. All have mouthparts openings excludes
and moths overwinter for chewing foliage and stems or migrating adult
outdoors and migrate boring into stems. moths and butterflies.
into greenhouses Several species of
in the fall. Regular moths and butterflies
monitoring of adult are susceptible to
flight activity alerts applications of Bacillus
growers when to look thuringiensis kurstaki
for eggs laid on foliage (Bt) in early caterpillar
or stems. stages. Bt is sold under
several brand names.
22
Table 2.3 Monitoring For Pests In The Greenhouse (continued)

Method Control
Fungus gnats Sticky cards will Adults are small, humpbacked Keep soil on dry side.
Bradysia spp. capture adults. Lay flies with long legs, beaded Entomopathogenic
potato slices (1" by 1")
antennae, and a single pair of nematodes, including
on soil surfaces; larvae
wings with characteristic forked Steinernema feltiae and
will migrate to potato vein near wing tips. Larvae are S. carpocapsae, control
disk surface facing opaque to white with black head larval stages. Bacillus
soil. capsule. thuringiensis var.
serotype H14 (Gnatrol)
control larvae. Several
IGRs control larvae,
including Dimilin
(Adept), Neem (Azatin,
Neemazad) and
S-kinoprene (Enstar II).
Leafhoppers Sticky cards will Small, slender insects that Microscreening should
occasionally capture disperse rapidly when disturbed. exclude leafhoppers
adults. In outdoor Both adults and nymphs run that migrate into
beds, sweep nets can sideways and are good jumpers. greenhouse. Outdoors,
sometimes capture Most are wedge-shaped and vary control may not be
adults. in color: shades of green, yellow, necessary on most
brown, or mottled. crops. Treat plants
susceptible to viruses
transmitted by
leafhoppers with a
systemic insecticide to
kill the feeding insects.
Thrips Adults congregate in Adults are small, generally 1–2 Microscreening over
Chilli thrips open flowers and can mm in length. Bodies of adults vents and greenhouse
(Scirtothrips be easily tapped or are tubular with narrow, pointed, openings can exclude
dorsalis) blown out of flowers. fringed wings. Two larval migrating adults.
Flower thrips Many thrips species, stages feed on plant parts above Predaceous mites,
(Frankliniellla especially WFTs, are ground. Prepupal and pupal Amblyseius
tritici) found in tight, hidden stages occur in soil. Mount adult (=Neoseiulus)
Onion thrips (Thrips parts of plants; others species on microscope slide for cucumeris and
tabaci) such as flower thrips identification. Iphiseius (=Amblyseius)
Western flower feed on open leaf degenerans, are used
thrips (WFT) surfaces. Feeding for first instar thrips
(Frankliniella thrips deposit minute larvae. Minute pirate
occidentalis) black fecal spots in bugs, Orius sp., feed
circular shapes on leaf on larvae and adults.
surfaces. Yellow sticky Entomopathogenic
cards capture thrips, fungus, Beauveria
but blue sticky cards bassiana, infects thrips;
are more attractive to direct fine mist spray
WFT. onto pests.
23
Table 2.3 Monitoring For Pests In The Greenhouse (continued)

Method Control
Twospotted spider Pests tend to build up Larvae are very small and pale The predaceous mite,
mites under hot conditions. green with 6 legs. Protonymphs Phytoseiulus persimilis,
(Tetranychus Examine plants in and deutonymphs are pale green is an effective control.
urticae) warmest section of to brown with 8 legs. Adults have Amblyseius californicus
greenhouse for early 2 large black spots on each side is also used for control.
infestations. Look for and 8 legs.
stippling of foliage.
In heavy infestations,
look for webbing on
stems, flowers, and
upper leaves.
Whiteflies Use yellow sticky Adults are short in length (1–2 Release Encarsia
Bandedwinged cards to monitor for mm), white, and fly-like. Eggs formosa early in crop
whitefly (BWWF) adults. Place sticky are tiny, spindle-shaped, and laid cycle to suppress
(Trialeurodes cards near intake on undersides of leaf surfaces. greenhouse whiteflies
abutilonea) vents and doors SLWF eggs start out white but before population
Greenhouse to detect inward- turn amber-brown. GHWF build-up. Suppress
whitefly (GHWF) migrating adults. Plant eggs start white and turn to Bemesia tabaci
(Trialeurodes inspection should gray with time. Crawlers and whitefly by using
vaporariorum) detect immature stages other nymphal stages are oval, Eretmocerus eremicus.
B strain and Q strain on under-surface of flattened, and translucent. An entomopathogenic
(Bemisia tabaci) foliage. fungus, Beauveria
bassiana (Naturalis-O
and BotaniGard), is
effective against nymph
stages of B. tabaci and
GHWF.
24
Chapter 3
Screening Out Insect Pests
David S. Ross, Extension Agricultural Engineer
Introduction
Screening, which is an IPM practice for blocking the movement of thrips, whiteflies, and aphids into
greenhouses, can be very effective if you start with clean plants and keep doors closed. Place fine screening
material over vents to block the entry of insects into the greenhouse. The screen will reduce crop damage
caused by insects that normally migrate into the growing area. Be careful when you size the screening
material because the screen’s small openings can block airflow. The area of screening material has to be 2 to
5 times the area of the existing vents for air to have enough open space to pass through a screen’s openings.
Existing greenhouses require structural modifications to support the screening material.
Management makes the difference when it comes to the effectiveness of the screening material. Do not
leave doors open. Do not move contaminated plants into the greenhouse to populate it with the very insects
the screening is meant to keep out. Maintain a clean house or the value of the screening material is lost.
Greenhouse Static Pressure Considerations

Fans have to overcome resistance as air moves around obstacles in the greenhouse and through the vents to
pass through the greenhouse; this resistance is measured as a pressure loss. A static pressure loss of 0.03inch
water gauge (w.g.) pressure is typical for fan ventilation systems. Evaporative cooling pads add resistance
(Fig. 3.1). Fans are sized at a static pressure loss of 0.10- or 0.125-inch water gauge pressure. Because
insect screening adds to the static pressure load, designers try to hold its pressure loss to 0.03-inch water
gauge pressure. These design guidelines allow for some clogging before the fan static pressure sizing limit
is reached. A manometer is a simple device that measures is the pressure drop in the house caused by the
resistance to air flow (Fig. 3.2). One end of tube is inside and one end is outside. Liquid is pushed to lower
pressure. Energy loss causes slight vacuum inside as air is pulled through it.
Plants
Exhaust
fan
Internal air X X Evaporative

movement X X Cooling Pad
X X
0.02 + 0.01 + 0.04 = 0.07 inch w.g.

Figure 3.1 Evaporative Cooling Pad Figure 3.2 Manometers
Restrictions cause pressure losses as air moves through A manometer meausures static pressure
greenhouse. drop of airflow through greenhouse.
25
Approach Velocity Determines Area
Some screening-material
manufacturers have measured the
static pressure loss of their material at
different airflow rates or air velocities.
Static pressure, inches water

The results show that as the air
velocity (of the air moving through
the screening material) increases the
airflow resistance and static pressure
increase. To avoid a reduction in the
ventilation airflow, the velocity of air
through the screening material must
be limited to that velocity at which the
static pressure is 0.03-inch w.g. This is
Air Velocity, fpm
called the approach velocity and is the
maximum air velocity allowed (Fig. Figure 3.3 Resistance Curve
3.3). Some manufacturers provide Curve showing pressure loss for air movement at different
two or more screening materials. velocities through screening material.
Hole sizes vary as do the applications
for which they are suited. The anti-thrips material, which usually has openings that are smaller than the
norm, generally is more restrictive to airflow; therefore its use requires more surface area. A variety of
materials are available in various opening sizes and designs; for this reason the restriction on airflow varies
considerably. You need data about the material you will be using in order to make an informed decision
about required surface area (Fig. 3.4).
Free open area
Free open area
Figure 3.4 Air Movement With Screening

The free open area for air movement is reduced by the threads of the screening
material.
Sizing the Screening

Some manufacturers provide the air velocity vs. static pressure information, which makes material selection
easy. For example, a manufacturer states that a screening material reaches a static pressure drop of 0.03inch
water gauge pressure at an approach velocity of 350 feet per minute (fpm). This represents the pressure
drop or resistance to airflow through the material at the stated velocity. In other words we must spread
the incoming air out over enough area to obtain the required ventilation rate, cubic feet per minute (cfm),
without exceeding 350 fpm. Use the relationship of Airflow Rate equals Velocity times Area (Fig. 3.5).
26
Example: A CFM = fpm x ft2
greenhouse that
requires 30,000 cfm
ventilation rate. If
the approach velocity
is 350 fpm, the total
screening area must be
at least 30,000 divided
by 350 or 85.7 square Figure 3.5 Ventilation Air Flow
feet of screened area. Ventiliation air flow (CFM) is air velocity (fpm),
The actual existing times open area of louver (ft2)
inlet louver area for
this house is likely less than half that area. The screening material cannot simply cover the inlet louvers. A
box must be designed to provide a larger surface cover for air to enter before passing through the smaller
inlet louver openings. For winter ventilation, the inlet design velocity is 700 fpm, which suggests that most
greenhouses will need at least double the inlet area for the screening material used in this example. The
design numbers will vary for each screen material.
Retrofitting a Greenhouse with Screening

The use of insect screening materials usually means retrofitting the greenhouse so the material can be
properly installed. Since structures by different manufacturers vary somewhat, there is no one method for
retrofitting. However, the addition of another hoop on the end of a Quonset house is one way of providing a
surface to hold the screening material. Large gutter-connected houses use a second wall on one side to hold
the screening material. The inside wall holds the inlet vents or vents plus pad cooling system for the house.
Screening material can hang down from side vents to move with the vent as it opens and closes to protect
the opening. Professional design assistance is recommended for major retrofitting.
Roof Ventilation and Screening

Although screening materials have been developed for roof vents, most materials do not provide much extra
surface area for the necessary air movement. A pleated screening material is available that provides extra
surface area when the vents are open. Naturally ventilated greenhouses are difficult to deal with because
only temperature differences and wind—usually at their lowest values during the worst summer heat—cause
the air to move. Adding the screening only further blocks the heat’s escape.
The relatively new open-roof greenhouse structure is the ultimate in natural or roof ventilation by being
fully open during warm days. Insect screening would have to be installed similarly to a heat curtain in order
to be effective in these houses. The screening would restrict airflow. An alternative is to use low-percentage
shade fabric made with silver reflective material as a movable shade curtain to try to repel the inward
migration of adult thrips, winged aphids, and whiteflies. This method has not been proved yet but is being
tried as a low airflow restrictive method.
Summary
Insect screening can be effective in reducing insect entry into greenhouses. With fan systems, sufficient
screening surface area is required to maintain an air velocity low enough to keep the static pressure to about
30 percent of the static pressure capability of the exhaust fans. Screening is not effective if doors are left
open or contaminated plants are moved into the house. Naturally ventilated houses are difficult to operate
using screening. Open-roof houses offer a new challenge to the grower for repelling insects.
27
Chapter 4
Disinfecting a Greenhouse:
Keeping Diseases and Insects in Check
Stanton Gill, Extension Specialist
Introduction
A key element in developing an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) approach to disease and insect control
in greenhouses is to regularly disinfect all working surfaces and equipment used in the greenhouse. The
objective should be to reduce the movement of pathogens and pests on tools, mechanical equipment, flats,
pots, and bench surfaces. It is a good idea to slow the development of resistance by rotating your use of
disinfectants. Periodically, change from one disinfectant to another. The following disinfectants can be part
of your rotation:
Alcohol (70% isopropyl)

Common isopropyl alcohol is an effective disinfectant that kills microbes on contact. The volatility of
alcohol makes it best suited for dipping or swiping propagation equipment or shears. It is generally not
practical as a soaking material.
Chlorine Bleach (sodium hypochlorite)

Sold under several brand names, chlorine bleach is the most widely used and least expensive disinfectant
on the market. Once you mix chlorine bleach, it must be used within 2 hours or the chlorine will evaporate
as chlorine gas. Chlorine solution exposed to sunlight or high levels of organic material will break down
rapidly. Mix chlorine outside and avoid breathing the fumes from concentrated formulas. The Clorox brand
of chlorine bleach is the only brand sold that has an Environmental Protection Agency registration number
for use as a disinfectant.
Most household bleach has a chlorine concentration of 6.00 – 6.25 percent. A 0.6 percent final solution
concentration will kill most microbes that infest surfaces. To obtain a 0.6 percent concentration, use one part
household bleach with nine parts water. Sodium hypochlorite can accelerate corrosion of some metals and
may damage some plastic surfaces.
Hydrogen Dioxide
Sold under the brand name ZeroTol, hydrogen dioxide can be used as a surface sanitizer for greenhouse
structures, benches, pots, and tools. Use the ratio of one part hydrogen dioxide to 49 parts water.
Quaternary Ammonium Chloride Salt

Quaternary salts, which are sold under the brand names Geenshield, Physan 20, and Prevent, are much
more stable than alcohol and chlorine bleach. Soak objects for at least 10 minutes for proper disinfecting.
Quaternary salts are inactivated by organic material. Flats and pots should have all organic material removed
before disinfecting with quaternary salts.
29
Chapter 5
Pesticide Application Equipment: Selection and Calibration
David S. Ross, Extension Agricultural Engineer
Introduction
Proper application of pesticides is essential for achieving the desired control. Applying pesticides is an
unpopular and time-consuming task. You must use the correct application equipment. No one type of
sprayer can do all tasks. Calibrate the equipment to ensure that the proper amount of chemical reaches the
target. Reaching the target does not happen automatically; the operator influences the success or failure of
the task. Actually, the operator must time the spraying and accurately proportion the chemical over the target
area, being careful to direct the spray in a manner that achieves good coverage of all the plant parts, foliage
and flowers.
While spraying is a principal means of controlling insects and disease, growers must identify and eliminate
the source of the insect or disease problem to reduce the frequency of sprayings. Weeds or grasses near the
greenhouse may harbor the insects or disease carriers. A compost or discard pile of noncomposted plants
located near the inlet vents can also be a source of insects or disease. Sites that might harbor pests that
can move into the greenhouse must be kept clean. Insect screening, if properly used, can help to reduce
the quantity of insects entering the greenhouse. Rotating the classes of chemicals you use will help delay
resistance to chemical control from developing.
Droplet Size Versus the Pest

One of the primary differences among the several different types of sprayers available is the size of the
droplet each produces. Your ultimate goal is to reach the target with pesticide. Reaching the smallest insects,
mites, and disease organisms requires complete coverage with tiny droplets or wetting to the point of runoff.
For good coverage a contact insecticide or fungicide must come in direct contact with the target; a systemic
pesticide must be absorbed by the plant. Weeds are killed by herbicides that are absorbed by foliage; large
droplets supply adequate coverage of the plant for absorption to take place and reduce the chances of the
herbicide drifting onto the desired crop.
There are optimum spray drop sizes for specific targets (Table 5.1). Note the small droplet sizes for small,
flying insects and larger droplets for herbicides. The reason for these droplet sizes is illustrated by looking
at the coverage of different size droplets on some surface areas. Droplet sizes are given in microns or one-
millionth (0.000001) of a meter. For reference, 1 micron is 0.00003937 inch, and a human hair is about 100
microns (0.0039 inch) in diameter.
Table 5.1 Optimum Spray Drop Sizes For Various Targets

Source: Adapted from Matthews 1979
Target (in microns)

Flying insects 10 to 50
Insects on foliage 30 to 50
Diseases on foliage 40 to 100
Growing medium and weeds 250 to 500 (avoids spray drift)
31
There is a relationship between droplet size and the number of droplets per unit area (Table 5.2). A great
number of small droplets give better coverage than a few large droplets. To reach a small target (insect or
mite), therefore, use small droplets; the more droplets that fill a given area, the more likely the target is
to make contact with a droplet. Note that 1 square inch equals 6.45 square centimeters; 19,099 drops per
square centimeter equals 123,189 drops per square inch.
The mathematical relationship between diameter of a droplet and its volume is a cubic one. A 100-micron
droplet reduced to a 50-micron size results in eight 50-micron droplets. In other words, the volume of
one 100-micron droplet equals the volume of eight 50-micron droplets. A 100-micron droplet reduced to
10-micron droplets results in 1,005 10-micron-size droplets. Although a small insect or mite may walk
around a 100-micron droplet on a leaf, 1,005 10-micron droplets will cover the leaf, which makes the insect
unable to avoid them. The increased coverage makes it hard to avoid the chemical.
Table 5.2 Theoretical Spray Coverage
Applying one liter per hectare with various spray drop sizes.
Drop Diameter (microns) Number of Drops Per Square Centimeter
10 19,099
20 2,387
50 153
100 19
200 2.4
400 0.3
1,000 0.02
Types of Sprayers
The three primary types of sprayers used in greenhouses are 1) Hydraulic or high-volume hydraulic,
2) Targeted low volume, and 3) Fog or ultralow volume. Each sprayer has a purpose; a greenhouse operation
will require two or more types of sprayers for various tasks. Primary differences among sprayers are the
quantity of water used, the operating pressure, and the size of droplets produced.
Hydraulic
A hydraulic or high-volume sprayer uses a high flow rate of water to wet the foliage to the point of runoff.
This sprayer uses standard rates of chemicals and large volumes of water. The droplets coming from the
sprayer are generally more than 100 microns in size. The sprayer applies herbicides in large droplets of 200
to 400 microns at a low pressure of 15 to 60 pounds per square inch (psi) to avoid drift. Insecticides and
fungicides are applied at higher pressures— more than 60 psi—to achieve droplets of 100 microns or less in
diameter. The lower-volume greenhouse sprayers use 500 psi and 2 to 4 gallons per minute (gpm) flows to
wet to runoff.
The quantity of water to use depends on the specific sprayer and nozzle, the spraying technique of the
operator, and the size of the crop. Calibrating the sprayer according to the operator and the crop is essential
for mixing the correct amount of spray mix. Ten thousand square feet of crop early in its growth may require
15 to 20 gallons of water. As the crop reaches maturity and has more foliage, achieving good coverage may
require 30 to 50 gallons of water.
The hydraulic sprayer can do a good job of covering foliage. The operator can see the spray on the foliage
and know whether or not the target has been hit. The larger flow of water provides force to move foliage
aside in order to penetrate the canopy and stir the leaves. By using a low application rate the operator can
hold the spray nozzle onto a target long enough to achieve penetration without excessive wetting.
32
Low Volume
The targeted low-volume sprayer may be hydraulic, air assisted, electrostatic air assisted, or rotary. The
object of using this type of sprayer is to use small droplets and a low quantity of water to carry the chemical
to the crop. The low-volume hydraulic sprayer utilizes high pressures between 1,000 and 3,000 psi to break
the droplets into roughly 50-micron size or smaller; however, these sprayers use less water and produce a
mist that is too fine to show a wetting pattern. There is no wet-to-runoff pattern to observe. The operator
aims the sprayer at the target and sprays until the air volume under the foliage is filled with spray. The
operator is responsible for obtaining full coverage. A concentrated chemical mix (chemical plus water) can
be used because less water will be applied.
The calibration process is more difficult for low-volume sprayers because the spray does not wet the foliage
as visibly as the high-volume hydraulic sprayer does. Special water-sensitive paper that indicates coverage
is available (from some sprayer or chemical suppliers). The paper changes color when droplets of water
land on it. Attach pieces of this paper to plants in various places before spraying and examine the paper
afterward to observe how well the spray droplets were distributed during calibration or normal spraying. The
calibration process also helps to determine the amount of water needed to cover a given area. Calibration
is still very important for spray mix preparation to avoid costly waste. Calibration information may also
be useful in determining legal amounts of chemical to use with a measured amount of water for covering a
given area. It may be necessary to consult the chemical producer for the allowable mixing ratios.
Air-assisted low-volume sprayers use air as the primary carrier of the chemical. High-speed air strikes the
stream of liquid chemical or chemical and water being injected into the sprayer and breaks the stream into
small droplets. The air then carries the liquid to the plants. The speed at which the sprayer moves past the
foliage determines the penetration of air into the foliage to deliver the chemical. Slow movement may be
necessary to allow the air mass created by the sprayer to penetrate into thick foliage, pushing the air in the
foliage out the other side. The sprayer air volume must displace the air volume under the foliage.
Electrostatic sprayers produce fine droplets that 30- to 60-micron in size, which are electrically charged and
then air-blasted into the crop foliage. The negatively charged particles are attracted to any surface and can
provide coverage that is as good as the coverage from a high-volume sprayer. A sprayer with a spinning or
rotary disk is used to impact and break a stream of water into droplets that are 60 to 80 microns in diameter.
A variety of sizes are available for greenhouse use.
Fog or Ultra-Low Volume

The fogger uses little water (2 liters per 10,000 square feet) and produces fine droplets less than 25 microns
in diameter. When you distribute pesticides in very small droplets as a fog your rate of application is
reduced. Some chemicals are not labeled for reduced rates and some formulations are not intended to be
used in ultralow-volume sprayers. Clogging will occur with some chemicals; special carriers are needed
with some pesticides.
Mechanical cold foggers operate between 1,000 and 3,000 psi to force the mixture of chemical and a small
amount of water through the nozzle. Thirty-micron droplets drop out of the air fairly quickly, but 5micron
droplets float in air currents for hours. These sprayers use no chemical additives.
Thermal foggers use a pulsing jet engine to produce a highly visible fog that can stay suspended in the air
for up to 6 hours. Inside the thermal fogger, a gasoline and air mixture explodes in an enclosed resonator.
The explosion rushes out as a jet stream. A chemical solution is injected into the jet stream and is blown
apart into very small 0.5- to 30-micron particles. A carrier solution added to the mix causes a visible fog,
eliminates the evaporation of droplets, and ensures uniform particle sizes.
33
An aerosol micro-particle generator sprayer is available. It uses an oilless air compressor to produce high-
pressure air. The air flows through a special nozzle to produce superfine fog particles of 0.5 to 10 microns in
diameter. These particles can stay suspended for up to 6 hours. No special carrier solution is required.
One commercial company packages a pure technical active ingredient in a container that emits the material
as a fog. You open an aerosol can or cans and set them down in the greenhouse, starting at the point farthest
from the exit and walking toward the exit. The company claims 40 percent of the material reaches the
undersides of foliage.
Some sprayers have a fan to move the air around the greenhouse; if not, use the HAF (horizontal airflow
fans) to distribute the fog throughout the building.
Calibration
Proper sprayer use involves following a procedure that measures the amount of water or spray used to cover
a given area or volume at a known rate of operator travel speed. Calibration, which tells you the amount of
liquid that was applied to a known unit area, enables you to prepare chemical spray mixes properly.
For a hydraulic sprayer fill the sprayer with water, spray a known area of the greenhouse crop, and then
record the time required for spraying. The goal is to spray the water to achieve uniform coverage. Next,
measure the water required to refill your sprayer. Calculate the spray rate by dividing the gallons used by the
area covered. Adjust the rate by adjusting the nozzle or your walking rate.
If a nozzle wears out or an operator rushes and does a poor job of coverage, the amount of spray used should
alert the owner or operator to a problem. The operator’s movement is critical to applying the correct amount
of spray.
Measuring the output of a nozzle will verify its rate of flow. The manufacturer can provide information
about the discharge rate (gallons per minute) of each nozzle at several pressures. A good quality sprayer
should have a pressure gauge to tell if the sprayer is operating properly (on all sprayers moving liquid at
pressure). Set and/or record the pressure of liquid going to the nozzle. Catch the discharge of the nozzle in a
container for a measured period of time. Measure the amount of liquid collected.
Calculate the flow through the nozzle in gallons per minute using the measured volume and time. Compare
this value to the manufacturer’s discharge rate for the pressure observed. If you follow the procedure fairly
accurately, the measured discharge rate should approximate the rate presented in the manufacturer’s data.
Small differences may be caused by wear.
You can calibrate a low-volume sprayer in a similar manner. Carefully direct the low-volume sprayer
into the foliage to exchange the air under the foliage with the air containing the pesticide. Practice and
calibration help the operator to establish the amount of water and chemical to use for large jobs.
Wear chemical-resistant personal protective equipment (PPE) during the calibration and during the
spraying—the operator needs to experience the same environment during calibration as during actual spray
application. Protective equipment is a must during pesticide application.
34
Part 2
Insect and Mite Management
Chapter 6 Insecticide and Miticide Classes
Chapter 7 Biological Control of Greenhouse Pests
Chapter 8 Biopesticides and Reduced-risk Pesticides
Chapter 9 Understanding Insect Growth Regulators
Chapter 10 Impact of Selected Pesticides on Bees
Chapter 11 Insecticides Registered for Greenhouse Ornamentals
Chapter 12 Insecticides Registered for Vegetable Transplants

Chapter 6
Insecticide and Miticide Classes
Introduction
Insecticides and miticides are tools used by growers to manage insects and mites. Generally these products
do not eliminate the problems, but they maintain mite and insect populations at acceptable levels. The
biological world is designed to modify and adapt to overcome any challenge to its survival. With this
information in mind, use insecticides and miticides correctly to manage pest problems and to delay the
development of resistance to chemicals.
IRAC
The Insecticide Resistance Action Committee (IRAC) is an organization dedicated to slowing the
development of pest resistance. It was founded in 1984 as a specialized technical group to help prevent or
delay the development of resistance in insect and mite pests.
Resistance Defined
Resistance to insecticides, miticides and fungicides is defined by IRAC as “a heritable change in the
sensitivity of a pest population that is reflected in the repeated failure of a product to achieve the expected
level of control when used according to the label recommendations for that pest species”.
Rotation – Ways to Delay Resistance Development

The assumption is that rotations of compounds from different mode of action (MoA) classes remain the
most viable resistance management technique. Most insecticides and miticides affect insects and mites in
specific ways. IRAC currently classifies insecticides and miticides into 28 different modes of action. This
publication identifies only those insecticides and miticides used in greenhouses by their modes of action
Table 6.1).
Timing for chemical class rotation is slightly different for insects and mites compared to disease control. To
delay the onset of resistance to pesticides, it is usually recommended to rotate from one pesticide to another
one that has a different mode of action after 1 to 2 insect or mite generations. This chart may be used to
identify the mode of action of a pesticide and to determine other pesticides with different modes of action
that may be used in a pesticide rotation plan.
37
Table 6.1 Mode of Action (MoA) Classification of Insecticides and Miticides Used in
Maryland Greenhouse Operations
Please Note: IRAC created 28 groups. We have not included groups that do not have any chemicals
registered for use in greenhouses and nurseries.
Group Main Group and Primary Chemical Class Trade Name (Active Ingredient)
Site of Action
1A Acetylcholine - nerve action Carbamates Mesurol 75-W (methiocarb)
Carbaryl 4L, Sevin (carbaryl)
1B Esterase inhibitors – nerve Organophosphates Acephate 97 UP; Orthene TT&O
action 97; 1300 Orthene TR (acephate)
DuraGuard ME; Dursban 50 W
(chlorpyrifos)
*Duraplex TR (chlorpyrifos +
cyfluthrin)
3/3A Sodium channel modulator Pyrethroids Attain TR, Decathlon 20 WP;
Menace GC, Onyx Pro, Talstar
Select, Up-Star, Widsom
(bifenthrin)
Decathlon 20 WP (cyfluthrin)
*Discus (cyfluthrin+imidacloprid)
Pyreth-It, Pyronyl, Scimitar
(lamda-cyhalothrin)
Astro, Ambush 25W, *Perm-
Up 3.2 EC, *Pounce 25 WP
(permethrin)
Pyganic (pyrethrins)
Safer® End AllTM Insecticidal Soap
with Pyrethrin Insecticide
Pyrethrum TR, Pyrenone Crop
Spray, Prentox Pyronyl Crop
Spray, Pyreth-It Formula 2,
Pyreth-It (pyrethrin + piperonyl
butoxide/PBO)
Mavrik Aquaflow
(tau-fluvalinate)
4A Nicotine acetylcholine Neonicotinoids TriStar (acetamiprid)
receptor disruptors- nerve *Discus (cyfluthrin+
action imidacloprid)
Lada, Bounty, Mallet, mantra,
marathon (imidacloprid)
Safari (dinotefuran)
Flagship (thiamethoxam)
4B Nicotine Fulex Nicotine Fumigator
4C Sulfoximine Sulfoxaflor XXPire (Sulfoxaflor)
5 Nicotine acetylcholine Spinosyns Conserve SC (spinosad)
receptor agonist (nerve action) Spinetorum XXPire WG
38
Maryland Greenhouse Operations (continued)
Site of Action
6 Chloride channel activator Avermectins Ardent, Avid 0.15EC, Minx,
Merlin (abamectin)
Sirocco (bifenazate + abamectin)
7A Juvenile hormone mimic Juvenile hormone Enstar AQ (kinoprene)
analogues
7B Fenoxycarb Preclude TR, (fenoxycarb)
7C Pyriproxyfen Distance, Fulcrum (pyriproxyfen)
9B Selective feeding blocker Pymetrozine Endeavor (pymetrozine)
9C Flonicamid Aria (flonicamid)
10A Mite growth and Clofentezine Ovation SC (clofentezine)
embryogenesis inhibitor Hexythiazox Hexygon DF (hexythiazox)
10B Etoxazole TetraSan (etoxazole)
Beethoven TR
11A1 Microbial disruptors of insect Bacillus thuringiensis Gnatrol WDG
midgut membrane var israelensis
11B2 B.t. var kurstaki Dipel Pro, Biobit HP, Deliver,
Javelin WG, Thuricide
12B Inhibitors of oxidative Organotin miticides ProMite (fenbutatin oxide)
phosphorylation, disruptor of
ATP formation
13 Uncoupler of oxidative Chlorfenapyr Pylon, Pylon TR (chlorfenapyr)
phosphorylation via disruption
of H proton gradient
15 Inhibitors of chitin Benzoylureas Adept, Dimilin SC
biosynthesis, type 0, (diflubenzuron)
Lepidopteran Pedestal (novaluron)
16 Chitin synthesis inhibitor Buprofezin Talus (buprofezin)
17 Molting disruptor Cyromazine Citation (cyromazine)
18 Ecdysone receptor agonists Meth-oxyfenozide Intrepid
20B Mitochondial electron Acequinocyl Shuttle O (acequinocyl)
transport inhibitor
21A Site 1 Mitochondrial electron METI acaricides Akari 5 SC(fenpyroximate)
transport inhibitor Magus (fenazaquin)
Sanmite (pyridaben)
21 B Tolfenpyrad Hachi-Hachi
22 Voltage-dependent sodium Indoxacarb Provaunt
channel blocker
39
Maryland Greenhouse Operations (continued)
Site of Action
23 Inhibitors of lipid biosynthesis Tetronic and tetramic Entrust, Judo (spiromesifen)
acid derivatives Kontos (spirotetramat)
Triact (clarified hydrophobic
extract of neem oil); Golden Pest
Spray oil (Soybean oil); UltraPure
oil/SuffOil-X, TriTek (mineral oil)
M-Pede (potassium salts of fatty
acids)
25 Neuroactive (unknown mode Cyflumetofen Sultan
of action)
28 Ryanodine receptor modulator Cyantraniliprole Mainspring
Unclassified: Compounds of unknown mode Azadirachtin Azatin ), Azatin XL, Aza-Direct,
listed but not of action AzaGuard, AzaSol, Molt-X,
classified by Ornazin 3% EC
the IRAC Beauveria bassiana– BotaniGard, Mycotrol O
fungus
Bifenazate Floramite (bifenazate)
Burkholderia strain Venerate [D7]
A396
Chromobacte- Grandevo PTO
rium subtsugae strain
PRAA4-1
Isaria fumosoroseus NoFly, Preferal
(formerly
Paecilomyces)
Metarhizium aniso- Met 52
pliae Strain F52
Metaldehyde Deadline
Nematodes Millenium (Steinernema
(beneficial/entomo- carpocapsae)
pathogenic) Entonem, Nemasys, NemaShields,
ScanMask (Steinernema feltiae)
Pyridalyl Overture (pyridalyl)
Pyrifluquinazon Rycar
Sulfoxaflor + Spineto- XXpire WG
rum
Insecticides Desiccation of membrane Oil Ecotect [D11] (Rosemary oil +
used in disruptor Peppermint oil)
greenhouse Iron Phosphate + Bug-N-Sluggo
not classified Spinosad
by IRAC
** Modes of action (MoA) – see IRAC Web site for additional information: www.irac-online.org
* Mixed IRAC groups
40
Chapter 7
Biological Control of Greenhouse Pests
Introduction
When using biological control organisms to control plant pests, it is necessary to release the beneficial
insects or apply entomopathogenic fungi or nematodes early in the crop cycle before plant pests are present
or established in high numbers. The turnover time for bedding plant crops is short so there is a limited time
for predators or parasitoids to reproduce. Regular monitoring is important when using beneficial organisms.
Inspect plug shipments closely to avoid bringing pests into the greenhouse. The egg or sessile stages of
insects are especially difficult to detect so when plants reach the production area, pest populations may
explode. Long-term and high value greenhouse grown crops such as hanging baskets, poinsettias, pansies,
and chrysanthemums are good choices for biological control programs. The diversity of crops in any one
greenhouse can make biological control use a challenge. Be sure to know the crops and plant pests that
typically infest them and plan a biological control program accordingly. Certain pesticides are compatible
with biological control organisms (Table 7.1).
Several widely available arthropod pathogens are discussed below. Insect pathogens are more cost-effective
compared to releasing predators and parasitoids.
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)

Bacillus thuringiensis is a widely-used pathogen for controlling early instars of caterpillars. Under cool,
dry conditions, Bt can be stored for up to 2 years. Insects must feed on the bacterium so when applying Bt
thorough coverage of the plant is important. Bacillus thuringiensis var kurstaki and B. thuringiensis var
aizawai control caterpillar pest species that include cabbage looper, corn earworm, European corn borer,
Florida fern caterpillar, saltmarsh caterpillar, and the variegated fritillary caterpillar. B. thuringiensis var
kurstaki can be used to control most caterpillars. It works best when it is applied while early instar larvae are
actively feeding. Some strains of B. thuringiensis are more effective against select species than other strains
of the pathogen.
Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (serotype H14) applied to the soil can kill fungus gnat larvae occurring in
moist soil. To control fungus gnats, repeat applications are often necessary because fungus gnats often have
overlapping generations and the bacteria is only effective against early instar larvae. Propagation areas kept
under mist maintain soil conditions best suited to using B. thuringiensis (serotype H14).
Entomopathogenic Nematodes
Entomopathogenic nematodes thrive in moist conditions and can be lethal to insects such as fungus gnats,
pupating thrips, and black vine weevil larvae. Commercial producers use two different methods for rearing
entomopathogenic nematodes. Nematodes may be produced in vitro on an artificial diet or they may be
reared in vivo in living hosts. Nematodes such as Steinernema carpocapsae and S. feltiae produced in
vitro are usually formulated in a manner enabling them to be stored for up to 6 months. Nematodes such
as Heterorhabditis bacteriophora that are produced in vivo may be stored for up to 3 months. To maintain
the nematodes’ effectiveness it is important to ask the supplier about the method of production and
recommendations for storage.
41
Nematode formulations include slurries, granules within inert clay carriers, gels, and sponges. Water must
be added to all formulations in order to rehydrate the nematodes. Apply nematodes as a soil drench for even
distribution throughout the substrate and to maximize their contact with soil-dwelling insects. Keep soils
moist and soil temperatures above 16 °C (60 °F) and below 32 °C (90 °F).
The infective nematode finds a susceptible host and enters the insect’s body through natural openings such
as the mouth, spiracles, or anus. The nematodes feed and release bacteria which live symbiotically in the
insect’s gut. The bacteria rapidly multiply, killing the insect. The nematodes mature and reproduce in the
colonized insect cadaver. These infective stages leave the insect’s body and return to the soil or substrate to
search for other hosts when no more food is available.
Entomopathogenic Fungi
Entomopathogenic fungi are pathogens that infect and kill insects. Insects are killed when they come into
contact with these fungi. Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin is an entomopathogenic fungus that
may control infestations of whiteflies, some thrips, and certain aphid species. Available as suspensions and
wettable powders, the active ingredients are conidia (spores) which are sprayed directly onto the pests. The
spores must contact the host directly to be effective so good spray coverage is critical. Hyphae, small tubes
that grow from the conidia, use a combination of mechanical pressure and enzymes to break through the
exoskeleton of the pests to enter the body cavity and attack the internal organs. The infected insect stops
feeding and dies within a few days.
42
Table 7.1 Compatiblity of Pesticides and Biological Control
Chemical Trade Name Effects on Beneficials

Abamectin Abamectin SPC, Avid, Lucid, Immediate contact kills mites.
Minx Less harmful to insects. Relatively
long residual toxicity. Toxic to
many beneficial insects, safe with
beneficial nematodes and fungi.
Toxic to honey bees.
Acephate Acephate 97 UP, Orthene TTO, Toxic.Immediate contact kills
1300 Orthene TR beneficial organisms. Some
residual toxicity. Toxic to honey
bees.
Acequinocyl Shuttle Considered safe/non-toxic.
Azadirachtin AZA-Direct, AzaGuard, Aza- Immediate contact is somewhat
Sol, Azera, Azatin, Molt-X, harmful/moderately to toxic. No
Ornazin, long residual toxicity. Applying
via irrigation is less toxic to
beneficials.
Acetamiprid TriStar Moderately toxic to beneficials.
Bacillus thuringiensis Serotype 14 Gnatrol WDG No impact on beneficial organisms.
(+Bti) Needs 3 applications at 7-day
intervals for best efficacy.
Bacillus thuringiensis (Kurstaki Dipel Pro, Biobit HP, Deliver, No impact on beneficial organisms.
strain) Javelin WG, Thuricide
Beauveria bassiana BotaniGard, Mycotrol Should not impact mobile
predators, but parasites such
as Encarsia formosa and other
parasitic wasps may be killed when
the internal parasite is infecting the
target pest.
Bifenazate Floramite Non-toxic to most beneficials.
However, toxic to predatory
gall midge, Feltiella acarisuga,
and aphid midge, Aphidoletes
aphidimyza, larvae. Moderately
toxic to predaceous mite larvae of
Amblyseius swirskii and Aphidius.
Bifenazate + Abamectin Sirroco Toxic to many beneficial insects;
safe with beneficial nematodes and
fungi. Toxic to honey bees.
Bifenthrin Attain, Menace, Onyx Pro, Safe for beneficial nematodes.
Talstar Select, Upstar, Wisdom Toxic to most beneficials. Toxic
to honey bees. Low toxicity to
Aphidius spp.
Buprofezin Talstar, Talus Insect growth regulator. Low
toxicity to most beneficials except
beetles.
43
Table 7.1 Compatiblity of Pesticides and Biological Control (continued)

Chlorfenapyr Pylon Toxic to many beneficials except
Orius spp.
Chlorpyrifos DuraGuard Toxic to most beneficials. Toxic to
honey bees.
Chlorpyrifos + Cyfluthrin DuraPlex Toxic to most beneficials.
Clofentezine Ovation Non-toxic to most beneficials.
Chromobacterium subtsugae strain Grandevo PTO Toxic to bees exposed to
PRAA4-1 direct treatment and to aquatic
invertebrates. Toxic to certain non-
target terrestrial arthropods.
Cyflumetofen Sultan Compatible with most biological
control organisms used for mite
control.
Cyfluthrin Decathlon Toxic to most beneficials.
Moderately toxic to beneficial
nematodes.
Cyromazine Citation Non-toxic to most beneficials
-except toxic to aphid midge,
Aphidoletes aphidimyza, green
lacewing, Chrysopa carnea, and
predatory gall midge, Feltiella
acarisuga.
Diflubenzuron Adept Non-toxic or low toxicity to most
beneficials. Toxic to green lacewing
Chrysopa carnea, and to nymph
of predatory bug, Macrolophus
caliginosus (= M. pygmaeus).
Dinotefuran Safari Toxic to honey bees.
Etoxazole Beethove TR, TetraSan Toxic to predatory mites.
Fenazaquin Magus Toxic to predatory mites,
predaceous gall midges. Non-toxic
to green lacewings and parasitic
wasps. Moderate to low toxicity to
predaceous bugs.
Fenbutatin-oxide ProMITE Low toxicity to most beneficials;
moderately toxic to larval
Anthocoris nemoralis, Aphidoletes
aphidimyza, and Anthocoris
nemoralis.
Fenpropathrin + Acephate Tame/Orthene TR Toxic to honey bees.
Fenpyoximate Akari Toxic to predaceous mites.
Moderately toxic to predaceous
wasps, Aphidius spp.
Hexythiazox Hexygon Non-toxic to most beneficials.
44

Imidacloprid AmTide, Marathon, Benefit 60 Toxic to most beneficials as a foliar
WP, Bounty, Mallet, Mantra, spray. Toxic to honey bees. Drench
Quali-Pro Imidacloprid application has low to moderate
toxicity except toxic to Euseius
gallicus, Stratolaelaps scimitus,
and Macrolophus pygmaeus.
Drench is moderately toxic to
beetle larvae, Dacnusa sibirica,
and Diglyphus isaea.
Imidacloprid + Cyfluthrin Discus Toxic to most beneficials. Toxic to
honey bees.
Insecticidal soap DES-X, M-Pede (Bayer, Immediate contact is somewhat
Bonide, natural Guard, Safer) harmful. Little or no residual
toxicity.
Meth-oxyfenozide Intrepid Toxic to Macrolophus pygmaeus
and Orius spp.
Nematodes, beneficial (Entomo- Nemasys, Entonem, Millenium, No known impact on parasites
pathogenic): Steinernema feltiae, NemaShield, ScanMask or predators. Entomopathogenic
Steinernema carpocapsae, and nematodes are usually applied as a
Heterorhabditis bacteriophora soil drench for fungus gnat larvae
control.
Oils FERTI-LOME Horticultural Immediate contact is somewhat
Oil Spray; Golden Pest Spray harmful. Little or no residual
Oil , JMS Stylet oil, Lesco toxicity. Not compatible with
Horticultural Oil #019492; some beneficials. Product has no
MONTEREY Horticultural residual effect. Mineral oil is toxic
Oil; PureSpray Green; RTSA to Macrolophus pygmaeus and
Horticultural oil; Saf-T-Side moderately toxic to Orius spp.,
oil; SuffOil-X; TriTek; Ultra- Amblyseius spp. and Anthocoris
Pure Oil nemoralis.
Novaluron Pedestal Moderately toxic to beetle larvae,
Macrolophus pygmaeus and Orius
spp. nymphs.
Permethrin Astro Highly toxic to most beneficials.
Toxic to honey bees. Low
toxicity to beneficial nematodes
(as a foliar application) and
the entomopathogenic fungus,
Paecilomyces fumosoroseus.
Pymetrozine Endeavor Non-toxic to most beneficials
except moderately toxic to
Aphidoletes aphidimyza,
Macrolophus pygmaeus, and
Feltiella acarisuga.
Pyrethrins Pyganic Highly toxic to most beneficials.
45

Pyrethrins + PBO Pyrenone, Pyrethrum TR Immediate contact kills beneficials.
Has relatively short residual
toxicity.
Pyrethroid (lamda-cyhalothrin) Pyreth-It, Pyronyl, Scimitar Highly toxic to most beneficials.
Pyridaben Overture 35 WP Non-toxic to green lacewings
and Paecilomyces fumosoroseus.
Moderately to highly toxic to most
other beneficials.
Pyriproxyfen Distance Non-toxic to most beneficials,
however highly toxic to
Phytoseiulus persimilis and
Encarsia formosa larvae.
Sulfoxaflor (IsoclastR) + XXPire WG No significant impact upon
Spinetorum predators or parasitoids. After
three hours of drying time, risk to
pollinators is greatly reduced.
Spinosad Conserve Non-toxic to Aphidoletes
(Saccharopolyspora spinosa) aphidimyza, green lacewing,
coleoptera, Feltiella acarisuga,
Stratolaelaps scimitus. Moderately
to highly toxic to other beneficials.
Entrust Toxic to bees for 3 hours following
treatment.
Judo Toxic to fish and aquatic
invertebrates.
Thiamethoxam Flagship 25 WG Toxic to wildlife and highly toxic
to aquatic invertebrates. Toxic to
bees exposed to direct treatment on
Flagship 0.22 G blooming crops.
Tau-fluvalinate Mavrik Aquaflow Highly toxic to most beneficials
and predaceous mites. Lower
toxicity to green lacewing. Low
toxicity to bees. Foliar spray is
non-toxic to beneficial nematodes.
Tolfenpyrad Hachi-Hachi Has shown ovicidal activity,
suppression of ovipositioning and
anti-feeding activity on targeted
insect pests. Check label for
phytotoxicity information.
46
Aphids
Introduction
Various species of aphids are a problem in greenhouses on both vegetable and ornamental crops, particularly
on young plants, between late fall and early spring. Aphids are one of the most difficult insects to control
with sprays because of their remarkable reproductive ability. Females, which do not mate or lay eggs during
the summer, are parthenogenic (do not need a male to reproduce) and give birth to as many as 5 live young
per day. If even one aphid survives a pesticide application (some always do), she can generate a new colony
and reinfest the crop. Aphids feed on plant sap, secrete honeydew onto the plant, and inject toxic substances
into it. Plant damage can be seen as curled leaves, honeydew growing on fungus, and virus symptoms.
Biological Control For Aphids

Before attempting to use biological control for aphids in a greenhouse, investigate the economics, shipping
routes, availability, suitable species, release rates, and timing. It also helps to know which species of aphid
you are trying to control because some predators and parasites are effective only on certain aphid species
(Table 7.2).
The predatory aphid midge, Aphidoletes aphidimyza, is excellent for controlling more than 60 aphid species,
especially green peach aphid. Midges are shipped as pupae. Place one to two pupae on each potted plant; for
bedding plants place 3 to 5 larvae per square yard of bench area. Continue biweekly releases until the aphids
are controlled. This predator thrives under humid conditions.
For controlling melon aphids, the parasitic wasp, Aphidius colemani, is the preferred beneficial species to
use. Try one to three aphid midge cocoons per square foot of growing area. In northern greenhouses during
the short days of fall and winter, this predator requires supplemental lighting to stay active.
Aphidius matricariae is a parasitic wasp used for controlling potato aphid and green peach aphid. These
parasitic wasps reproduce by laying eggs in aphids and typically produce tan or gold aphid mummies. There
will be a round hole where the adult parasite has chewed its way out of the aphid mummy.
Aphidius ervi is a parasitic wasp used for controlling potato aphid and foxglove aphid. These parasitic wasps
produce gray to brown aphid mummies.
Another method of control is using pathogens that infect aphids. Beauveria bassiana is one of the most
effective entomopathogenic fungi for aphid control. This insect is sold under two brand names, BotaniGard
and Naturalis T&O. Conidia of the fungus are mixed with water and applied as a fine spray. Making direct
contact with the aphids is important. Use a fine mist sprayer with droplet sizes of 100 microns or less to
ensure the best contact. The conidia that make contact with the aphid germinate, penetrate the body of the
aphid, and kill the pest. In the spring and summer, aphids shed their skins every 3 to 4 days which may
reduce the efficacy of the fungus. Repeated applications at 3- to 5-day intervals usually ensures that conidia
are present on the skin long enough to cause infection. Some growers use Beauveria bassiana applications
in combination with one or more chemical controls.
Using Banker Plants for Biological Control of Aphids

Aphids are a key pest on bedding plants, herbs, and vegetable transplants such as salvia, zinnia, snapdragon,
basil, cucumber, melon, celery, tomato and eggplant. Melon aphid, Aphis gossypii, green peach aphid,
Myzus persicae, foxglove aphid, Aulacorthum solani, and potato aphid, Macrosiphum euphoribiae, are often
found on greenhouse crops. Consider using banker plants as a way to maintain parasitoid populations when
releasing them in greenhouses.
47
Barley banker plants can be used with bird cherry oat aphid, Rhopalosiphum padi, for biological control of
aphids in greenhouses. The idea is to establish a population of bird cherry oat aphids on the barley plants
first, and then take the potted barley plants out of a screened area and introduce the parasitoids. The barley
plants are grown in a screened chamber so parasites are not able to infest the aphids being introduced to the
plants and crash the population. It is important to keep a steady supply of bird cherry oat aphids reproducing
on the barley plants.
In Maryland, start barley plants in February or March. It is important to get the parasitic wasps established
early in the season. The bird cherry oat aphids are shipped on barley plant plugs. Put these plugs among the
caged barley plants. It takes about three weeks for bird cherry oat aphids to build up on the barley plants
before setting some of them out in the greenhouse as needed. Bird cherry oat aphids feed only on monocots
so use only with broadleaf bedding plants, herbs and vegetables.
Order the parasitoids for delivery to coincide with setting out aphid infested barley banker plants among the
greenhouse crop. A combination of A. colemani and A. ervi is a good choice if you are unsure of the aphid
species present. The bird cherry oat aphids are maintained as a steady food source for the parasitoids which
are also feeding on the other aphid species present on the greenhouse crops. Monitor the crop for parasitized
aphid mummies.
48
Table 7.2 Biological Control of Aphids
Beneficial Target Pest Favorable Characteristics Comments

Environment
Aphidius colemani Green peach aphids, 50–76 °F; Adults: tiny wasp Granular carrier:
(parasitic wasp) melon aphids tolerates cool lays eggs in aphids aphid mummies and
temperatures, low (for green peach adults. Release 2–8
light aphids). per yd2 of growing
area.
Aphidius ervi Good for controlling 68–81 °F; 50–75% Adults: tiny wasp Shipped in carrier
(parasitic wasp) potato aphids; also relative humidity lays eggs in aphids as adults. Release
controls foxglove (for potato aphids). 1–3 per yd2 of
aphids growing area.
Aphidius Green peach aphids, 64-77 °F; 60-80% Adults: tiny wasp Shipped in carrier
matricariae potato aphids relative humidity lays eggs in aphids as mummies.
(parasitic wasp) (for green peach and Release .25 - .5 per
potato aphids) yd2 of growing area
Aphidoletes Aphids, including 68–81 °F; 50–75% Adults: lay eggs Need soil or gravel
aphidimyza (gall- green peach aphids, relative humidity close to aphid floor for larvae to
midge) cotton aphids colonies, are active pupate. Release
at night, attracted to 2–9 per yd2; 2–3
aphid colonies by releases one week
smell of honeydew. apart. Aphid midge
Larvae: are orange, cocoons packed in
develop in aphid, moist vermiculite.
bite aphid knee Mature larvae
joints, inject a drop to ground and
paralyzing toxin burrow into soil to
and suck out body pupate. Go dormant
contents. under short-day
conditions.
Chrysoperla Aphids (also feed on 60–80 °F Adults: pale green, Shipped in bran as
carnea (lacewings) mealybugs, scales, evening fliers. eggs, young larvae,
spider mites, thrips, Larvae: aphid lions or adults; shipped
small caterpillars) (alligator-like) as eggs on cards
can eat 60 aphids or in corrugated
per hour; will cardboard wafers.
cannibalize each Adults tend to fly
other. Eggs: laid on away and do not
the end of a long stay to lay eggs.
silk stalk on leaves Noticeable control
near aphids. in 2 weeks. Release
2–12 per yd2; repeat
every 2 weeks.
Hippodamia Aphids (also feed on At least 68 °F Adults and larvae Avoid residual
convergens (lady scales, thrips, small are predaceous. chemical
beetle) caterpillars) Larvae: alligator- applications. Oil or
like. Eggs: orange, soap can be applied
bullet-shaped. before a release.
49
Caterpillars
Biological Control For Caterpillars

The larvae of various species of moths and butterflies that feed on plants in greenhouse production areas can
be controlled with biologicals (Table 7.3). It is common to see the variegated fritillary feeding on pansies in
the fall as well as imported cabbageworm, cabbage looper and the cross-striped caterpillar on cabbage and
kale. Bacillus thuringiensis var kurstaki is a bacterium that offers good control of the early instar stages of
caterpillars. The larvae ingest the bacterium. There are several species of Trichogramma (parasitic wasp)
that feed on caterpillar eggs. The female oviposits into the caterpillar egg and the parasite kills the egg as it
feeds. A parasitized egg usually turns black. Cotesia glomerata was introduced to North America in 1883.
It is a small braconid wasp that parasitizes early instar larvae of imported cabbageworm caterpillars. It is
currently not commercially available, but is often found parasitizing the cabbageworm larvae.
Table 7.3 Biological Control of Caterpillars

Environment
Bacillus Early instar See label Bacterium must be Only kills larvae.
thuringiensis caterpillars instructions ingested by insect.
kurstaki (beneficial
bacterium)
Trichogramma Caterpillars, Moderate Release when first Feed on the eggs of
spp. including temperatures (not see flight of moths many species. Night
European corn mid-day sun or whose caterpillars releases may slow
borer, cutworm, cold mornings) damage crops. dispersal.
and imported
cabbageworm
Fungus Gnats
Biological Control For Fungus Gnats
Beneficial organisms attack only insects in moist substrate or borer tunnels; as a result, be careful not to
allow the environment to dry out. Apply as a spray concentrate or a moist granular carrier (Table 7.4).
Beneficial (entomopathogenic) nematodes

Entomopathogenic nematodes are microscopic, multicellular, worm-like organisms. Three species of
entomopathogenic nematodes, Steinernema carpocapsae, S. feltiae, and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora,
are used to control the larvae of fungus gnats. Several suppliers now market nematodes for use in the
greenhouse and nursery (Exhibit, Scanmask, Vector, and Guardian are examples of several brand names).
In trials conducted by University of Maryland Extension, S. feltiae was found to be the most effective of the
three nematodes. Commercial availability of S. feltiae is currently limited to a few sources, but the costs of
nematode application are now competitive with the costs of using many conventional insecticides.
The moist environment of greenhouse media is ideal for entomopathogenic nematodes. Apply the nematodes
as a media drench and to soil below the bench. Once applied to the potting substrate, the nematodes search
for soil-inhabiting insects. When they locate an insect, they enter it. Once inside the host, the nematodes
release bacteria into the insect’s bloodstream. The bacteria multiply, and the nematodes feed on the bacteria.
The insect then dies of bacterial infection.
50
In the greenhouse potting substrate, these nematodes complete their life cycle within the infected host
in a few days. Large numbers of infective-stage nematodes are produced from each dead insect. These
nematodes then leave the dead insect and move into the substrate in search of new insects to attack.
Entomopathogenic nematodes and their associated bacteria have been tested extensively for toxicity to non-
target organisms. Research has shown that they are harmless to humans, wildlife, fish, and plants.
Beneficial mites
Stratolaelaps scimitus (=Hypoaspis miles) (=Geolaelaps miles) are tiny predatory mites native to the United
States. They commonly inhabit the upper layers of soil. The mite is 0.5 millimeters (1/50-inch) long and
light brown and has eight legs. Stratolaelaps feed upon a variety of microscopic soil-inhabiting insects and
mites. They are well adapted to moist conditions and will survive in greenhouses in a variety of growing
substrate throughout the year.
In greenhouses, S. scimitus has been used to control fungus gnat larvae. It is also reported to contribute to
the control of thrips by feeding primarily on the thrips pupating in the soil. Like most biological control
agents, S. scimitus should be applied when the fungus gnat population is low. It is best to apply the mites
to the substrate within the first few weeks after planting. Stratolaelaps populations include both sexes, but
the males are much smaller and rarely seen. Using a hand lens with 10x to 15x magnification, you should
be able to see the nymphs and adults of the mites which move rapidly across the soil surface. The mites
reproduce in the greenhouse environment, completing their life cycle in 7 to 11 days. Barring the application
of a soil-drench insecticide, the mites should not need to be reintroduced into the crop after the initial
release.
S. scimitus are usually supplied in a pasteurized sawdust mixture in 1-liter containers generally containing
about 10,000 mites. Containers have shaker lids to ease distribution over the soil. Use mites immediately
because they do not store well. You can examine the mites for viability by shaking a small amount of
sawdust onto a sheet of paper and examining it with a hand lens. If present and healthy, nymphs and adults
should move rapidly. Numerous eggs are included in these shipments and will survive poor shipping
conditions better than the adults. Therefore, sprinkle them on the soil even if you do not see active forms.
According to research on greenhouse-grown vegetables in Europe, appropriate mite release rates for
tomatoes grown in in-ground beds are 5 to 8 mites per square foot of greenhouse space. For floriculture
production, in which plants are grown in market packs, pots, or hanging baskets, exact release rates have not
been determined. We suggest a rate of 10,000 mites per 1,000 square feet of greenhouse. It is easiest to mix
the mites in the soilless substrate just before you fill the pots or container. Stratolaelaps are compatible with
releases of beneficial nematodes or the use of Bacillus thuringiensis var israeliensis.
Limestone or copper sulfate applied to the soil may reduce the S. scimitus population and should be avoided.
The use of S. scimitus in the greenhouse environment is relatively new, and it has not been thoroughly tested
for sensitivity to specific fungicides. Generally, foliar sprays should be less harmful than soil drenches.
Bacillus thuringiensis
Bacillus thuringiensis var israeliensis (Bti) is a highly effective spore-forming bacterium that produces a
toxic protein crystal that kills maggots in the fungus-eating gnat families. Bti is produced by fermentation,
a process similar to that used in manufacturing natural antibiotics. An organism commonly found in nature,
this insecticide poses no danger to greenhouse workers, and there is no reentry restriction time.
Greenhouse use Bti formulations are sold under the trade name ‘Gnatrol’ and applied as drenches. Treat soil
in pots, market packs, and areas beneath benches. Treatment for severe infestations requires the higher rates
at 3- to 5-day intervals. Obtain season-long control through a weekly maintenance treatment at a lower rate.
51
Table 7.4 Biological Control of Fungus Gnats and Shore Flies

Environment
Dalotia Sciarid fly larvae, Adapt well to Can be applied Kills all immature life
(=Atheta) shore fly larvae, assorted growth along with other stages including eggs.
coriaria fungus gnat larvae media (including predators.
(predatory (Also thrips pupae) rock wool and
beetle) coconut fiber)
and capillary
mats; do not
survive freezing or
flooding.
Bacillus Fungus gnat larvae Apply with Apply as a soil Only kill larvae.
thuringiensis adequate water to drench to kill the Larvae must ingest;
israelensis wet soil surfaces. larval stage. will stop feeding
(Bti)- Beneficial immediately and die
bacterium within ~24 hours.
(Gnatrol) Three applications at
7-day intervals are
necessary. OMRI
certified.
Stratolaelaps Fungus gnats, Do not refrigerate. Soil-dwelling Release rate: 45 to
scimitus shore fly larvae, predaceous mite. 100 per yd2; one
(=Hypoaspis (Also thrips pupae Adults: tiny brown per season (rate
miles) and springtails) mite; lay eggs in the determined by
(predaceous soil. greenhouse size and
mite) pest infestation).
Steinernema Fungus gnats 60–85 °F Mobile; actively Refrigerate until
carpocapsae seek out their prey use. Apply as a
(Ecomask) if temperature soil drench. Keep
and humidity are nematode suspension
right. Carry insect- agitated. Water plants
pathogenic bacteria before and after
in their gut. application. Apply
early or late in the
day. Need protection
from desiccation,
the sun, ultraviolet
radiation, and
temperature extremes.
Infected insects turn
brownish-yellow and
usually die within 1
or 2 days.
Steinernema Fungus gnats, Substrate needs to Only kill larvae.
feltiae shore flies, root be moist. Available in a very
(Nemasys) maggots fine clay formulation.
52
Mealybug
Biological Control For Mealybugs
Natural enemies are available for controlling mealybug species that occur in conservatories or greenhouses
with specialty ornamental crops (Table 7.5). The combination of the mealybug destroyer (a lady beetle),
Cryptolaemus montrouzieri, and the parasitic wasp, Leptomastix dactylopii, is effective against citrus
mealybug, Planococcus citri, which is the most common mealybug in greenhouses.
Table 7.5 Biological Control of Mealybug

Environment
Chrysoperla Mealybugs,aphids, Feed on immature Disperse well.
carnea (green immature scales, eggs and pests. Release 2–12 larvae
lacewing) thrips, spider mites, Larvae are per yd2.
immature whiteflies cannibalistic.
Cryptolaemus Mealybugs (also 62-91 °F Both larvae and Avoid residual
montrouzieri aphids, whiteflies, adults feed on pesticides for at
(mealybug scales) mealybugs. least one month
destroyer) before release.
Leptomastix Citrus mealybugs Best control Release 2 per m2 of
dactylopii (wasp) (not long-tailed when mealybug infested area or 5
mealybug). population is high. per infested plant.
Mites: Broad Mites, Cyclamen Mites and Spider Mites

Biological Control for Broad and Cyclamen Mites and Spider Mites
Choose the predatory mite species best suited to the environmental conditions and pest mite species present
in your greenhouse (Tables 7.6 and 7.7). Consult an Extension entomologist or biological supplier to be sure
to get the correct species for each pest mite situation. Start releases soon after the first sign of spider mites.
On crops or in greenhouses where mites have been a problem in the past, release the predaceous mites while
plants are still small. Place predators directly onto infested leaves. Predatory mites are shipped mixed in
grain or vermiculite so they can be easily distributed throughout the greenhouse. Most organophosphate,
carbamate, and pyrethroid insecticides are toxic to predatory mites.
Using Banker Plants for Twospotted Spider Mite Control

One of the major mites damaging plants in greenhouses is twospotted spider mite. A biolgoical control
option is to raise field corn plants in pots and infest the foliage with Banks grass mites that only feed on
monocots such as corn and grasses. Once the mite population is established, release two predatory mites,
Amblyseius californicus and Phytoseilus persimilis on the corn plants. The two predatory mites feed on the
grass mites, reproduce and when the banker plant is moved into the greenhouse, they migrate off the corn
and search for spider mites on plants in the greenhouse.
Grass mites are found in many states, but as of late 2015, a permit from APHIS is pending. Permits will be
required by the states as well. Availability is expected in 2016.
53
Table 7.6 Biological Control of Broad and Cyclamen Mites

Environment
Amblyseius barkeri Broad mites A. californicus can Apply early in crop
A. californicus survive long periods cycle; 10 to 30 per
Neoseiulus without prey. plant.
cucumeris
(=Amblyseius)
(predatory mites)
Neoseiulus Cyclamen mites Release 2-10 per ft2
cucumeris of growing area.
(=Amblyseius)
(predatory mite)
Table 7.7 Biological Control of Spider Mites

Environment
Amblyseius fallacis Twospotted spider 70–90 °F Shiny body with When prey level is
(predatory mite) mites few hairs. low, it leaves the
area to search for
more food.
Feltiella acarisuga Twospotted spider Larvae are creamy Cocoons found
(predatory midge) mites, carmine yellow-brown; along leaf veins.
spider mites, larval stage feeds on
European red mites spider mites.
Galendromus Spider mites, 70–95 °F Consumes pollen Resistant to
occidentalis European red mites Minimum relative and honeydew organophosphate
(predaceous mite) humidity: 50%. and are also insecticides.
cannibalistic. Starvation-resistant.
Amblyseius Twospotted spider 70–90 °F Adults are straw- Can survive longer
californicus mites, broad mites, Minimum relative colored, fast- in the absence of
(predaceous mite) cyclamen mites humidity: 60%. moving, droplet- prey (feeds on other
Tolerates high shaped with short mites and pollen).
temperatures and legs. Eggs are Sprinkle onto
low humidity. oblong, transparent, leaves. Consumes
and attached to hairs fewer spider mites
along leaf veins. than P. persimilis.
Phytoseiulus Twospotted spider 65–80 °F
persimilis mites, carmine Minimum relative
(predaceous mite) spider mites humidity: 60%.
54
Scale
Biological Control For Scale
Natural enemies are commercially available for controlling scale species that occur in conservatories or
greenhouses with specialty ornamental crops (Table 7.8). The parasitic wasp, Metaphycus helvolus, is
effective against the hemispherical scale, Saissetia coffeae, and useful against soft brown scale, Coccus
hesperidum.
Table 7.8 Biological Control of Scale

Environment
Aphytis melinus Armored scales, 76–85 °F Adults are tiny Before release,
(wasp parasite) oleander scales, yellow wasps that wash off or use
California red lay eggs under the a 1% solution of
scales, yellow scales covering of mid- insecticidal soap to
sized scales. reduce honeydew.
Metaphycus Soft scales, brown 75–85 °F Adults are tiny Lay eggs on newly
helvolus (wasp soft scales, black black/yellow wasps. hatched crawlers
parasite) scales, nigra scales, and also feed on
hemispherical scales older scale.
55
Thrips
Biological Control For Thrips
Various predators and a biofungicide are available for thrips control (Table 7.9). Two species of predatory
phytoseiid mites, Neoseiulus (=Amblyseius) cucumeris, and Iphiseius (=Amblyseius) degenerans, appear to
be well suited for controlling immature thrips preying on greenhouse crops. Similar to thrips, these mites
prefer small niches where contact between predator and prey is likely even without specific searching. These
predators are pollenphagous (pollen feeding) when thrips populations are low. More questions remain to be
answered about the best timing and frequency of releases and usefulness of these predators on various crops
and on various thrips species.
These mites must be introduced before a thrips population has built up to damaging levels. The mites
establish themselves on leaves, usually on the undersides, and are most effective in attacking young (1st
instar) larvae of thrips. The mites use their chelicerae to pierce the thrips and suck out the cellular fluids.
The predaceous mites will establish themselves on a crop in the greenhouse and then mate and reproduce.
The major limitation of their use is that these mites are susceptible to many insecticide sprays; growers
must use biological control against other pests or be selective in pesticides used, selecting insect growth
regulators or using biorational chemicals that have minimal impact on predators. Note that the beneficial
pathogen, Beauveria bassiana GHA strain (BotaniGard), does not affect phytoseiid mites and could possibly
be used in combination with beneficial mite releases. Apply predatory mites with shaker bottles. Growers
shake the mites and a grain carrier onto the crop. Another option is to apply the mites using paper sachets.
Hang the sachets on plants or on marker stakes. An adult N. cucumeris feeds on one thrips per day during
its 30-day life. For releases during the short days of winter the best choice is I. degenerans. Alternatively,
obtain N. cucumeris from biological suppliers that carry selections that do not go into diapause in winter. If
using predaceous mites for controlling western flower thrips, it is essential to combine this treatment with
INSV-monitoring plants or use on-site INSV serological testing kits.
The release rates for N. cucumeris range from 90 to 270 per yd2 of growing area for floriculture crops.
If using mite sachets we have found that 60 sachets (with 50 mites per sachet) placed in 3,000 square
feet generally provide good control for 5–6 weeks. Replace the sachets when a new crop is placed in the
greenhouse.
Predatory true bugs - There are about 70 species of predatory true bugs in the genus Orius, minute pirate
bugs. Three species are generally available from commercial insectaries for thrips control: O. insidious
(insidious flower bug), O. tristicolor (minute pirate bug), and O. albidipennis. Pirate bugs are voracious,
reproduce well in greenhouses, and may provide the best thrips control because they are able to attack all
stages of thrips, including adult thrips. In floriculture crops apply 2–6 Orius per square yard of production
area.
Using Banker Plants with Orius - One of the methods for thrips control is to use the predator called
minute pirate bug (Orius sp). The most effective way to use the Orius bugs is to grow banker plants. Use
ornamental peppers as the banker plants and release the Orius on them. The Orius you purchase will feed
on the pollen of the ornamental pepper plants and will lay eggs into the foliage. The hatching nymphs will
also feed on the pollen and thrips, if present. The maturing Orius adults migrate across your greenhouse
searching for thrips nymphs (1st and 2nd instars) and adults.
Keep in mind that peppers are a warm season crop and take a long time to get going in winter. You need
to start your plants in January to get them up to size by March when you release the Orius bugs. Ontario,
where it is much further north, they start the peppers in late November to December. Researchers in Ontario
have found that Pepper ‘Purple Flash” produces abundant pollen and is an excellent banker plant on which
56
Orius will lay eggs. Release Orius insidious in late March to early April. The Orius arrive in lots of 100
adult per container (cost is around $40 per 100). Release at the rate of 5 Orius (minute pirate bugs) per 20
pepper plants. Since Orius are a little pricy the idea is to get them to reproduce on banker plants so you can
keep your order for more Orius limited. Most growers use between 5 -10 banker plants of Pepper ‘Purple
Flash’ per acre of growing area
Beneficial pathogens - Several pathogens have been investigated for controlling thrips. The
entomopathogenic fungus, Beauveria bassiana, applied as a fine mist spray directly onto thrips, is used to
control western flower thrips in greenhouses. Some growers use Beauveria bassiana in combination with
insecticides to improve the control of thrips.
The entomopathogenic fungus, Metarhizium anisopliae, is probably one of the more promising biological
controls for thrips control. When spores land on thrips, the spores break through the insect’s exterior to the
inside, using enzymes and mechanical force. The insect dies within a few days.
57
Table 7.9 Biological Control of Thrips

Environment
Amblyseius Thrips 68-77 °F; tolerates Highly mobile Also feeds on
degenerans low humidities predaceous mite. pollen.
(predatory mite)
Amblyseius Good for chili thrips Begins Not susceptible to Tolerant of high
swirskii development at diapause so can temperature.
(predatory mite) 68-72 °F introduce in winter.
Beauveria Thrips (and whitefly, Humidity above Naturally occurring Repeated
bassiana aphids, mites and 60 % fungus in soils. application with
(entompathogenic mealybugs) fine mist.
fungus)
Chrysoperla spp. Thrips (aphids, Feeds on immature Disperse well.
(green lacewing, mealybugs, eggs and pests. Release 2–12 larvae
predator) immature scales, Larvae are per yd2.
spider mites cannibalistic.
immature whiteflies)
Stratolaelaps Thrips (fungus Do not refrigerate. Soil-dwelling. Release 45–100 per
scimitus gnat larvae, shore Adults are tiny and yd2 according to
(=Hypoaspis fly larvae, and brown and lay eggs pest population and
miles) (predatory springtails) in the soil. greenhouse size.
mite)
Neoseiulus Western flower 70–90 °F. Adults are fast- Mites are found on
(=Amblyseius) thrips, onion Minimum relative moving, teardrop- the underside of
cucumeris thrips (twospotted humidity: 60%. shaped, and tan. the leaves near the
(predatory mite) spider mites and Females consume mid-vein. Release
eggs, broad mites, an average of one between 10–200
cyclamen mites) thrips per day over predators per plant.
a 30-day life span. Release before or
Eggs are transparent soon after the first
white on leaf hairs thrips are found.
along veins or leaf Adults and nymphs
underside. Alternate shipped in sachets
food sources are and bottles, flower
fungi, honeydew mites, and bran.
and pollen. Attacks Repeat applications
thrips eggs and are necessary.
immatures.
Orius insidiosus Thrips preferred 70–90 °F. Long Nymphs are yellow Go dormant during
(predaceous bugs) (also feed on days. with red eyes. short days (need
mites, aphids, Adults and nymphs supplemental
scales, whitefly are predaceous lighting to extend
pupae, and soft- bugs. Adults are day September to
bodied arthropods black and attracted April). Release 1/10
[spiders]) to flowers and can ft2 as a preventative
eat 5–20 thrips per or 1 per 2 ft2 if
day. thrips present.
58
Whitefly
Biological Control For Whitefly
Whiteflies are common pests of some greenhouse ornamentals, tomatoes, and cucumbers. Chemical control
is difficult because the eggs and immature larvae have a waxy coating that resists chemicals. Whitefly
populations have also developed resistance to commonly used pesticides, even to the recently introduced
synthetic pyrethrins. Whitefly adults are found at the top of the plant or on the leaf underside. Plant
damage is seen as yellowing of the foliage beginning around the midvein. Parasitoids and pathogens are
commercially available for whitefly control (Table 7.10).
Parasitoids
Two parasitoids that have been used successfully to control whitefly on greenhouse crops are tiny wasps
of the Encarsia and Eretmocerus species. These wasps attack whitefly nymphs (not adults), killing them
in one of two ways. The first attack method is when the female wasp uses her needlelike ovipositor to lay
an egg within or beneath a whitefly nymph. Encarsia sp. prefers the third to fourth instar whiteflies. The
egg hatches and the parasitoid larva feeds on the whitefly nymph. Wasp pupation occurs within the nymph.
When the adult wasp emerges from the whitefly pupa, it chews a round exit hole through the cuticle at one
end of the whitefly pupa. The other way wasps attack whitefly nymphs is through a phenomenon called host
feeding in which the female wasp punctures the whitefly nymph with her ovipositor, killing the nymph,
and then she feeds on the fluids that exude from the wound. For whitefly control on short-term floral crops,
these wasps are usually released weekly in large quantities. When wasps inundate the pests, the wasps kill
whitefly nymphs primarily by host feeding rather than parasitism, leaving behind dead whitefly nymphs that
appear collapsed and dry.
Several species of whitefly parasitoids occur naturally in the U.S. and they may migrate into unsprayed
greenhouses and attack whiteflies. However, the degree of control provided by these parasitoids is usually
insufficient. Repeated releases of commercially reared parasitoids which augment the population are
typically more effective.
Encarsia formosa (Gahan) is a tiny wasp (0.6 mm) with a black head and thorax and pale yellow abdomen.
Its wings are transparent. Females produce mostly other females; males are rare. Greenhouse whitefly pupae
that have been parasitized by E. formosa turn black; Bemesia tabaci whitefly pupae turn amber brown.
Adult wasps are rarely noticed and should not deter the sale of the plants. This parasitoid is widely used
for biological control of greenhouse whitefly on greenhouse vegetables. Release rates vary from three to
six wasps per square foot of growing area with repeated releases at 7- to 14-day intervals. E. formosa will
reproduce on many greenhouse crops once populations are established. E. formosa is more successful at
suppressing whitefly in summer than in winter. For maximum reproduction, wasps require a higher light
intensity and warmer temperatures than the whitefly. The cost of E. formosa can be equal to foliar pesticide
applications or slightly higher. Multiple releases of E. formosa are more expensive than a single application
of a long residual systemic insecticide such as imidacloprid.
Eretmocerus eremicus (=californicus) Rose and Zolnerowich is also a tiny wasp, but differs from Encarsia
formosa in having an adult that is entirely yellow. These wasps have green eyes and clubbed antennae.
Males have longer, more prominent antennae than females. Parasitized whitefly nymphs appear beige in
color. Release rates are 2–3 per square foot of growing area. Repeated releases at 7- to 14-day intervals are
often necessary. Eretmocerus will not reproduce on many greenhouse crops, so repeated applications are
necessary until the whitefly population is reduced to a desired level. Unfortunately, this parasite is relatively
expensive and costs significantly more to use to control whiteflies than applications of pesticides.
59
Pathogens
A naturally occurring insect pathogen, Beauveria bassiana, is effective in controlling whiteflies, certain
aphid species, mites, and thrips. Two different strains of the fungus are commercially available. BotaniGard
(GHA strain), is formulated as a wettable powder and an emulsifiable suspension. Naturalis-O (JW-1 strain)
is a flowable formulation. B. bassiana spores are formulated to mix readily in water and are applied using
standard high-volume spray equipment. The fungus kills insects either by direct contact with the spray or
through secondary contact with spores on foliage. When spores come in contact with an acceptable host, a
germ tube penetrates the insect’s cuticle and feeds from the host body, resulting in the death of the host. In
most cases, it takes 8 to 10 fungal spores on an insect to cause fungal infection and subsequent death of the
insect. The warm temperatures and relatively high humidity in greenhouses present an ideal environment for
using this fungal pathogen. Because fungal spores kill insects through direct contact, good spray coverage is
essential for achieving adequate control.
Table 7.10 Biological Control of Whiteflies

Environment
Beauveria Whiteflies (and Humidity above Naturally occurring Repeated
bassiana thrips, mealybugs 60 % fungus in soils. applications with
(beneficial fungus) and aphids) fine mist.
Delphastus Greenhouse 65–90 °F Adults are minute Require 100–150
pusillus (lady whiteflies, sweet black lady beetles whitefly eggs per
beetle) potato whiteflies, that eat whitefly day to maintain
Bemesia tabaci eggs, larvae, adults. egg-laying.
whiteflies Consume 11–15
settled whiteflies
per day.
Encarsia formosa Greenhouse Above 70 °F; Adults are tiny Shipped inside
(wasp parasitoid) whiteflies 70 % relative wasps that develop blackened whitefly
humidity (If faster than the scales attached
temperature is whitefly. Adults to cards. Attach
below 62 °F, lay 50–100 eggs cards to the foliage.
wasps will not in immature Release at first sign
fly). stages of whitefly, of whiteflies on
parasitizing and yellow sticky cards.
killing them. Release rate: 3–4
releases with 1- to 2
week intervals.
Eretmocerus Sweet potato 77-84 °F Adults are tiny Release rate: 3–5
eremicus (wasp whiteflies, Bemesia wasps that lay their releases with 1- to 2
parasitoid) tabaci whiteflies eggs under whitefly week intervals.
larvae .
Eretmocerus Sweet potato Adapts to both Adults: tiny wasps; Make a minimum
mundus (wasp whiteflies, Bemesia high and low lay their eggs under of 3 releases.
parasite) tabaci whiteflies temperatures. whitefly larvae.
60
Chapter 8
Biopesiticides and Reduced-Risk Pesticides
Introduction
Biopesticides are types of pesticides derived from such natural materials as animals, plants, bacteria, fungi,
and certain minerals (Table 8.1). Examples include entomopathogenic nematodes used for fungus gnat
control and potassium bicarbonate which acts as a pesticide against powdery mildew.
Biopesticides (also known as biological pesticides) are pesticides derived from natural materials. There are
four types. Microbial pesticides contain microorganisms that function as biological control agents, such as
fungi, bacteria, viruses or related organisms (e.g., spinosad). These highly selective materials have activity
against specific target insect or mite pests. Botanicals are naturally occurring plant-derived substances
(extracts, essential oils, potassium bicarbonate, hydrogen dioxide, phosphorous acids, etc.) that affect the
central nervous system, the mitochondria electron transport system, or act as insect growth regulators.
Many essential oil pesticides exhibit broad-spectrum activity against insects and mites due to multiple
modes of action, (e.g. antifeedant, molting and respiration inhibition, growth/reproduction reduction, etc.).
Biochemical pesticides are naturally occurring substances are designed to control or regulate insect pest
populations by non-toxic mechanisms, such as pheromones (e.g., sex, aggregation and alarm), mating
disruption, monitoring and lure-and-kill strategies that control pests. Plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs)
are substances plants produce based on genetic material (added to them through genetic engineering) that
render plants immune or tolerant of insect and mite pests.
Why Growers Should Use Biopesticides

Biopesticides are usually inherently less toxic than conventional pesticides. Most nursery and greenhouse
operations have workers constantly entering the growing area to water, move plant material, fertilize,
or conduct other plant maintenance chores. Most pesticides have a required Re-entry Interval (REI) that
restricts employees from entering a greenhouse or nursery area unless they are wearing the Personal
Protective Equipment (PPE) required on the label. This adds time and additional expense to the nursery or
greenhouse operation. Biopesticides generally have REIs of only 4 to 12 hours.
Some biopesticides such as entomopathogenic nematodes have no REI. Growers who can control insects or
diseases by selecting an effective biopesticide with minimal or no REI will save time in labor. Not needing
PPE equipment makes the selection highly attractive. It also makes sense to use biopesticides in residential
and commercial landscapes where there is an increasing demand for least-toxic pest control methods as part
of an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) approach. Re-entry intervals are not presently used in landscapes.
The disposal of leftover biopesticides is less restrictive than the disposal of more toxic compounds which is
an additional benefit. Biopesticides often decompose quickly, thereby resulting in lower environmental and
human exposure. Pollution problems caused by conventional pesticides are largely avoided. The disposal of
old pesticides, which currently creates problems for growers, will likely be an expensive and major problem
for greenhouse and nursery growers and landscape managers in the near future.
Biological control has been used only in a limited manner in the nursery, greenhouse, and landscape
industries. Biopesticides will help managers make the transition to using beneficial organisms relatively
61
smooth. Biopesticides generally affect only the target pest and closely related organisms in contrast to broad
spectrum, conventional pesticides. Many of the biopesticides can be used in combination with biological
releases to control insect or mite pests. Biopesticides used to control fungi often have to be pre-incorporated
into substrate or inoculated early in the growth stages of a plant.
Biopesticides are the trend of the future. Generally, they pose fewer risks to the environment and to workers
than conventional chemicals. When a pesticide is registered with the Environment Protection Agency, EPA
generally requires less data about a biopesticide than it does about conventional chemicals. Biopesticide
registration also generally takes less time—an average of less than one year compared to at least three years.
Chemical companies, well aware of the cost savings, are working on several new biopesticides that should
be registered during the next decade. Companies registering a new pesticide must submit a variety of data
about its composition, toxicity, and degradation to the environment before it is approved for use.
Three Main Categories of Biopesticides
Microbial Pesticides
Microorganisms, including bacterium, fungus, and virus, are the active ingredient of microbial pesticides.
Some microbials control plant pathogens, usually on a preventative basis, and some control insects and
mites. In some cases the microbial insecticide may be specific, such as Bacillus thuringiensis Serotype
H14 (Bti), which controls fungus gnat larvae and mosquito larvae. Others, such as the fungus, Beauveria
bassiana, control several species of insects including whiteflies, aphids, and some caterpillars. The most
widely known microbial pesticide is Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), which is used to control a variety of early-
stage caterpillars.
Reduced-Risk Pesticides
Starting in 1993 the federal EPA has expedited the registration of conventional pesticides with the following
characteristics: very low toxicity to humans and nontarget organisms including fish and birds, low risk of
groundwater contamination or runoff, low potential for pesticide resistance, and a demonstrated efficacy
and compatibility with IPM. EPA refers to materials meeting these criteria as reduced-risk. The reduced-risk
designation applies only to certain uses of a particular pesticide which may not include all label uses for
that product. Reduced-risk products/uses must be registered with EPA and labels will bear EPA registration
numbers. Manufacturers, however, are not permitted to label materials as “reduced-risk”.
Floramite (EPA# 400-481) miticide and Endeavor (EPA# 100-613) insecticide are two reduced-risk
pesticides labeled for use on ornamentals. Fenpyroximate (Akari 5SC) from SePRO Company is a reduced-
risk miticide. Tebufenozide (Confirm), from Dow AgroSciences, an insect growth regulator (IGR) for
caterpillars, is also a reduced-risk pesticide for ornamentals. Some insecticides such as spinosad (Conserve)
are considered reduced-risk for certain non-ornamentals applications only. Conserve is not presently
classified as a reduced-risk pesticide. Other reduced-risk pesticides for use on ornamentals include Heritage
Fungicide (10182-408) for turf; Subdue GR (100-794), Subdue 2X WSP (100-795), and Subdue Maxx (100-
796) for ornamentals; and Compass Fungicide (100-920) for ornamentals.
Minimum-risk pesticides are certain products exempted from EPA registration (and therefore carry no EPA
registration number), containing only active ingredients outlined in FIFRA 40 CFR 152.25(g) (“the 25b
list”) and inert ingredients currently identified on Federal Register Notice 59 FR 49400 (“the 4A list”). The
lists can be seen on the web at http://www.epa.gov/opprd001/inerts/ inerts2003list4A-CAS.pdf.
Biochemical Pesticides
Biochemical pesticides are naturally occurring substances that control pests. Materials such as insecticidal
soap, composed of fatty acids, alcohol, and water, are good examples of a biochemical. Empower, a garlic
62
extract, is an insect repellent that can be used to flush cryptic insects such as thrips out of tight, hard-to-
penetrate areas on the plants. This biochemical is often used in combination with a contact material that kills
the thrips once they are in the open.
Because it is sometimes difficult to determine whether a substance meets the criteria for classification as
a biochemical pesticide, EPA has established a special committee to make such decisions. In 1994 the
Biopesticide and Pollution Prevention Division (BPPD) was established in the Office of Pesticide Programs
to facilitate biopesticide registration. For updates on new biopesticides check the following website:
http://www.epa.gov/oppbppd1/biopesticides/. Living organisms are not regulated by EPA and include
entomopathogenic nematodes, beneficial mites, and insects.
63
Table 8.1 Biopesticides, Reduced-risk Pesticides and Their Uses
Chemical Name Trade Name/ Application Type of REI Pest and Usage
Common Name Method Biopesticide (hrs)
Abamectin Avid 0.15EC Foliar spray Microbial 12 Foliar contact action
Ardent 0.15 EC application with translaminar
Merlin properties. Do not
Lucid get in eyes, on skin,
Minx or on clothing. Avoid
breathing spray mist.
For aphids, mites,
leafminers, thrips
whiteflies. Toxic to
bees.
Azadirachtin Azatin XL Foliar spray Botanical 4 IGR. Works best on
Aza-Direct application immature insects.
AzaSol Feeding deterrent for
Azera some insects.
Bonide neem oil Foliar spray Botanical 4 IGR. Works best on
concentrate application immature insects.
Molt-X Foliar spray Botanical 4 IGR. Can use
Neemix 4.5 application on ornamentals,
Ornazin vegetables, and herbs.
Triact 70 Foliar spray Botanical 12 IGR. Can use
application on ornamentals,
vegetables, and herbs.
Foliar spray Botanical 12 Works best on
application immature insects.
Bacillus Biobit HP; Foliar spray Microbial 4 Labeled for
thuringiensis supsp. Diliver, Dipel application herbs, greenhouse
Kurstaki: Pro, Javelin WG, ornamentals,
Thuricide vegetables, and
interiorscapes. No
impact on beneficial
organisms Works only
on small, early instar
caterpillars. Must
be ingested to be
effective so thorough
coverage is essential.
Insects stop feeding
and die 1-5 days later.
Can apply through
irrigation system.
Do not combine
with fungicides or
fertilizers containing
copper or chlorine.
64
Table 8.1 Biopesticides, Reduced-risk Pesticides and Their Uses (continued)
Bacillus Gnatrol Soil drench Microbial 4 For mosquitos, black
thuringiensis application flies, and fungus
Serotype H–14 gnat larvae. Apply to
(=var. israelensis) young (early instars).
Stomach poison -
must be ingested to
be active. Needs 3
applications at 7-day
intervals for best
efficacy.Can apply
in irrigation systems.
Do not combine
with fungicides or
fertilizers containing
copper or chlorine.
Organic certification.
Bacillus XenTari Microbial 4 For armyworms,
thuringiensis subsp. Heliothis loopers,
aizawai saltmarsh caterpillars.
Stomach poison so
must be eaten by
target insect to be
effective. Herbs.
Treat when larvae are
young. Larvae must
be actively feeding on
treated, exposed plant
surfaces. Insect stops
feeding and dies 1 to
5 days later.
Beauveria bassiana BotaniGard ES, Apply to foliage Microbial 4 Treat before high
BotaniGard and insect as a insect populations
22WP, fine mist at 3- to develop. It takes 3
Mycotrol O 5-day intervals. to 7 days for insects
to die. Must make at
least 3 applications
at 7-10 day intervals.
Repeated sprays
usually necessary.
65
Bifenazate Floramite Foliar Reduced-risk 12 For spider mites only:
application pesticide twospotted, pacific,
citrus red, strawberry,
European red,
southern red, spruce
spider, bamboo spider,
and Lewis. Labeled
for greenhouse
ornamentals and
interiorscapes. 21-
28 day control. Also
has ovicidal control.
Minimal impact on
beneficial mites.
Bifenazate + Sirocco Foliar Reduced-risk 12 For leafminers and
Abamectin application pesticide mites (broad, twospot-
ted, bud, cyclamen,
European red, Lewis,
rust, southern red,
spruce); Suppresses
aphids, thrips, white-
fly. Contact and trans-
laminar insecticide
for quick mite knock-
down and control.
For non-food crops.
Thorough coverage
of foliage is essential;
Must contact young
immatures with spray.
Chromobacterium Grandevo Foliar Biological 4 For greenhouse herbs.
subtsugae strain application Contact biological
PRAA4-1 stomach poison for
young immature
stages of foliar
feeding insects and
mites. Reduces adult
egg laying. Proper
timing targeting
newly hatched
larvae is important.
Temporarily repels
honey bees for up
to 4 to 6 days after
spraying. See label if
tank mixing.
66
Cyflumetofen Sultan Foliar 12 Contact; for spider
application mites only. Thorough
coverage of all plant
parts is important.
Do not apply if rain
or irrigation event
is expected within
1 hour following
application.
Compatible with most
biological control
organisms used for
mite control.
Cyromazine Citation 75WP Foliar or drench 12 For control of
application fly (Dipterous)
leafminers, shoreflies,
and fungus gnats. For
immatures only; will
not kill adult insects.
Mandatory rotation
details on label.
Cyanoaniliprole Mainspring Foliar or soil 12 Both contact and
application systemic activity.
Apply only to
vegetable transplants
grown in enclosed
structures. Toxic to
bees.
Diflubensuron Adept Soil drench or Insect growth 12 Labeled for
coarse spray regulator most greenhouse
ornamentals and
interiorscapes.
For caterpillars,
leafminers, whitefly,
fungus gnat, and shore
fly larvae. Disrupts
normal molting
processes of insect
larvae. Do not apply
to poinsettia, hibiscus
or Reiger begonia.
Do not reuse treated
potting substrate.
67
Etoxazole Tetra-San Foliar Mite growth 12 Labeled for
application regulator all greenhouse
Beethoven TR Fogger 4 ornamentals and
interiorscapes for
spider mites only.
Translaminar; controls
egg and nymph stages
(will not kill adult
mites). Do not apply
to poinsettia after
bract formation.
Beethoven also
suppresses whitefly.
Fenoxycarb Preclude TR Fogger IGR 12 Total release cans
for greenhouse
use only. For
aphids, caterpillars,
leafminers,
mealybugs, mites
scales, thrips, weevils,
and whitefly.
Fenpyroximate Akari Foliar Reduced-risk 12 For greenhouse
application pesticide ornamentals,
tomatoes, cucumbers
and interiorscapes
only. Labeled for
control of mites,
leafhoppers, psyllids,
mealybugs, and
whitefly. Long 21- to
24-day mite control.
Immediate cessation
of feeding and egg
laying. Minimal
impact on beneficial
mites.
68
Hexythiazox Hexygon Insect growth 12 For spider mite eggs
regulator and immatures. Apply
before adult mite
build-up. Control is
from direct contact
with spray or contact
with treated plant
surfaces. Controls
motile stages, newly
deposited mite eggs
and eggs laid after
product applied.
Adult mites are not
directly affected.
Product has some
residual activity.
Horticultural oil FERTI-LOME Apply to foliage Biochemical 4 Contact insecticide;
horticultural oil and directly to No residual control.
spray; Golden insect. Thorough coverage
Pest Spray is very important.
Oil; Lesco Be cautious on open
Horticultural blooms. Foliar injury
Oil #019492,; may occur if applied
Monterey during hot, humid
Horticultural Oil; conditions. Do not
JMS Stylet Oil; tank mix with more
PureSpray Green; than 1 pesticide. Do
RTSA not apply through
Horticultural Oil; irrigation systems.
Saf-T-Side oil; Do not spray more
SuffOil-X, Ultra- than once per week.
Pure Oil; Tri-Tek Do not spray when
there is moisture
deficit in leaves or the
plant is under stress.
Test for phytotoxicity
before treating.
Do not exceed 4
applications per
growing season. Do
not use with products
containing sulfur or
carbaryl (Sevin).
69
Insecticidal soap Insectidal Soap Foliar Biochemical 4 Labeled for
(Potassium salts of (Bayer, Bonide, application most greenhouse
fatty acids) Earth-Tone, Do not use on ornamentals, herbs,
Safer, other open blooms, and interiorscapes.
brands) transplants, or Compatible with
root cuttings. biological control
DES-X agents. Must contact
insect or mite. No
M-Pede residual control.
Do not apply when
temperatures exceed
90 °F. Do not treat
blooms, transplants,
or root cuttings.
Isaria fumosorosea NOFLY WP Foliar Biological 12 A naturally occurring
Apopka Strain 97 application fungus that infects
and kills whiteflies,
(previously known thrips, aphids, mites,
as Paecilomyces and other insects. It is
fumosoroseus) not toxic to humans.
The fungus takes 3-7
days to infect and kill
the pest. Works best at
temperatures between
72 °F-86 °F; requires
high humidity. May
cause moderate eye
irritation.
Kinoprene Enstar AQ IGR For whiteflies, scales,
leafminers, fungus
gnats, mealybugs,
thrips, aphids, and
mites. Thorough
coverage is necessary.
Some rose varieties
roses show delayed
damage.
Metarhizium Met 52 Foliar Biological For greenhouse/
anisopliae strain application or nursery. Contains
F52 drench or foliage spores of the insect-
and root plant killing fungus,
dip Metarhizium. Insects
that come into contact
with the spores will
become infected.
70
Meth-oxyfenozide Intrepid 18 Insect Growth 4 For small caterpillars
Regulator only. Begin
applications when
larvae are observed/
first sign of feeding
damage. Uniform
coverage of foliage is
essential.
Nematodes, Nemasys, Soil drench Biological Naturally occurring,
beneficial - Entonem, insect-parasitic
Entomopathogenic: Millenium nematode seeks out
Steinernema feltiae, NemaShield, fungus gnat larvae,
Steinernema ScanMask enters their natural
carpocapsae, and body openings, and
Heterorhabditis releases symbiotic
bacteriophora bacteria that kill the
pests. Can be used
as a preventive or
a curative control.
Apply as soon as
possible after potting
or placement in
the greenhouse.
Works best in soil at
temperatures from
50-90°F. Apply
solution to moist soil
or growing media.
No known impact
on parasites or
predators. Substrate
must be moist prior to
application; follow up
with irrigation.
REI - EXEMPT
Novaluron Pedestal Foliar spray Insect Growth 12 Active only on
Regulator immature stages
by disrupting the
molting process. Fully
developed adult stages
are not affected. Do
not use product more
than once within each
generation cycle.
Do not apply to
poinsettia.
71
Pymetrozine Endeavor Foliar 12 Stops insect feeding
application within hours; insects
remain on plants for
2 to 4 days. Has some
residual activity; will
control pests that
move onto plant after
spraying. Do not treat
poinsettias after bract
formation.
Pyriproxyfen Fulcrum Foliar, drench 12 Controls eggs,
or sprench nymphs/larvae and
application pupae. No adult
control. Do not use
low volume spray
equipment to control
soil-inhabiting insects
such as fungus gnats
and shore flies - apply
as a sprench. See label
for phytotoxicity.
Saccharopolyspora Conserve Foliar Reduced-risk 4 For herbs, ornamen-
spinosa application pesticide tals, aquatics, and
vegetables; cater-
pillars, leafminers,
mites, shoreflies,
thrips, sawfly larvae,
and certain beetles.
Variable control of
mites. With unique
mode of action, can
use in in rotation with
any other class of
products Contact and
stomach poison. Get
thorough coverage of
both leaf surfaces.
Judo For mites and whitefly
only on greenhouse
ornamentals. For all
mite developmental
stages; most effective
on juveniles. See label
for phytotoxicity.
72
Spirotetramat Kontos Foliar, drench 24 Contact, stomach
application poison, systemic and
translaminar action.
Provides knockdown
and up to one month
of residual control.
Not for edible crops
or geranium. Start
treatments prior to
establishment of high
pest populations and
reapply as needed.
Sulfoxaflor XXPire WG Foliar 12 Controls chewing and
(IsoclastR) + application sap-feeding insects
Spinetorum Has systemic and
translaminar activity.
Aphids, leaf feeding
beetles, caterpillars,
lace bugs, mealybugs,
plant bugs, some
scales (pine needle,
cottony cushion),
sawfly (EPS), shore
flie, spider mites
(suppreses spruce and
two-spotted), thrips,
and whiteflies. No
significant impact
on predators or
parasitoids. After
3 hours for drying,
risk to pollinators is
greatly reduced
Tolfenpyrad Hachi-Hachi Foliar 12 Contact insecticide.
application Controls all life stages
(eggs, immatures, and
adults) via contact and
ingestion. Controls
aphids, caterpillars,
leafhoppers, scale,
mealybugs, and
thrips; suppresses
whiteflies, Has
shown anti-feeding
activity. See label on
phytotoxicity.
73
Chapter 9
Understanding Insect Growth Regulators
What Is an Insect Growth Regulator?

Insect growth regulators (IGRs) can stop the development of insects, and effectively kill them. To
understand how an insect growth regulator works you must understand that arthropods, such as insects and
mites, have an exoskeleton, which is a skeleton on the outside, made up of chitin. To grow, an insect or mite
must shed its skin repeatedly throughout its youthful development. It also must change from an immature
stage to a sexually mature adult. These processes are controlled by IGR juvenile hormones, chitin synthesis,
and ecdysone production. The chemistry of how these insects form their exoskeleton and molt has been
studied and materials have been developed that mimic these natural processes in the insect. Since birds,
reptiles, and other animals including humans do not form chitinous exoskeletons we are not affected by
these chemicals. Not all insect and mite growth regulators work on insects in the same way and they do not
work on all pests.
Table 9.1 Product Names and Distributors of Commonly Found IGRs for Greenhouse Use
Brand Name Chemical Name Distributor

Adept diflubenzuron UniRoyal
Aza-Direct azadirachtin Gowan Company
Azatin azadirachtin Olympic
Citation cyromazine Syngenta Professional Products
Confirm tebufenozide UniRoyal
Distance pyriproxyfen Valent USA Corporation
Enstar II kinoprene Wellmark International
Hexygon hexythiazox Gowan Company
Nemix azadirachtin Certis USA
Ornazin azadirachtin SePRO Company
Pedestal novaluron UniRoyal
Precision fenoxycarb Whitmire
Talus buprofezin SePRO Company
Are All Insect Growth Regulators the Same?

Not all IGRs are the same. We can group the growth regulators into three main classes: chitin synthesis
inhibitors, ecdysome inhibitors, and juvenile hormone mimics. Below is a short explanation of how the IGR
classes differ from one another, followed by a list IGRs that are commercially available (Table 9.2):
Chitin synthesis inhibitors (Adept, Citation, Pedestal, Talus) disrupt molting by inhibiting chitin
biosynthesis. Hexygon, the only mite growth regulator, falls under the class of chitin synthesis inhibitor.
Although Hexagon is an ovicide, it controls newly laid eggs and eggs laid after application.
Ecdysone inhibitors (Azatin, Ornazin) trigger molting in insects and interfere with the metabolism of
molting hormones, preventing molting by indirectly disrupting chitin biosynthesis in larva and pupa.
75
Juvenile hormones (Confirm, Distance, Enstar II, Precision) imitate molting hormones causing a premature
molting. This action determines whether the insect stays as a larva or moves into the pupal or adult stage.
How Do Growers Manage Resistance?

Repeated use of IGRs with similar modes of action may lead to the build-up of resistant insect strains. Be
sure to rotate IGR use among the different classes of IGRs. It has been noted that insects and mites cannot
development resistance to IGRs. When it comes to applying any constant pressure (e.g. sprays) to suppress a
pest population, the biological world develops ways to mutate around material preventing its survival.
When using IGRs for insect control select one of the chemicals from a class and use this product for one
life cycle of the insect or mite. If you need to continue applications to control the pest after one life cycle,
switch to another class. For example, if using Adept (chitin synthesis inhibitor), switch to Distance (juvenile
hormone mimic). Do not rotate within a class. For example, if using Enstar II, do not switch to Distance.
Table 9.2 Insect Growth Regulators And The Pests They Control
Brand Name Pest Controlled Re-Entry Level Comments

Adept Leafminers, armyworms, 12 hours Rates are 2 oz/100
whiteflies, fungus gnat gallons water and 4–8
larvae, shore fly larvae oz/100 gallons water,
depending on the pest.
Aza-Direct Aphids, beetles, fungus 4 hours The esters and fats
gnats, caterpillars, have been removed
psyllae, thrips, weevils, which reduces the
whiteflies tendency of rancidity.
Up to 3 year shelf-life.
Azatin Aphids, beetles, fungus 4 hours Interferes with an
gnats, caterpillars, insect’s ability to
psyllae, thrips, weevils, molt.
whiteflies
Enstar AQ Mealybugs, whiteflies, 12 hours Complete coverage of
fungus gnat larvae insect is essential.
Fulcrum Aphids, armored scales, 12 hours For control of eggs,
fungus gnats nymphs/larvae and
Spotted tentiform pupae. Can apply as
leafminer, mealybugs, high volume spray
shore flies, whitefly or with low volume
(greenhouse, silverleaf, application equipment
sweet potato) such as Electrostatic
Spraying Systems or
PulseFog systems. Do
not use low volume
equipment for soil-
dwelling insects such
as fungus gnats and
shore flies; apply as
a sprench for these
pests. Phytotoxicity
concerns.
76
Table 9.2 Insect Growth Regulators And The Pests They Control (continued)
Brand Name Pest Controlled Re-Entry Level Comments

Hexygon Immature spider mites 12 hours Good coverage is
essential for control.
Neemix Aphids, beetles, fungus 4 hours 1-year shelf life
gnats, caterpillars,
psyllae, thrips, weevils,
whiteflies
Ornazin Aphids, beetles, fungus 12 hours One difference
gnats, caterpillars, between Azatin and
psyllae, thrips, weevils, Ornazin is the level
whiteflies, scales, and of limonoids in the
nematodes products. Limonoids
are extracted from the
neem seed coat.
Pedestal Thrips, caterpillars, 12 hours Rates 6–8 oz/100
leafminers, whiteflies gallons water
Talus Whiteflies, soft and 12 hours Chitin synthesis
armored scales, inhibitor. Also reduces
leafhoppers, mealybugs, adult egg laying/egg
fungus gnats, viability. Rates from
planthoppers, glassy- 9 to 21 oz/100 gal.,
winged sharpshooter depending upon pest.
77
Chapter 10
Impact of Selected Pesticides on Bees
Insecticides and pollinators
What is the problem?

Pollinator health has been in the spotlight of popular media, some of the public, apiary specialists, and
scientists. After the winter in 2006, unusually high honey bee colony losses were reported by bee keepers
in the United States and in other countries over the last decade. This syndrome is what is now known as
Colony Collapse Disorder. In addition to issues with honey bees, attention to bumble bees and other bees
has raised concerns in declines in the number of species and abundance of these pollinators.
What is causing the problem?

In recent reviews of the data, scientists have identified the interaction of multiple primary factors that affect
honey bee health that include parasites (Varroa mites), pathogens (fungi, viruses), nutrition, and colony
maintenance. To a lesser extent, pesticides may interact with the above factors resulting in sublethal effects
that may affect colony health. Data suggest that pesticides in general, and neonicotinoids in particular, are
not primary factors in colony collapse disorder. For bumble bees, data suggest that pesticides may play
a role, but there is still a need for more field level studies. There are many “issues” associated with the
interpretation of the data from research studies. For example, laboratory studies tend to evaluate levels of
pesticides that are greater than bees are likely exposed to under field conditions. These methods bring into
question the accuracy of inferences from lab to field situations. Because of the variable results from different
lab and field studies, interpretation can be quite variable.
What about neonicotinoid insecticides? Some groups have focused on the class of insecticides called
neonicotinoids, citing them as a major cause of the problem with bee health. Regulations restricting the use
of neonicotinoid insecticides in Europe have been implemented and are under discussion in Canada. In the
U.S., the EPA has accelerated reviews of neonicotinoid insecticides and mandated the addition of a “bee
advisory box” on all products containing neonicotinoids. There is pressure from various groups to remove or
further restrict the use of neonicotinoids, especially from ornamental and turfgrass systems.
What are neonicotinoid insecticides and their potential risks? Neonicotinoid insecticides are insect
neurotoxicants. In the green industries these include imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, clothianidan, acetamiprid,
and dinotefuran. They have many desirable features such as broad-spectrum activity, low application
rates, low mammalian toxicity, systemic movement upward in plants, and multiple application methods
(soil drenches, foliar sprays, or plant injections). They have proved very effective and generally safe in
controlling many sucking, plant boring, and turf feeding insects. Their distribution throughout the plant and
long residual activity has contributed to their effectiveness in controlling plant damaging insects. Because
of these benefits neonicotinoids are widely used in the green industries for managing many potential pest
insects. Neonicotinoids are especially useful for tree conservation and invasive insect species management.
Bees are being reported to feed on pollen from a wide range of sources which increases their exposure
to any chemical found in plant pollen. Statements have been made that higher rates of neonicotinoids are
applied in ornamental systems and that this situation increases risks to pollinators. A concern is when
neonicotinoids are sprayed on open flowers of insect pollinated plants that with some plant species they
79
have the potential to move systemically into pollen, nectar, and guttation fluids, posing particular concern
for exposure to pollinators. There is still much we do not know about the effects of pesticides, including
neonicotinoids, on pollinators and other beneficial insects, and their movement into and residual activity in
various plant parts.

What course of action and factors should be considered when managing potential pests in greenhouse
and nursery systems?
Neonicotinoid insecticides are in the spotlight as a major factor affecting bee health, regardless of what
the data suggests. In addition, complete information is still lacking on their impacts on pollinators. The
green industries often use products that contain neonicotinoids for managing a wide array of pests. In some
situations these materials are the best or only choices; for other pests there are alternatives management
tactics that could be used (see list of alternative pesticides at the end of this article). There is the potential
for EPA to remove or greatly restrict the use of neonicotinoid insecticides, especially use in ornamental and
turf systems. Therefore, it would be wise to reduce the use of and reliance on neonicotinoid insecticides and
to be sure you and your employees are aware of risks of the insecticides they are applying to pollinators
and non-targets in general. Many other insecticides are also toxic to pollinators and non-targets. Be sure to
READ THE LABEL thoroughly and follow the directions.

Consider the following when making plant and pest management decisions.
Choose non-chemical management tactics whenever possible. Select pesticides that have low impact and
are low risk to pollinators. Only use neonicotinoids when other effective products do not exist (ex. reduce
reliance on neonicotinoids). Avoid prophylactic use of neonicotinoids (i.e. do not make applications unless
you actually have an insect population at levels likely to cause damage to the plant. Do not apply foliar
sprays to insect pollinated plants until after petal drop. Similarly, try to avoid trunk and soil injections of
neonicotinoids on insect pollinated plants (not enough is known on residual levels of neonicotinoids in the
nectar and pollen over time).
80
Table 10.1 Alternatives to Neonicotinoids
Brand name Chemcial name Labelled for Notes on bees

Abamectin SPC 0.15 Abamectin Control of leafminers and This product is highly toxic
(In shadehouses, mites. Suppression of aphids, to bees exposed to direct
greenhouse, field whiteflies and thrips treatment or residues on
grown ornamentals, blooming crops or weeds.
foliage plants, Do not apply this product or
Christmas trees, and allow it to drift to blooming
other woody plants) crops or weeds if bees are
visiting the treatment area.
Aza-Direct Azadirachtin Aphids, beetles, borers, Bee info not noted on label.
(Greenhouses, true bugs, caterpillars, flies,
shadecloths, and leafhoppers, leafminers,
nurseries) mealybugs, mites, psyllids,
scales, thrips, weevils,
whiteflies
Azatin XL Azadirachtin Aphids, armyworms, black Bee info not noted on label.
(Indoor and outdoor vine weevil, bagworm, cut-
use on ornamentals, worm, cankerworm, leafhop-
turf, and horticultural pers, leafminers, sawflies,
crops) tent caterpillars, western
flower thrips, whiteflies
Conserve SC Spinosad Chrysomelid leaf feeding Product is toxic to bees when
(Landscapes, beetles, European grapevine exposed during the 3 hours
nurseries, moth, Nantucket pine tip following treatment. Do not
greenhouses, moth, lepidopterous and saw- apply to blooming, pollen-
turfgrass) fly larvae, thrips, shore fly, shedding or nectar-producing
dipterous gall midges, dipter- parts of plants if bees may
ous leafminers, emerald ash forage on the plants during
borer, lewis and spider mites this time period.
Floramite Bifenazate Mites (twospotted mite, This product is toxic to bees
(greenhouses, pacific, strawberry, European exposed to direct treatment.
shadehouses, red, citrus red, clover mite, Do not apply this product
landscapes, nurseries, southern red, spruce spider, while bees are actively
interiorscapes) bamboo spider, and Lewis) visiting the treatment area.
Fulcrum Pyriproxyfen Aphids, fungus gnats, Bee info not noted on label.
(ornamentals, shoreflies, several scale
flowering and foliage species, mealybugs, and
plants, ground covers) whiteflies
Grandevo/Grandevo Chromobacterium Herbs and spices: Product temporarily repels
PTO subtsugae armyworms, loopers, honey bees for up to 4
(field and greenhouse saltmarsh caterpillar, aphids, to 6 days after spraying.
use) mites, thrips, whiteflies Time applications so that
pollination is not disrupted.
81
Table 10.1 Alternatives to Neonicotinoids (continued)
Brand name Chemcial name Labelled for Notes on bees

Kontos Spirotetramat Adelgids, aphids, Product is potentially toxic
(greenhouses, leafhoppers, mealybugs, to honey bee larvae through
nurseries, psyllids, rust mites, scale residues in pollen and nectar,
interiorscape) (crawlers), spider mites, but not to adult honey bees.
spittlebugs, tarsonemid mites, Exposure of adult bees to
thrips (immature), whiteflies direct treatment or residues
on blooming crops can lead
to effects on honey bee
larvae. See the ‘Directions
for Use’ section on label for
specific crop application
instructions that minimize
risk to honey bee larvae.
Mainspring Cyanoaniliprole Thrips, aphids, whiteflies, Bee info not noted on label.
(greenhouses and scale
nurseries)
Pedestal Novaluron Thrips, whiteflies, Bee info not noted on label.
(container and field armyworms, leafminers
grown ornamentals (suppression only)
in greenhouses,
shadehouses, and
nurseries)
Pylon Chlorfenapyr Spider mites including This product is toxic to bees
(ornamental twospotted spider mite, exposed to direct treatment
crops and fruiting broad mite, citrus budmite, on bloom crops or weeds.
vegetable crops cyclamen mite, rust mite, Do not apply this product or
grown in commercial caterpillars including beet allow it to drift to blooming
greenhouses) armyworm, cabbage looper, crops or weeds if bees are
soybean looper, foliar visiting the treatment area.
nematodes, thrips including
chilli thirps, and western
flower thrips.
Shuttle O Acequinocyl Citrus red mite, European Bee info not noted on label.
(commercial red mite, Pacific spider
greenhouse and mite, spruce spider mite,
shadehouse on twospotted spider mite,
ornamental, Willamette spider mite,
floral, foliage and strawberry spider mite, Texas
ornamental nursery citrus mite
crops)
82
Chapter 11
Insecticides Registered for Greenhouse Ornamentals
The following tables (11.1-11.13) list insecticides currently labeled for the most commonly found insect
pests of greenhouses. The trade names are those most readily available for use on commercial ornamental
plants in Maryland. (Note: This list may not include all brands sold, nor does it imply any preference).
Formulation Key:
WSP - Water soluble packets; EC/ES - Emulsifiable concentrate/suspension;
G - Granule; WP - Wettable powder; F - Flowable;
SG - Soluble granular; WDP - Water dispersible granular
NC = not classified
The following are restricted use Fenazaquin
insecticides listed in the tables Magus Lambda-cyhalothrin
in Chapter 11. Fenbutatin-oxide Scimitar GC
ProMITE 50 WP
Bifenthrin Methiocarb
Menace GC 7.9% Flowable (F) Flonicamid Mesurol 75 WP
Talstar Select Aria WSP
Talstar P Permethrin
Up-Star SC Imidacloprid Astro
Wisdom F AmTide Imidacloprid 2F T&O Permethrin 3.2 AG
Bounty
Chlorpyrifos Discus Tablets Pyrethrins and Piperonyl butoxide
DuraGuard ME Imidacloprid 2F Select (PBO)
Lada 2F Pyrethrum TR
Chlorpyrifos + Cyfluthrin Lada 75 WSP???? Pyronyl Crop Spray (Prentox)
Duraplex TR Mallet 2F T&O Pyrenone Crop Spray
Mallet 75 WSP Pyrethr-It Forumula 2 (Prescription
Emamectin benzoate Mantra 1 G Treatment Brand)
Enfold Mantra 2 F
Mantra 60 WSP Thiamethoxam
Marathon 1% G Flagship 25 WG
Marathon II (F) Flagshiop 0.22 G
DISCLAIMER
The USER is always responsible for the effects of pesticide residues, as well as for problems that could
arise from drift or movement of the pesticides to the property of others. Use pesticides only according to
the directions on the label. Follow all directions, precautions, and restrictions. Do not use pesticides on
plants or sites that are not listed on the label.
Pesticide rates in this publication are recommended only if they are registered with the Environmental
Protection Agency and your state department of agriculture. If a registration is changed or cancelled, any
rates listed here are no longer recommended. Trade names are used only to give specific information. This
publication does not endorse or guarantee any product and does not recommend one product instead of
another that might be similar.
83
Aphid Control
Identification and damage: Aphids are generally small (1–3 mm), soft-bodied insects that may or may
not have wings. More than 20 aphid species can infest a range of greenhouse crops. Aphids have the ability
to reproduce without mating or egg production, causing populations to increase almost explosively in
greenhouses year-round.
Monitoring: Aphid control is much more successful when an infestation is detected and controlled early in
a crop cycle. Certain plants (salvia, petunias, and pepper transplants) tend to have recurring aphid problems.
Many aphid species prefer to feed on the undersides of foliage so make sure the foliage is flipped over and
inspected carefully. Ants are also often found feeding on the honeydew of aphids; so if large populations of
ants are detected, check closely for the presence of aphids.
Winged forms of aphids can be monitored using sticky cards. Winged forms are produced in a greenhouse
when the population has reached high levels on individual plants and the aphids are dispersing to establish
new colonies on other plants. Place 1 to 2 yellow sticky cards per 1,000 square feet of growing area.
Examine the yellow sticky cards at least once per week and replace them after a count is taken.
Treatment: Make sure that weeds are controlled under benches and in surrounding areas. Using
microscreening on intake vents helps prevent winged aphids from flying into the greenhouse. Aphids can be
carried into greenhouses on clothing, infested cuttings, or plugs. Carefully examine plants such as salvia and
verbena, known to be preferred by aphids, before moving the plants into a clean greenhouse.
Aphids have many naturally occurring predators and parasites, including lady beetles, lacewings, and
Aphelinidae wasps, just to name a few. Growers releasing beneficial organisms should only use pesticides
listed as having minimal impact on beneficials.
Aphids in the upper foliage canopy are easiest to contact with foliar sprays. Systemic insecticides will be
most effective against those feeding on new growth. Aphids on older growth -- lower in the canopy -- are
the most difficult to kill chemically and may be responsible for producing new aphids that reinfest the upper
canopy. Remember to rotate aphid insecticides, as resistance is common.
84
Table 11.1 Insecticides for Aphid Control
Chemical Name IRAC Class Trade Name Re-entry Comments

Code (Formulation) Interval
(hours)
Abamectin 6 Avermectin Abamectin SPC 12 Foliar spray. Translaminar
0.15 EC properties for suppres-
Ardent 0.15 EC sion only. Do not apply
Avid 0.15 EC through irrigation system.
Lucid 2F Caution on roses, gerber-
as, and chrysanthemums.
Merlin (Phoenix
Not recommended for
Merlin)
ferns or shasta daisies. Do
Minx not get in eyes, on skin, or
Quali-Pro on clothing. Avoid breath-
ing spray mist.
Acephate 1B Organophosphate 1300 Orthene TR 24 Total release cans. Best
to apply in early evening
when foliage is dry and
greenhouse temperatures
are between 60° and 80
°F. Ventilate greenhouse
before reentry.
Acephate 90 Contact insecticide. Do
not apply to poinsettias
after bract formation or
to roses and chrysanthe-
mums in flower. See label-
phytotoxicity precautions.
Acephate 97 UP Systemic with inges-
tion action. Greenhouse
label for anthurium, cacti,
carnations, orchids, roses,
chrysanthemums, foliage
plants, and poinsettias. Do
not apply through irriga-
tion system. Do not treat
freshly rooted cuttings,
poinsettias after bract for-
mation, or roses or chry-
santhemums in flower.
Toxic to bees and birds.
Orthene TT&O Systemic. Limited crops-
(Tree, Turf and see label. Not for cut
Ornamental WP) flowers. Do not apply to
freshly rooted cuttings,
poinsettias after bract
formation, roses or
chrysanthemum in flower.
85
Table 11.1 Insecticides for Aphid Control (continued)
(hours)
Acetamiprid 4A Neonicotinoid TriStar 30 SG 12 Contact material; trans-
laminar activity. Surfac-
tant may improve efficacy.
Do not overhead irrigate
for 6 hrs after applica-
tion. Treat no more than
4 times/year and no more
than once every 7 days.
TriStar 8.5 SL Water-soluble bags -
apply as foliar spray. No
more than 5 applications
per year. Do not treat
more than once every 7
days. Toxic to bees.
Azadirachtin NC Botanical Aza-Direct (EC) 4 IGR. By contact or
AzaGuard ingestion as a repellent,
AzaMax antifeedant, and
interference with molting
process. May repel adults.
Breaks down in spray
solution if pH >7.0 and/or
not used within 8 hrs.
AzaSol See above. High percent
active ingredient and
water solubility.
Azatin O See Aza-Direct. Ecozin
Ecozin Plus 1.2% Plus is only for herbs and
ME vegetables.
Azatin XL See Aza-Direct. Apply to
moderately moist soils.
Azatrol See Aza-Direct. May
reduce waxy bloom on
plants.
Bayer/Bonide neem See Aza-Direct.
oil concentrate
Molt-X
Neemix 4.5 (EC) Immatures. Direct spray
(= Superneem 4.5 on pest and longer dura-
B) tion of leaf wetting in-
creases efficacy. Do not
treat stressed plants or
before root establishment.
Ornazin 3% EC 12 See Aza-Direct.
86
(hours)
Azadirachtin NC Botanical Azera 12 Works by contact or
+ by ingestion. Quick
Pyrethrins 3A Pyrethroid knockdown. Can use on
herbs. Interferes with the
molting process and as an
adulticide. Effective on
all insect life stages. Do
not apply directly to or
near water, storm drains
or drainage ditches. Do
not apply >1 time/ day. Or
>10 times per season.
Beauveria NC Entomopatho- Botanigard 22 WP 4 Insect-specific fungus.
bassiana genic fungus BotaniGard ES Do not tank mix with
GHA Strain Mycotrol O (WP) fungicides. Acts by
contact; thorough
Needs relative humidity
greater than 70% and
65-75 ˚F for 8-10 hours.
Normally takes 3-7 days
for insects to die and
7-10 days after first spray
to see a reduction in an
insect population. Do not
tank mix with fungicides.
Product may be used as a
pre-plant dip for cuttings.
For soil applications
do not apply to water-
saturated soils. See label
for plant list, rates, and
specific instructions. Do
not treat poinsettias in
bract. Note: Formulated
for application without
additional wetting agents
and spreaders.
Bifenazate UN Sirocco 12 For aphid suppression
(=Prevamite-O) only. Thorough coverage
Abamectin 6 of foliage is essential;
young immatures must be
contacted by the spray. Do
not make >2 applications
per crop per year.
87
(hours)
Bifenthrin 3A Pyrethroid Attain TR 12 Micro Total Release cans.
For best results apply
temperature is between
60-80 °F. Do not reapply
within 48 hrs of applica-
tion. Ventilate greenhouse
before reentry.
Menace GC 7.9% Contact insecticide.
Flowable (F) Thorough coverage is
important. Do not apply
through any irrigation
system. Do not allow
runoff to occur.
Talstar P Thorough coverage
(Professional) (F) is important. Foliar
application. Do not apply
through any type of
irrigation system.
Talstar Select May not be effective
against some aphid popu-
lations due to resistance.
Thorough coverage is
through any irrigation sys-
tem. Spreader stickers are
not necessary. Do not use
on edible plants. Can tank
mix with plant growth
regulators.
Up-Star SC (F) May not be effective
against some aphid popu-
lations due to resistance.
important. Can use for
larvae in potting substrate
of container plants - see
label for preventative and
curative treatments.
Wisdom F May not be effective
against some aphid
populations due to
resistance Do not apply
through irrigation system.
88
(hours)
Chlorpyrifos 1B Organophospate DuraGuard ME 24 Microencapsulated
formulation. Can be
applied as a foliar spray
and as a coarse spray to
substrate surface. Caution
on azaleas, poinsettias,
camellias, roses, and
variegated ivies. Do not
use on kalanchoes. Direct
treatment to some open
blooms may cause petal
drop. See label for plant
list, specific rates, and
instructions.
Chlorpyrifos and 1B Organophosphate Duraplex TR 24 For wholesalers only.
Cyfluthrin 3A Pyrethroid (=Descriptor Total Micro Total Release
Release Insecticide) spray; contact action.
Apply when foliage is
dry during early evening
when temperature is
between 60-80 °F. Do not
apply through any type of
irrigation system. Do not
apply under conditions of
extreme heat or drought
stress. Available in 2 oz
container that treats up to
3,000 ft2.
Chromobacte- UN Biological Grandevo 4 Contact biological
rium subtsugae insecticide for young
strain PRAA4-1 immature stages of foliar
(Achromocil) feeding insects and
mites. May also reduce
adult egg laying. Apply
to non-blooming plants.
Proper application timing
to target newly hatched
Good spray coverage is
important; no systemic
activity. Carefully follow
label directions. See label
about tank mixing.
89
(hours)
Clothianidan 4A Arena 50 WDG 12 Systemic; must
translocate from roots
over 1-2 weeks. Thorough
coverage is required.
Apply to established
plants; do not apply
treatments <10 days apart.
Do not apply to plants
in flower – wait until all
flower petals have fallen
off. Do not use a foliar
application following a
soil application. Only
apply to moist soil
substrate, not dry or
saturated soil. Do not
apply during bloom/when
bees are foraging.
Cyanoaniliprole 28 Diamide Mainspring 4 Contact and systemic
activity. Foliar or soil
this product or allow it
to drift to plants/weeds
in bloom if bees are
foraging.
Cyfluthrin 3A Pyrethroid Decathlon 20WP 12 Contact. Do not apply
system. Spray plants in
bloom at times when
pollinating insects are
not present, such as early
morning or late evening.
Dichlorvos 1B Organophosphate DDVP 20% * Spray until runoff.
Only for greenhouse
ornamentals, tomatoes and
cucumbers Do not apply
when foliage or blossoms
are wet as injury may
result. Caution on Shasta
and Pink Champagne
Chrysanthemums and
some snapdragons.
*Thoroughly ventilate
before reentering.
90
(hours)
Dinotefuran 4A Neonicotinoid Safari 2 12 Contact and systemic
insecticide. Foliar
application provides
suppression or regulation
only. Do not apply until
after target plants are
through blooming and
pollen and nectar are no
longer present. No more
than 2 foliar or broadcast
applications and/or 1 soil
application may be made
per crop per year. Only
apply soil drench to moist
soil substrate. Do not
apply to dry or saturated
substrate. Do not apply
foliar sprays to plants
that have received a soil
drench. Toxic to bees.
Fenoxycarb 7B Fenoxycarb Preclude TR 12 IGR; micro encapsulated
release. Cans must be
stored at >65 °F for 24 hrs
before release. Do not use
more than every 7 days.
Flonicamid 9C Flonicamid Aria (WSP) 12 Water-soluble packets.
quickly but may remain
on plants for up to 5 days.
Product has residual
control. Do not apply this
product more than 2 times
consecutively before
rotating. Certain pansy
cultivars have exhibited
sensitivity to product.
91
(hours)
Horticultural Oil NC Oil Bonide All Seasons 4 Contact insecticide so
Horticultural Spray thorough coverage is
Oil (Mineral/ very important. Use
paraffinic oil) enough spray solution to
Golden Pest Spray completely penetrate the
oil (soybean oil) leaf canopy and cover
Lesco Horticultural both top and bottom of all
Oil #019492 of the leaves and stems
Monterrey until wet but without
Horticultural Oil significant runoff. Be
(mineral oil) cautious on open blooms.
Pure Spray Green Foliar injury may occur
(Mineral oil) if applied during hot,
Saf-T-Side Spray humid conditions. Do
Oil (Petroleum Oil) not tank mix with more
Suffoil-X than 1 pesticide. Do not
(Petroleum Oil) apply through irrigation
Summit Year Round systems.
Spray Oil (Mineral
Oil) Do not spray more than
SunSpray Ultra Fine 1 time per week. Do not
Oil spray when there is an
TriTek (Mineral obvious moisture deficit
Oil) in leaves or the plant
Ultra-Pure Oil is under stress. Test for
(Mineral Oil) phytotoxicity for each
plant variety before
treating. Do not exceed
four applications per
growing season. Do not
use in combination or
immediately before/after
spraying fungicides or any
product containing sulfur.
Do not use with carbaryl
(Sevin) or dimethoate
(Cygon). See label for
information on specific
plants labeled to treat and
phytotoxicity safety.
92
(hours)
Imidacloprid 4A Neonicotinoid AmTide 12 Foliar and growing
Imidacloprid 2 F medium applications.
T&O Protection period is
reduced if media has
>30–50% bark content.
Systemic. Do not apply
product to water logged
or saturated substrate.
Do not apply as a foliar
treatment following a
soil application of other
imidacloprid products.See
label for rates/restrictions
based upon container size
and application type.
Bounty See above. Can be used in
ebb & flood systems.
Discus Tablets Tablets are formulated
to provide consistent
delivery of active
ingredient over time.
Need adequate substrate
moisture for release of
active ingredient.
Imidacloprid 2F Do not apply through any
Select irrigation system. Do not
foliar apply following
a soil application in
the same crop. For
greenhouse herbs only (7
day PHI).
Lada 2F Systemic. Can incorporate
Lada 75 WSP into the substrate before
planting. Do not apply
while bees are foraging.
Do not apply to flowering
plants. Apply only after
all petals have fallen
off. Caution on ferns,
Crassula, petunias, and
lantana.
93
(hours)
Imidacloprid 4A Neonicotinoid Mallet 2F 12 Not to be used more than
(continued) once every 16 weeks.
Mallet 75 WSP Soil treatment only. Do
not make more than 5
applications per year.
See label for rates and
restrictions based upon
container size, frequency,
and application type.
Mantra 1G For crops grown in flats,
on benches, in beds, and
in containers. Apply when
root systems are well
established.
Mantra 2F Do not apply through
any irrigation system.
Can be used in ebb+flood
systems.
Mantra 60 WSP Can be used in ebb+flood
systems.
Marathon 1% G Apply when root systems
are well established. See
label for complete plant
list, rates, and specific
instructions.
Marathon II (F) Can apply before egg-
laying activity of target
pests.
Imidacloprid 4A Discus NG 12 Contact and systemic
Cyfluthrin 3 insecticide for foliar
or soil applications.
Protection period is
reduced if substrate
has >30–50% bark
content. Do not use a
neonicotinoid insecticide
following application.
Highly toxic to bees.
Apply to flowering plants
when pollinating insects
are not present.
94
(hours)
Insecticidal soap NC Potassium salts Bayer Insecticidal 12 Complete coverage is
of fatty acids Soap essential. Do not apply
Bonide Insecticidal to tender new foliage.
Soap Thoroughly wet infested
DES-X plant surfaces. Do not
Earth-Tone spray when plants are
Insecticidal Soap under stress. Do not use
on new transplants or
M-Pede
unrooted cuttings. Do
Natural Guard not spray with full sun
Insecticidal Soap or when temperature
Safer Insecticidal exceeds 90 °F. Do not
Soap spray blooms or partially
open flower buds. Do not
use on bleeding heart,
gardenia, jade, lantana,
lilies, nasturtium, delicate
ferns or sweetpea. Use
with care on begonia,
Euphorbia, fuchsia,
geranium, palm,
impatiens, ornamental
ivy, or succulents. Do
not treat poinsettia after
bracts start to show color.
Test chrysanthemums for
varietal sensitivity.
Insecticidal Safer End All Insect Contact insecticide. Do
Soap with Killer not spray blooms or
Pyrethrins and partially open flower
Neem Oil buds. Do not treat crown
of thorns, jade, bleeding
heart, gardenia, or delicate
ferns. Test for varietal
sensitivity on begonia,
fuschia and impatiens.
Isaria NC Biological NoFly WP 12 For non-food crops.
fumosorosea Preferal Works best between 72-
Apopka Strain 86 °F humidity >80%.
97 (previously Takes about 3-7 days
known as for insects to die. May
Paecilomyces cause moderate eye
fumosoroseus) irritation. Do not mix with
fungicides. See label on
storage and application.
95
(hours)
Kinoprene 7A Juvenile hormone Enstar AQ 4 IGR. See label for
analogues application information.
necessary.
Lambda- 3A Pyrethroid Scimitar GC (EC) 24 A spreader-sticker is
cyhalothrin recommended. Do
not apply through any
mix with EC formulations
or oils.
Methiocarb 1A Carbamate Mesurol 75WP 24 Do not apply with foliar
fertilizers or oils. Contact
insecticide. Effectiveness
may be reduced when the
spray solution has a pH
>7. Do not make more
than 2 applications per
year per crop; apply at
least 10 days apart.
Neem oil NC Oil Triact 70 4 Apply before insects
(clarified 70% Need Oil or eggs are present in
hydrophobic large numbers. Do not
extract of Neem exceed 1.0% rate in the
oil) greenhouse. Do not apply
to wilted or otherwise
stressed plants, or to
newly transplanted plants
before root establishment.
Not suggested for use on
cut roses. Do not spray
on impatiens flowers.
Reapply every 7 - 21 days
until pest pressure is over.
Caution if applying to
hibiscus flowers. Product
is also a fungicide.
OIL of rosemary NC Botanical Ecotec 4 Contact insecticide;
+ peppermint labeled for herbs,
vegetables; woodies. Use
an adjuvant. Thorough
coverage is important.
Repeat application every
5-7 days. Do not use if
temperatures are >90 °F.
96
(hours)
Permethrin 3A Pyrethroid Astro 12 Contact insecticide.
Permethrin 3.2 Ag Thorough coverage of all
plant parts is important.
Direct application to
blooms may cause
browning of petals.
Marginal leaf burn
may occur on salvia,
dieffenbachia, and
Pteris fern. See label for
specifics.
Pymetrozine 9B Pyridine Endeavor (WDG) 12 Systemic and translaminar
activity. Aphids stop
feeding within hours but
remain on plant for 2-4
days. Product has some
residual activity and will
control pests that move
onto treated plants. Do
not apply to poinsettias in
bract. Some restrictions
regarding application
amounts apply.
Pyrethrins 3A Pyrethrin Pyganic Crop 12 Herbs are listed on the
Protection 5.0 EC label. Buffer final spray
Pyganic EC 1.4 mix to a pH of 5.5-7.0.
In the greenhouse, do
not exceed maximum
application rate of 1.18 fl.
oz./1,000 ft2. Do not apply
more than 1 time per day.
applications.
97
(hours)
Pyrethrins and 3A Pyrethrin Pyrenone Crop 12 Botanical insecticide
Piperonyl Spray plus a synergist to flush
butoxide (PBO) insects out of hiding
and into contact with
spray residues. Apply
when foliage is dry. Do
not use on cyclamen or
nasturtium. Can tank mix
with other insecticides.
Pyronyl Crop Spray No more than 10
applications/season in
greenhouse. Can also
combine with other
Pyreth-It Formula
insecticides for a quicker
2 (Prescription
and more complete kill
Treatment Brand)
where insect resistance
may a problem. See label
for specific instructions.
Pyrethrum TR Micro total release aerosol
formulation; treats up to
3,000 ft2. See label for
specific instructions.
Pyrifluquinazon UN Rycar 12 Contact and translaminar
insecticide. Causes
immediate stop-feed.
Thorough spray coverage
needed. Do not apply
system. Do not harvest
cut flowers for 48 hrs after
spraying. Do not compost
any treated plant material.
For non-food crops only;
Do not allow pesticide
spray solution to run off
outside of the application
area. Do not make more
crop cycle.
98
(hours)
Pyriproxyfen 7C Pyriproxyfen Fulcrum 12 IGR for suppression of
eggs, nymphs/larvae and
pupae. Apply no more
than 2 times per cropping
cycle or not >2 times in
6 months. Do not apply
to poinsettia after bract
formation; see label
for more. Do not apply
to salvia, ghost plant,
Boston fern, gardenia or
coral bells. See label for
complete plant list, rates,
and specific instructions.
Sulfoxaflor 4C + Sulfoximine XXPire WG 12 Not a neonicotinoid. Has
(IsoclastR) + 5 systemic and translaminar
Spinetorum activity. Provides
knockdown and up to
one month of residual
control. Do not apply to
edible crops. Do not make
more than 2 consecutive
applications. Do not make
per year.
Spirotetramat 23 Sulfoximine Kontos 12# Contact, stomach
poison, systemic and
translaminar insecticide
for both knockdown and
residual control. Not a
neonicotinoid. Provides
knockdown and up to
edible crops or geranium.
Start treatments prior to
establishment of high pest
populations and reapply
on an as-needed basis.
See label for list of plants,
application types, and
important plant safety
information.
#See label for drench REI.
99
(hours)
Tau-fluvalinate 3A Pyrethroid Mavrik Aquaflow 12 Spray water should be
buffered to pH 5-7. Do
not apply more than 4
sprays per month. May
work slowly on some
species. Allow 3–4 days
to evaluate performance.
Effectiveness against
green peach aphid may
vary because of resistance.
Caution on roses and
poinsettias. Can also use
as a dip for flower and
foliage cuttings. May
cause respiratory allergic
response.
Thiamethoxam 4A Neonicotinoid Flagship 0.22G 12 Systemic - allow a
Flagship 25WDG minimum of one week
for smaller plants to
translocate to feeding sites
of target pest. If leaching,
allow at least 7 days for
maximum uptake.
Flagshipo 25 WDG Apply to foliage or
substrate. Product applied
to foliage is rapidly
absorbed/distributed for
rapid control of foliar
feeding insects. Product
applied to soil will kill
soil pests upon contact
or ingestion; will also be
readily taken up by plant
roots to pest feeding sites.
Tolfenpyrad 21A METI Hachi-Hachi 12 Contact insecticide.
insecticides Phytotoxic to blooms and
some plants. See label
for rates for cut flowers.
Allow at least 10 days
between applications. Do
not apply to gypsophila,
impatiens, salvia, or
poinsettia in bract. For use
on non-food crops.
100
Caterpillar Control
Identification and damage: Caterpillars are the immature forms (larvae) of Lepidoptera (moths and
butterflies) pests. This group includes armyworms, cutworms, leaftiers, leafrollers, loopers and sawfly
larvae. These insects are only damaging in the immature larval stage; the adults either do not feed or feed
only on nectar. Feeding damage includes small holes to totally consumed plant foliage (including defoliation
of stems and flowers). This causes either the total loss of plants, or tattered, totally unsalable plants.
Adult moths can be attracted to the greenhouse by lights and fly in from the outdoors to lay their eggs (e.g.
cabbage loopers). Some caterpillars prefer to hide in the soil during daylight and emerge to feed only at
night; others remain on the plants at all times; and still others fold leaves around themselves for protection.
It is necessary to identify the pests properly before beginning a control program.
Monitoring: Examine foliage for presence of caterpillars. Examine the base of the plant for frass (caterpillar
excrement). Look for early damage symptoms.
Treatment: Spray when caterpillars are small for the most effective control. This is very important,
especially when using biological and botanical controls, e.g. Bacillus thuringiensis, azadirachtin, Beauveria
bassiana, and Saccharopolyspora spinosa. The larger the caterpillar, the more damage occurs and the harder
it is to control. Timing is therefore very important.
101
Table 11.2 Insecticides for Caterpillar Control

(hours)
Acephate 1B Organophosphate Orthene TT&O 24 Systemic. Not for
97 (Turf, tree, and residential greenhouse
Ornamental) WP use. Do not apply to
freshly rooted cuttings.
For use on limited kinds
of crops - see label. Not
for cut flowers. Do not
apply with a low pressure
hand wand. Do not
apply to poinsettias after
bract formation, roses or
chrysanthemum in flower.
See label for complete/
limited plant list, rates,
1300 Orthene TR Labeled for cabbage
loopers, cankerworms
and leafrollers. Total
release cans. Best to apply
in early evening when
foliage is dry. Greenhouse
temperatures should be
between 60° and 80 °F for
best results. Greenhouse
should be ventilated
before reentry. See label
for specific instructions
and phototoxicity
concerns on specific
plants. Caution using on
roses or chrysanthemums
in flower or poinsettias in
bract.
Acephate 90 Labeled for cabbage
loopers, cankerworms
and leafrollers. Contact
insecticide Do not apply
to poinsettias after bract
formation or to roses
and chrysanthemums
with open blooms. See
label for specific plant
102
Table 11.2 Insecticides for Caterpillar Control (continued)
(hours)
Acetamiprid 4A Neonicotinoid TriStar 70 WSP 12 Do not make more than 5
TriStar 8.5 SL applications/year or more
than once every 7 days.
Toxic to bees.
70 WSP: Contact
insecticide, translaminar
activity. Need thorough
coverage. Do not irrigate
overhead for at least 6 hrs
after application. Test for
phytotoxicity if using a
surfactant.
8.5 SL: Water-soluble
bags as a foliar spray.
Azadirachtin 18B Botanical Aza-Direct (EC) 4 IGR. By contact or
AzaMax antifeedant, and
interference with the
Azatin O molting process. May
repel adults. Will break
Bayer/Bonide neem down in the spray solution
oil concentrate if pH>7.0 and/or not used
Molt-X within 8 hrs.
AzaSol: May be applied
AzaSol to any food crop. High
percent active ingredient
and water solubility; need
thorough coverage.
Azatin XL: Apply to
Azatin XL (EC) moderately moist soils.
Azatrol: May reduce the
Azatrol waxy bloom on certain
ornamental plants.
Ecozin Plus: Only for
herbs and vegetables in
Ecozin Plus 1.2%
greenhouse.
ME
Neemix 4.5: Kills only
immature stages. Direct
Neemix 4.5 (EC) spray onto pest and longer
(=Superneem 4.5B) duration of leaf wetness
increases effectiveness.
Do not apply to wilted/
stressed plants or unrooted
newly transplanted plants.
Ornazin 3% EC 12 See above.
103
(hours)
Azadirachtin + 18B Botanical Azera 12 Works by contact or
Pyrethrins 3A Pyrethrum by ingestion. Quick
knockdown. OK on herbs.
Kills by interfering with
molting process and as
an adulticide. Effective
on all life stages. Do not
apply directly to or near
water, storm drains or
drainage ditches. Do not
apply when windy. Do
not apply >1 time/ day. Or
>10 times per season. See
label.
Bacillus 11 B2 Bacterium Agree WG 4 Stomach poison that must
thuringiensis Biobit XL be eaten by target insect to
aizawai strain XenTari DF be effective. Treat when
larvae are young (1st and
2nd instar larvae). Larvae
must be actively feeding
on treated, exposed plant
surfaces. Insect stops
feeding and dies from 1
to 5 days later. See label.
Highly compatible with
biocontrol programs.
Bacillus 11 B2 Bacterium Condor WP 4 Used only to control
thuringiensis Cyrmax WDG small, immature
kurstaki strain Deliver caterpillars (1st and 2nd
Dipel Pro DF instar larvae). Must be
ingested to be effective,
Dipel ES, DF
so thorough coverage is
Foray essential. Insect stops
Javelin feeding and dies 1 to
Monterey Bt 5 days later. See label.
104
(hours)
Beauveria NC Entomopatho- BotaniGard ES 4 Contains spores that
bassiana genic fungus BotaniGard 22 WP attach to cuticle of pest,
GHA Strain then penetrate to kill.
Do not apply through
a thermal pulse fogger.
Can be used with ultra-
low volume equipment
and chemigation. Can be
used as pre-plant dips for
cuttings. Do not apply
to pointsettias in bract.
Begin applications at first
sign of pest; may take
7-10 days for control.
Do not tank mix with
fungicides or apply with
insecticides such as
Metasystox R, Neemazad
or Thiodan EC. Sticking
agents, insecticidal soaps
or emulsifiable oils may
improve control.
Mycotrol O (WP Contact insecticide.
Active ingredient is an
insect-killing fungus. To
be effective needs relative
humidity >70% and temps
65-75 ˚F for 8-10 hours
Thorough coverage of all
Do not apply through a
thermal pulse fogger. Use
caution when making
applications to open
blooms. Do not apply
during a temperature
inversion. Do not mix
more Mycotrol than
needed for that day.
105
(hours)
during early evening
60-80 °F. Ventilate
greenhouse before reentry.
Do not reapply product
within 48 hrs of a previous
application. See label
(F) Thorough coverage is
system. Do not apply in
rain. Do not allow runoff
or dripping to occur.
Talstar P Do not apply through any
(Professional) type of irrigation system.
Talstar Select Spreader stickers are not
necessary. Do not use on
edible plants. Can be tank
mixed with plant growth
regulators. Thorough
Up-Star SC Do not use more than 1
fl. oz. per 1000 ft2. Foliar
application. Do not use
system.
Wisdom F Thorough coverage is
system. Do not allow the
product to enter any drain
during or after application.
instructions.
106
(hours)
Chlorfenapyr 13 Pyrrole Pylon 12 Contact; stomach poison
with translaminar activity.
For ornamentals and
fruiting vegetables.
needed. Do not apply >3
times within a growing
cycle. Not ovicidal. Toxic
to bees; apply prior to
bloom. Phytotoxicity
caution on carnations,
dianthus, kalanchoes,
poinsettias, roses, salvias
and zinnias. See label for
plant safety, details and
application information
(including use on plugs).
Pylon TR See above. Total release
product, available in 2
oz containers that treats
up to 3,000 ft2. Do not
compost any discarded
plant materials that have
been treated with this
product. See label for
details, directions, and
precautions.
formulation. Can be
and as a coarse spray
to soil surface. Caution
on poinsettias and
instructions.
107
(hours)
Chlorpyrifos 1B Organophosphate Duraplex TR 24 For wholesalers only.
Cyfluthrin 3A Pyrethroid (=Descripton Total Micro Total Release
Release Insecticide) spray; contact action.
when temperature is
between 60-80 °F. Do
stress. A 2 oz can treats up
to 3,000 ft2.
Chromobacte- UN Biological Grandevo 4 For greenhouse herbs
rium subtsugae and vegetables. Contact
strain PRAA4-1 biological insecticide for
young immature stages.
important. Proper timing
targeting newly hatched
Good spray coverage is
important; no systemic
activity. See label warning
if tank mixing.
Cyfluthrin 3A Pyrethroid Decathlon 20 WP 12 Do not apply through
any irrigation system.
A spreader-sticker may
enhance coverage of hard
to wet leaf surfaces. Good
Diflubenzuron 15 Benzoylureas Adept (WSP) 12 IGR; water soluble bags.
Disrupts normal molting
processes of larvae. Apply
as soil drench or coarse
spray to soil surface. For
control of certain foliar-
feeding insects, apply as
foliar spray. Do not apply
to poinsettias, hibiscus,
or Rieger begonia. Do not
apply to pots on capillary
mats. Do not reuse treated
potting substrate.
108
(hours)
Fenoxycarb 7B Fenoxycarb Preclude 12 Micro Total Release.
Prescription Insect growth regulator.
Treatment TR A 2 oz container treats
up to 3,000 ft2. Cans
must be stored at room
temperature (above 65
°F) for 24 hours before
application. Not for use on
any food crops.
Fenpropathrin + 3A+1 Pyrethroid Tame/Orthene TR 24 Total release aerosol.
Acephate 1B Organophosphate Mixture of two contact
insecticides. One 16
oz container treats up
to 3,000 ft2. Apply
60°-80 °F. Make one to
three applications per
week depending on the
severity of the infestation.
Do not apply product
application.
Imidacloprid 4A Discus NG 12 Contact & systemic
Cyfluthrin 3 insecticide for foliar
has >30–50% bark
neonicotinoid following
application. Highly toxic
to bees. Treat flowering
plants when pollinating
insects are not present.
109
(hours)
Insecticidal soap NC Potassium salts Bayer Insecticidal 12 Contact insecticide so
of fatty acids Soap complete coverage is
Bonide Insecticidal essential. Do not apply
Soap to tender new foliage,
DES-X unrooted cuttings, new
Earth-Tone transplants, seedlings or
Insecticidal Soap plants under stress by
hot (>90 °F), humid, or
M-Pede
drought conditions. Do
Natural Guard not spray when full sun.
Insecticidal Soap Do not spray blooms
Safer Insecticidal or partially open flower
Soap buds. Do not use on
bleeding heart, gardenias,
jade, lantana, lilies,
nasturtiums, delicate
ferns or sweetpeas. Use
with care on begonias,
euphorbia, fuchsia,
gardenia, geraniums,
impatiens, ornamental ivy,
palms, or succulents. Do
not treat poinsettias after
start of bract coloring.
Test on chrysanthemums
for varietal sensitivity
and do not apply to open
blooms. Tank mixing may
increase effectiveness and
retard development of
insecticide resistance, but
resulting mixture may be
more phytotoxic.
Isaria NC Biological PFR-97 20% WDG 4 For herbs and vegetables
fumosorosea only. See label for
Apopka Strain application method for
97 specific pest and storage.
(previously Works best when >80%
known as relative humidity for 8-10
Paecilomyces hrs. Causes moderate eye
fumosoroseus) irritation. Do not apply
when bees are foraging.
110
(hours)
Lambda- 3A Pyrethroid Scimitar GC (EC) 24 Not for food crops.
cyhalothrin Contact insecticide.
important. A spreader-
sticker is recommended.
any irrigation system. Do
not mix with other EC
formulations or oils.
Methoxyfeno- 18 IGR Intrepid 2F 4 IGR. Start when larvae
zide are observed/first sign of
feeding damage. Uniform
coverage is essential. Do
fl. oz. per acre per year.
Do not make more than 4
applications per acre per
year. Apply at least 6 hrs
before chance of rain.
Novaluron 15 Benzoylureas Pedestal 12 IGR. For armyworm
larvae, not adults. Do not
use more than once within
each generation. Do not
apply more than 2 times
per crop per year. Do not
apply to poinsettias.
Permethrin 3A Pyrethroid Astro (EC) 12 Contact insecticide.
Permethrin 3.2 Ag Thorough coverage is
important. Spraying
browning. Marginal leaf
burn may occur on salvia,
dieffenbachia, and Pteris
fern.
Pyrethrin Pyrethrins Pyganic Crop 12 Herbs are listed on
Protection EC 5.0 label. In greenhouse, do
Pyganic EC 1.4 not exceed maximum
application rate of 1.18
fl. oz./1,000 ft2. Do not
reapply within 3 days
except under extreme pest
pressure. Do not apply
when honey bees are
active.
111
(hours)
Pyrethrins 3A Pyrethrin Pyronyl Crop Spray 12 Can combine with other
(Prentox) insecticides for a quicker
where insect resistance
may be a problem. No
more than 10 applications/
season in greenhouse.
Pyrethrins and 3A+2 Pyrethrin Pyrenone 5.0 EC 12 Botanical insecticide plus
Piperonyl 7A PBO Crop Spray synergist to flush insects
butoxide (PBO) out of hiding into contact
with spray residues. Apply
Prentox Pyronyl Can combine with other
Crop Spray insecticides for a quicker
where resistance may be a
problem.
Pyreth-It Formula 2 Contact insecticide. Can
tank mix with insecticides
to enhance efficacy and
flush insects out of hiding
into contact with spray
residues. Apply when
foliage is dry.
Pyrethrum TR Total release aerosol. A 2
oz can treats up to 3,000
ft2. See label for caterpillar
species controlled.
Pyridalyl NC Pyridalyl Overture 35WP 12 Controls by contact
and ingestion (also has
translaminar activity).
Do not apply more than
3 times per crop cycle
or more than 3 times per
6 months. Can apply by
high volume sprayers or
low volume application
equipment (i.e. PulseFOG
or Electrostatic Spraying
Systems. Do not apply
112
(hours)
Sulfoxaflor 4c Sulfoximine XXpire WG 12 Spinetorum (contact
(IsatoxR) + and stomach poison)
Spinetorum 5 and sulfoxaflor
(contact, systemic
and translaminar) for
knockdown and up to one
month of residual control.
Not a neonicotinoid. Do
not apply to edible crops.
See label for specific
caterpillars (also sawflies).
Spinosad 5 Spinosyn Conserve SC (EC) 4 Contact and stomach
poison insecticide.
Thorough leaf coverage
is important. Not for
edible crops. See label
for application types,
use and rate restrictions.
Except for greenhouses
and structures that can
be altered to be closed
or open, do not reapply
within less than 7 days.
Entrust Contact and stomach
poison. Thorough leaf
coverage is important. See
label for application types,
Can apply to herbs and
vegetable transplants.
Tau-Fluvalinate 3A Pyrethroid Mavrik Aquaflow 12 Contact. May cause
respiratory allergic
response. Spray water
should be buffered to pH
5-7. Do not apply more
than 4 sprays per month.
May work slowly on some
poinsettias. Can also be
used as a dip for flower
and foliage cuttings.
113
(hours)
Tolfenpyrad 21A METI- Hachi-Hachi 12 Contact insecticide for
insecticides use on early stage insects.
Do not use on food crops.
Phytotoxic to blooms and
some plants. Refer to label
for more information.
See label for rates for cut
flowers. Allow at least 10
days between applications.
Apply no more than 2
applications per crop
cycle. Do not apply to
Gypsophilia, impatiens,
salvia, or poinsettias in
bract.
114
Foliar Nematode Control
Identification and damage: Foliar nematodes (Aphelenchoides spp.) are microscopic plant-parasitic
nematodes found within leaf tissue. Populations can build up very rapidly in greenhouses where there are
no interruptions in their life cycle. Foliar nematodes are most damaging on Ageratum spp.; Anthurium
andraeanum; Begonia spp. and hybrids; Coleus spp. and hybrids; Cyclamen persicum (florist’s cyclamen);
ferns, Ficus spp. (rubber plant); Hibiscus rosa-sinensis; Impatiens spp.; Lilium spp. and hybrids; orchids;
Pelargonium x hortorum (florist’s geranium); Peperomia spp.; Saintpaulia ionantha (African violet) Salvia
spp.; Sinningia x (florist’s gloxinia); and Vanda spp. (vanda orchid).
Foliar nematode feeding kills leaf tissue and causes browning of foliage and leaf blotches. The main leaf
vein acts as a barrier to nematodes within leaf tissue. To reach other leaf sections, foliar nematodes emerge
from stomata under moist conditions, and migrate over the leaf surface. The damaged leaf therefore
appears with different stages of discoloration from pale green, to yellow, and eventually brown. On plants
with parallel veins, the brown blotchy symptoms appear as long stripes; on plants with netted veins, they
appear like angular patchwork. At low population densities, no symptoms may be apparent on plants. Once
symptoms appear, the nematodes have increased to large population levels. Populations often build over the
course of the growing season, with higher levels (and increased damage) in late summer/fall vs. the spring.
Monitoring: Look for damage, especially on lower leaves. Closely inspect areas prone to splashing water,
particularly from new transplants. Nematodes can survive in dead foliage (that often cling on plant stems)
for several months so remove dead foliage promptly. Foliar nematodes are extremely small and cannot
be seen unless examined under a dissecting microscope. Suspected leaf tissue can be sent to an Extension
specialist or a diagnostic lab for identification.
Treatment: Remove infested plants and dead foliage promptly. Soil, containers, and tools should be
fumigated or steamed before use. Sanitation of previous crop debris is important.
Table 11.3 Nematicides for Foliar Nematode Control

(hours)
Chlorfenapyr 13 Chlorfenapyr Pylon 12 Contact; stomach poison
For ornamentals and fruit-
ing vegetables. Thorough
coverage is needed. Do
not apply >3 times within
growing cycle. Not
ovicidal. Toxic to bees;
apply prior to bloom.
Phytotoxicity caution on
carnations, dianthus, ka-
lanchoe, poinsettias, roses,
salvias and zinnias. See
label for plant safety and
application details (includ-
ing use on plugs)..
115
Fungus Gnat Control
Identification and damage. Fly species belonging to the closely related Sciaridae and Mycetophilidae
families are known as longhorned flies, or fungus-eating gnats. They are slender, long-legged, mosquito-
like insects with long antennae. Species of fungus-eating gnats can carry plant pathogenic fungi and feed on
roots and stems. Those belonging to the Sciaridae family are commonly called dark-winged fungus gnats
because the wings and bodies of most species are gray to black. Those belonging to the Mycetophilidae
family are commonly called fungus gnats. Most of these species have clear wings and yellow-brown bodies.
The immature maggots of dark-winged fungus gnats are translucent and worm-like in shape, with a black
head capsule.
Fungal diseases are spread primarily by dark-winged fungus gnats. The diseases can be spread throughout a
greenhouse through spores that may be carried from plant to plant as flies migrate through the greenhouse.
Fly larvae of some fungus-eating gnat species can also directly damage plants by feeding on root hairs and
tunneling into the roots and stems of susceptible plants.
Extended periods of cloud cover cause high humidity, which promotes high soil moisture. These conditions
are ideal for the development of fly maggots (larvae) in greenhouse growing substrate. For example,
crops such as poinsettia are often damaged by fungal root rots and root feeding while under mist during
propagation and when growing in containers in overwatered soils.
Monitoring. Monitor larvae of fungus gnats by using 1-inch diameter potato disks placed on the surface of
the potting substrate. Place disks at the rate of 10 disks per 1,000 square feet of greenhouse production area.
The maggots will migrate to the underside of the potato disk where they feed. Pick up and examine the disk
1 to 2 times a week, and record the number of maggots found. The maggot count can be used to determine
if treatment is necessary or whether a biological or chemical treatment has been effective in reducing the
number of maggots in the substrate.
Adult fungus-eating gnats are attracted to yellow sticky cards. Use a hand lens (10x to 15x magnification)
for field identification. Sticky cards laid flat on the soil surface capture 50–60% more adult fungus-eating
gnats than cards placed vertically. Take the yellow sticky card counts on a weekly basis to determine
whether the population is increasing or decreasing.
Treatment: Because fungus-eating gnats prefer moist soils, avoid keeping soils wet for extended periods
of time. Use of horizontal air flow (HAF) fans improves circulation in the greenhouse and helps keep soil
drier. Controlling algae on the bench surface and in the areas under the bench will help reduce the nuisance
population of shore flies.
Repeat applications of many pesticides are necessary since they do not control fungus gnat eggs or pupae.
The biological control product, Gnatrol, is effective only on young larvae, not mature larvae. It should be
applied before population levels are high, as should any beneficial insect release. Insect growth regulators
are very effective on fungus gnats.
116
Table 11.4 Insecticides for Fungus Gnat Control

(hours)
Acephate 1B Organophosphate 1300 Orthene TR 24 Adult control only. Total
Release cans; available in
6 oz container that treats
2,700-4,500 ft2. Apply
during early evening when
foliage is dry. Greenhouse
temperatures should be
between 60 and 80 °F.
Ventilate before reentry.
See label for complete
plant list, rates, and
Acetamiprid 4A Neoniconotoid TriStar 8.5 SL 12 For larvae. Water-soluble
bags applied as a foliar
spray. Thoroughly wet
upper 0.5-1 inch of
growing substrate. Do
applications per year and
do not reapply more than
once every 7 days. Toxic
to bees.
TriStar SG For larvae. Contact
insecticide with
Thorough coverage
is important. Apply
as a directed spray to
thoroughly wet upper
0.5-1 inch of growing
substrate. Do not overhead
irrigate for 6 hrs after
application. Do not make
per year and do not
reapply more than once
every 7 days.
117
Table 11.4 Insecticides for Fungus Gnat Control (continued)
(hours)
Azadirachtin 18B Botanical Aza-Direct (EC) 4 No adult control. Kills
Azatin XL (EC) by ingestion or contact.
Ecozin Plus 1.2% May reduce insect
ME damage by repelling and
Ornazin (EC) 12 deterring feeding of all
insect stages. Do not use
with Bordeaux mixture,
triphenyltin hydroxide,
lime sulfur, Rayplex iron
or other highly alkaline
materials. Use within
8 hrs. Reduce pH if
irrigation water pH >7.0.
AzaGuard See Aza-Direct. Larvae
AzaMax only.
Azatin O
Azatrol See Aza-Direct. May
reduce the waxy bloom on
certain ornamental plants.
Ecozin Plus 1.2% Only for herbs and
ME vegetables in greenhouse.
See Aza-Direct.
Molt-X See Aza-Direct. Larvae
only.
Ornazin (EC) 12
Azadirachtin 18B Botanical Azera 4 Works by contact or
by ingestion. Quick
herbs. Kills by interfering
with molting process and
as an adulticide. Effective
on all insect life stages.
Do not apply >1 time/ day
or >10 times per season.
Bacillus 11A1 Bacterium Dipel PRO DF 4 Stomach poison - must be
thuringiensis Gnatrol Biological ingested to be effective
Serotype 14 Larvicide (F) so thorough coverage
(=israelensis) needed. Target small,
Gnatrol DG immature caterpillars
Biological Larvicide (1st and 2nd instars.
Insect stops feeding
Gnatrol WDG
and dies 1-5 days later.
118
(hours)
Bifenthrin 3A Pyrethroid Attain TR 12 Contact micro total
release insecticide for
adults. Apply during early
evening when foliage
is dry and temperature
is between 60-80 °F.
Ventilate before reentry.
application.
Flowable Thorough plant coverage
is important. Do not apply
Do not apply to runoff.
Talstar P For adults. Foliar
(Professional) (F) application. Thorough
Not for use on food crops.
irrigation system.
Talstar Select (FC) Can use for larval control
in container plant potting
substrate; foliar treatment
for adults. Do not apply
Spreader stickers are not
necessary. Not for edible
plants. Can tank mix with
plant growth regulators.
Up-Star SC For larvae and adults.
irrigation system. Use as a
foliar application. Can use
as a drench application for
larval control.
product to enter any drain.
119
(hours)
with translaminar activity
for both larvae and adults.
For ornamentals and
fruiting vegetables only.
times within a season. Not
Phytotoxicity caution
on carnations, dianthus,
kalanchoe, poinsettias,
roses, salvias and zinnias.
See label for plant safety,
details and application
information (including use
on plugs).
Pylon TR See above; for both larvae
and adults. Total release
oz containers that treat
precautions.
formulation. Can be
and as a coarse spray
to soil surface. Caution
on poinsettias and
instructions.
120
(hours)
(=Descriptor Total Micro Total Release spray;
Cyfluthrin 3A Pyrethroid Release Insecticide) contact action. Apply to
dry foliage during early
evening when temperature
is between 60-80 °F. Do
stress. Available in 2 oz
container that treats up to
3,000 ft2.
Cyfluthrin 3A Pyrethroid Decathlon 20WP 12 Contact for adults. Good
Do not apply through any
irrigation system. Spray
plants in bloom when
not present, such as early
morning or late evening.
Cyromazine 17 Molting disruptor Citation 75 WP 12 IGR. Apply to the
substrate for control of
larvae. Available in water
soluble packets. See label
for information on use in
low volume systems.
Diflubenzuron 15 Benzoylureas Adept (WSP) 12 IGR; water soluble
bags. Disrupts normal
molting processes of
insect larvae. Apply as
soil drench or coarse
spray to soil surface. It
is recommended that
breeding areas under
benches and other non-
crop areas be treated at
the same time as crop is
treated. Do not apply to
poinsettias, hibiscus, or
Rieger begonia. Do not
potting substrate.
121
(hours)
Dinotefuran 4A Neonicotinoid Safari 2 G 12 Apply to growing
substrate for control of
fungus gnat larvae. Only
soil substrate. No more
than one soil application
may be made per crop
per year. Do not apply
until after target plants
are through blooming and
longer present.
Horticultural Oil NA Oil Bonide All Seasons Contact insecticide for
Horticultural Spray adults. Limited plants
Oil (Mineral/ labeled for greenhouse
paraffinic oil) use. See label for specific
Golden Pest Spray plants and phytotoxicity
Oil, (soybean oil) information. Contact
MONTEREY insecticide; thorough
Horticultural Oil coverage of all plant
(Mineral Oil) parts is important.
PureSpray Green, Foliar injury may occur
(Mineral Oil) if applied during hot,
humid conditions. Do
SuffOil-X
not tank mix with more
(Petroleum oil
than one pesticide. Do not
SunSpray Ultra fine apply through irrigation
oil systems. Be cautious
Summit Year Round spraying open blooms.
Spray Oil (Mineral Do not spray when there
Oil) is an obvious moisture
TriTek (mineral oil) deficit in leaves, or when
Ultra-Pure Oil plants are under stress.
(Mineral Oil) Do not spray more than
once per week. Do not
exceed four applications
per growing season. Do
not use in combination or
immediately before/after
or dimethoate.
122
(hours)
Imidacloprid 4A Neonicotinoid AmTide 12 Systemic for soil larvae
Imidacloprid 2F control. Protection period
T&O is reduced if substrate has
>30–50 % bark content.
Do not apply product to
soils that are waterlogged
or saturated. Do not apply
that are flowering (only
apply after all flower
petals have fallen off).
See label for details and
rates/restrictions based
upon container size and
application type..
Bounty See above. Drench for
larvae only. Do not apply
product to soils that are
waterlogged or saturated.
instructions.
Lada 2F No adult fungus gnat
control. Larvae in the
soil will be controlled by
drench or incorporation.
Can incorporate into the
medium before planting.
Caution using on ferns,
lantana. See label for
application options.
Lada 75 WSP For containers only. See
label.
Mallet 2F See AmTide. For larval
control; soil applications
only. Not to be used more
than once every 16 weeks.
Mallet 75 WSP Soil treatment only for
larvae. Do not make more
year.
123
(hours)
Imidacloprid 4A Neonicotinoid Mantra 1 G 12 For soil incorporation
(continued) only to control larvae. For
crops grown in flats, on
benches, in beds, and in
containers. Apply when
established. See label for
application options, rates,
and details.
Mantra 2F See above
Marathon 1G Larvae in the soil
controlled by
incorporation. See above.
Apply when root systems
are well established.
plant list and specific
instructions.
Marathon II Systemic; larvae aree
controlled by drench
or incorporation.
Applications can be made
before egg-laying activity
of target pests. See label
for application options,
rates, and details..
Imidacloprid 3A Discus N/G 12 For both adults and larvae.
Contact & systemic
Cyfluthrin 4A insecticide for foliar
has >30–50 % bark
Highly toxic to bees. Treat
flowering plants when
not present. See label for
application types, rates,
and details.
124
(hours)
Isaria NC Biological NoFly WP 12 Foliar application for
fumosorosea larvae. Thorough coverage
Apopka Strain needed. Works best at
97 temperatures between 72
(previously - 86 °F and high humidity.
known as Avoid breathing spray
Paecilomyces mist. Causes moderate
fumosoroseus) eye irritation. Takes ~3-7
days for insects to die.
See label for storage and
application details.
Preferal Apply as a drench,
soil surface spray, or
chemigation for larvae.
Frequent scouting is
critical to success. Product
is most effective when
relative humidity >80 %
for 8-10 hrs.
Kinoprene 7A Juvenile hormone Enstar AQ 4 IGR; see label for
mimic application information.
necessary. Water as a
drench after spraying.
Some varieties of roses
show delayed damage.
Nematodes, NC Biological NemaShield 0 Biological control.
beneficial (Heterorhabditis Controls larval stages.
(= Entomo- bacteriophora) Sensitive to UV light;
pathogenic) Nemasys do not use in direct sun.
(S. feltiae) Works best in substrate
ScanMask at temperatures of 50-85
(S. feltiae) °F. Substrate should be
moist prior to, during,
and after application.
Remove filters from
application equipment.
Substrate temperatures
should be between 50 - 86
ºF for at least 2 weeks
after application. Store in
refrigerator. See label for
complete instructions.
125
(hours)
Oil (essential) NC Ecotec 4 Contact insecticide;
rosemary oil & labeled for vegetables,
peppermint oil herbs; for adult fungus
gnats. Use an adjuvant.
Thorough coverage
is important. Repeat
application every 5-7
days. Do not use if
temperaturess are >90 °F.
Permethrin 3 Pyrethroid Astro 12 Use sufficient water to
obtain full coverage. May
cause petal browning. Do
not spray chrysanthemum
blooms, salvia, Pteris fern,
and Dieffenbachia.
Permethrin 3.2 Ag See above. Some rose
varieties are sensitive.
Pyrethrins 3A Pyrethrin Pyganic Crop 12 For adults. Herbs are
Protection 5.0 EC listed on label. Buffer final
spray mix to a pH of 5.5-
7.0. In the greenhouse, do
not exceed maximum rate
of 1.18fl. oz./1,000 ft2. Do
not apply more than once
per day.
Pyrethrins and 3A Pyrethrin Prentox Pyronyl 12 Botanical insecticide
Piperonyl Crop Spray plus synergist to flush
butoxide (PBO) insects out of hiding
spray residues. Apply
Pyrenone Crop See above. No more than
Spray 10 applications/season in
greenhouse.
Pyreth-It Formula For adults. See above.
2 (Prescription
Treatment Brand)
Pyrethrum TR For adults. Micro total
release aerosol for
greenhouses; container
treats up to 3,000 ft2.
126
(hours)
Pyriproxyfen 7C Pyriproxyfen Fulcrum 12 IGR for control/
suppression of eggs,
nymphs/larvae and pupae.
Do not use low volume
application equipment
to control these soil-
inhabiting insects; apply
as a sprench. Also treat
under benches or where
insects tend to breed when
treating plants. Ensure
complete coverage,
indicated by moist soil
surfaces. Apply no more
to poinsettia after bract
formation; see label for
details. Do not apply
Thiamethoxam 4A Neonicotinoid Flagship 25WG 12 Systemic insecticide for
(WDG) control of larvae. Apply to
growing substrate. Product
applied to soil will kill
soil pests upon contact
See label for application
directions.
127
Leafminer (Larvae) Control
Identification and damage: Leafminer flies are tiny (2 mm) flies that resemble small yellow and black fruit
flies.
Adult flies puncture foliage to feed on plant juices. The punctured spots turn white with time and give
leaves a speckled appearance. Eggs are laid on upper leaf surfaces; newly hatched larvae migrate within the
leaf where they feed for 4 to 6 days. Larvae destroy leaf cells as they feed, leaving behind winding trails
(“mines”). The mines increase in length and width as the insects grow. The appearance of these larval mines
reduces the aesthetic value of a plant. Third instar larvae drop to the soil or onto lower leaves to pupate.
Monitoring: The best initial defense against leafminers is to refuse to accept infested cuttings into the
greenhouse. Incoming plant material should be inspected for leaf stipples and active mines and held for
several days to see if mines develop from leaf stipples. Yellow sticky cards can be used to detect adult
activity and to monitor population levels.
Treatment: High populations may require sprays every 3 to 4 days to kill new adults as they emerge from
the soil. Early morning sprays can kill adult females before they lay eggs. Use products with translaminar
activity to kill immature larvae within foliage. Remember to rotate insecticides, as resistance is common.
If releasing beneficial insects, remember to only use pesticides listed as having minimal impact on natural
enemies.
128
Table 11.5 Insecticides for Leafminer Control

(hours)
Abamectin 6 Avermectin Abamectin SPC 12 Foliar contact spray with
0.15 EC translaminar properties.
Ardent 0.15EC Thorough coverage of all
Avid 0.15EC
Merlin (Phoenix any type of irrigation
Merlin) system. Caution on roses,
Lucid chrysanthemums, and
Minx gerbera. Do not use on
ferns or Shasta daisies.
Do not get in eyes, on
skin, or on clothing. Avoid
resistance management.
Acephate 90 to apply in early evening
when foliage is dry.
Greenhouse temperatures
should be between 60
- 80 °F for best results.
Greenhouse should be
ventilated before reentry.
instructions.
after bract formation or to
roses and chrysanthemums
with open blooms. See
label for specific plant
Orthene TT&O 97 Systemic. For use on
WP limited kinds of crops
- see label. Not for cut
flowers. Do not apply with
a low pressure hand wand.
Do not apply to poinsettias
after bract formation,
roses or chrysanthemum
in flower. Do not apply to
freshly rooted cuttings See
label for plants, rates, and
129
Table 11.5 Insecticides for Leafminer Control (continued)
(hours)
Acetamiprid 4A Neonicotinoid TriStar 70 WSP 12 Do not apply more than
4 times per year. Do not
TriStar 8.5 SL
every 7 days. Toxic to
bees. A surfactant may
improve efficacy.
TriStar 70 WSP: Contact
insecticide with trans-
laminar activity. Thorough
coverage is important. Do
not overhead irrigate for 6
hrs after application.
TriStar 8.5 SL: Water-
soluble bags applied as a
foliar spray.
Azadirachtin 18B Botanical Aza-Direct (EC) 4 IGR. By contact or
antifeedant and
AzaMax
interference with molting
Azatin O process. May repel adults.
Molt-X Breaks down if spray
solution pH is >7.0 and/or
AzaSol not used in 8 hrs.
Azatin XL (EC) AzaSol: Can use on any
food crop. High percent
Azatrol active ingredient and
Ecozin Plus 1.2% water solubility. Need
ME thorough coverage.
Azatin XL: Apply to
Neemix 4.5 (EC)
(=Superneem 4.5 B)
waxy bloom on certain
ornamental plants.
greenhouse.
Neemix 4.5: Only for
immature stages. Direct
spray on pest and longer
Ornazin 3% EC 12 duration of leaf wetness
increases effectiveness.
Do not apply to wilted/
stressed plants or unrooted
newly transplanted plants.
130
(hours)
by ingestion. Quick
with the molting process
and as an adulticide.
Effective on all insect life
stages. Do not apply >1
time/day or >10 times per
season.
Bifenthrin 3A Pyrethroid Menace GC 7.9% 12 Contact insecticide.
(F) Thorough coverage of all
treat to runoff.
Talstar Select Thorough coverage
is important. Do not
apply through any type
of irrigation system.
edible plants. Can tank
regulators.
Wisdom F Do not apply through
irrigation system.
Bifenazate 6+UN Sirocco 12 Thorough coverage
+25 (=Prevamite O) of foliage is essential;
Abamectin young immatures must be
per crop per year.
Chlorpyrifos 1B Organophosphate DuraGuard ME 24 Microencapsulated
formulation. Can be
and as a coarse spray to
soil surface. Caution on
poinsettias, roses, and
drop.
131
(hours)
Cyromazine 17 Cyromazine Citation 75 WP 12 IGR for control of fly
(Dipterous) leafminer
larvae. Not labeled for
caterpillar or beetle
leafminers. Available in
water soluble packets.
See label for information
on use in low volume
systems and mandatory
rotation. Make no than 6
applications to one crop.
Diflubenzuron 15 Benzoylurea Adept (WSP) 12 IGR; water soluble bags.
process of larvae. Apply
as soil drench or coarse
spray to soil surface. Do
not apply to poinsettia,
hibiscus, or Rieger
begonia. Do not apply to
pots on capillary mats. Do
not reuse treated substrate.
Dinotefuran 4A Neonicotinoid Safari 2 G 12 Contact and systemic
insecticide. Foliar
longer present. Make
no more than 2 foliar or
broadcast applications
and/or 1 soil application
apply soil drench to
moist soil substrate. Do
not apply foliar sprays to
plants that have received a
soil drench. Toxic to bees.
Fenoxycarb 7B Fenoxycarb Prescription 12 IGR. Micro encapsulated
Treatment Brand release. Cans must be
Preclude TR stored at >65 °F for 24 hrs
132
(hours)
Imidacloprid 4A Neonicotinoid AmTide 12 Systemic. Protection
Imidacloprid 2F period is reduced if media
T&O has >30–50 % bark
Bounty content. Protection onset
is translocation delayed
in woody plants. Do not
apply to soils that are
waterlogged or saturated
Do not apply while bees
are foraging. Do not apply
to plants that are flowering
(only apply after all flower
petals have fallen off).
application type.
Discus Tablets Control of larvae only.
Tablets are formulated
delivery of active
Release of active
ingredient is dependent
on presence of adequate
soil moisture. Follow label
directions.
Imidacloprid 2F For greenhouse herbs only
Select (7 day PHI). See AmTide.
a soil application in the
same crop. Suppression
only.
Lada 2 F Systemic. Can incorporate
into the substrate before
planting. Caution on
ferns, Crassula, petunias,
and lantana. See label for
application options, rates,
and details.
Lada 75 WSP For containers only.
133
(hours)
Imidacloprid 4A Neonicotinoid Mallet 75 WSP 12 For control of first
generation; make first
application as soon as
petal-fall is complete.
Best control results
from earliest possible
application. For optimal
control of second and
succeeding generations,
make applications early in
adult flight stage against
egg and early instar
larvae. May need a second
application 10 days
later if severe pressure
continues or if generations
are overlapping. A single
application may result in
suppression only. Will not
control late stage larvae.
Do not make a foliar
application following a
soil application in the
same crop. Apply no more
than 5 times per year.
Mantra 1G Only for crops grown in
flats, on benches, in beds,
and in containers. Apply
when root systems are
well established.
Mantra 2F Do not make a foliar
application of imidaclo-
prid following a soil appli-
cation to the same crop.
Mantra 60 WSP Protection period is
has >30–50 % bark
content. See label for use
restrictions.
Marathon 1% G Apply when root systems
are well established.
Marathon II Applications can be made
of target pests.
134
(hours)
Imidacloprid 4A Discus N/G 12 Contact & systemic
insecticide for foliar
Cyfluthrin 3A or soil applications.
reduced if substrate has
Do not use a neonicotinoid
insecticide following
to bees. Make applications
to flowering plants during
times when pollinating
insects are not present.
types, rates, and details.
Insecticida Soap NC Potassium salts M-Pede 12 Contact insecticide for
of fatty acids control of fly (Dipterous)
leafminer larval
populations. Short residual
activity. Thorough
coverage of all plant parts
is important. Refer to label
for information on plant
safety and tank mixing.
Isaria NC Biological Preferal 12 Foliar or soil application.
fumosorosea Not toxic to humans.
Apopka Strain Works best at
97 temperatures between 72 -
(previously 86 °F with >80 % relative
known humidity. Typically takes
as Paecilomyces 3-7 days for insects to
fumosoroseus) die. Do not mix with
fungicides. See label for
storage and application
details.
mimic application information.
necessary. Water as a
drench after spraying.
Some varieties of roses
show delayed damage.
See label for specific rates
and instructions.
135
(hours)
Lambda- 3A Pyrethroid Scimitar GC 24 Contact adulticide.
cyhalothrin Thorough coverage is
important; a spreader-
or oils.
Neem oil NC Oil Triact 70 4 Apply before insects or
(clarified eggs are present in large
hydrophobic numbers. Do not apply to
extract of Neem wilted or stressed plants,
oil) or new transplants prior
to root establishment.
hibiscus flowers. Not
suggested for use on cut
roses. Do not spray on
impatiens flowers. Do
applications per year
and do not reapply
days. Product is also a
fungicide.
Novaluron 15 Benzoylurea Pedestal 12 IGR. Does not control
adults. For suppression
only of serpentine and
citrus leafminers. Do
not use product more
than once within each
generation cycle. Do
applications per crop per
year. Do not apply to
poinsettias.
Oil of rosemary NC Botanical Ecotec 4 Contact insecticide;
+ peppermint labeled for herbs,
136
(hours)
Oil, NC Oil Bonide All Seasons 4 Complete coverage
Horticultural Horticultural Spray needed. Horticultural oil
Oil (mineral oil) sprays applied to new
Golden Pest Spray leaf growth may inhibit
Oil (soybean oil) egg laying, but must be
JMS Stylet Oil# repeated on a weekly
(Paraffinic/mineral basis during each flush
oil) cycle. On woody plants,
Lesco Horticultural Dormant oil can help deter
Oil (Mineral Oil) egg-laying by female
moths, but it does not
Monterey
stop adult females from
Horticultural Oil
laying eggs on a leaf that
(mineral oil)
did not get the spray. Do
PureSpray Green not apply if plants are
(petroleum oil) under any stress or during
SuffOil-X periods of prolonged high
(paraffinic oil) temperatures combined
SunSpray Ultra-fine with high relative
Spray Oil humidity. Avoid spraying
(paraffinic oil) in greenhouses under
TriTek (mineral oil) overcast conditions. Do
not exceed label rates
Ultra-Pure Oil or apply more often
(petroleum oil) than recommended.
Effectiveness at
temperatures below 50
°F is reduced. Do not
use within 2 weeks of
sulfur or within 7 days
of Captan. Do not apply
system. See label for
cautions if using with/
before/following
application of certain
products and for use
restrictions and mixing
cautions.
# Only labeled for mums.
poinsettias, dieffenbachia,
& philodendron.
137
(hours)
Permethrin 3.2 Ag plant parts is important.
blooms may cause
browning of petals. and
marginal leaf burn on
salvia, dieffenbachia, and
Pteris fern.
Perm-Up 3.2EC See above. Mums only.
Contact insecticide for
leafminer adults on mums
only. Avoid spraying
chrysanthemum blooms.
Pyrethrins 3A Pyronyl Crop Spray 12 For non-food ornamentals
(Prentox) (Herbs are listed on the
label). Do not apply when
honey bees are active.
May also be combined
with other insecticides
for a quicker and more
complete kill where
insect resistance may
be a problem. See label
for specific rates and
instructions.
Pyrethrins 3A Pyrethrin Pyrenone 5.0 Crop 12 A botanical insecticide
and Piperonyl Spray (EC) plus a synergist to flush
butoxide insects out of hiding
spray residues. See
label for details. Apply
Prentox Pyronyl No more than 10
Crop Spray applications/season in
greenhouse.
Pyrethrum TR Total release aerosol.
Available in 2 oz container
that treats up to 3,000 ft2.
138
(hours)
Pyriproxyfen 7C Pyriproxyfen Fulcrum 12 IGR for suppression
of immature spotted
tentiform leafminer only.
Apply no more than
2 times per cropping
to poinsettia in bract.
Do not apply to salvia,
ghost plant, Boston fern,
gardenia or coral bells.
Spinosad 5 Spinosyn Conserve SC (EC) 4 Contact and stomach
poison for fly (Dipterous)
leafminers only. Thorough
coverage of both upper
and lower leaf surfaces is
important. Not for edible
crops. Do not apply more
than 6 times in 12 months.
types, use restrictions, and
Entrust Apply early when
stippling or mining of
leaves is first observed
and repeat until infestation
is controlled. Three
sequential applications
at 7-day intervals can
maximize control.
Addition of a nonionic
spray adjuvant enhances
control. Do not apply
>6 times in a 12-month
period, regardless if other
insect pests are also being
treated. Never make
applications. Can use
on herbs and vegetable
transplants. Toxic to bees.
Can use on herbs and
vegetable transplants. See
139
(hours)
Thiamethoxam 4A Neonicotinoid Flagshiop 0.22 G 12 Systemic product - allow
a minimum of one week
translocate to feeding
sites of the target pest. If
leaching, allow at least
7 days after watering-in
for maximum uptake.
See label for details,
application types and
rates.
Flagship 25 WDG Apply to foliage or soil
or growing substrate.
Product applied to foliage
is rapidly absorbed/
distributed for rapid
control of foliar feeding
insects. Product applied
to soil will kill soil pests
upon contact or ingestion;
will also be readily taken
up by plant roots to pest
feeding sites. See label for
application directions.
140
Mealybug Control
Identification and damage: Mealybugs are small (1–8 mm long), elongate-oval, soft-bodied insects that are
covered with a layer of white, cottony wax. They can be found infesting all parts of a plant, including roots.
Most produce short, spine-like filaments along the margins of their bodies, and on some species the posterior
filaments can be quite long. Some mealybug pests of greenhouse crops include the citrus mealybug, obscure
mealybug, and long-tailed mealybug.
Mealybug infestations cause leaf distortion, particularly on new growth. Some species inject a toxin as they
feed that can produce brown/necrotic areas on foliage, general yellowing, or leaf drop. Their production of
white cottony wax and their very presence on leaf axils or undersides of leaves detract from the appearance
of the plant.
Monitoring: Early detection is important. Examine foliage, petioles, and stems of plants for presence of
mealybugs. Inspect the lips of containers as well as drainage holes. Mealybugs produce copious amounts of
honeydew which can be found on foliage before the resulting sooty mold. Because ants can be attracted to
honeydew as with soft scales, their presence may signal a mealybug infestation.
Treatment: Beneficial insects tend to attack specific mealybug species, so identification of the mealybug is
important prior to release. If releasing beneficial insects, do so prior to damaging pest population levels and
remember to only use pesticides listed as having minimal impact on natural enemies.
Immature mealybugs lack their protective waxy coating and are easier to control, especially with contact
insecticides. Systemic products are often applied preventatively on a 3 to 4 week schedule.
141
Table 11.6 Insecticides for Mealybug Control
Chemical Name IRAC Class Trade Name Re- Comments

Code (Formulation) entry
Interval
(hours)
when foliage is dry. Best
results when greenhouse
temperatures are between
60° and 80 °F. Ventilate
geenhouse before reentry.
Acephate 90 Contact insecticide. Do not
bract formation or to roses
and chrysanthemums with
open blooms. See label for
phytotoxicity potential,
including roses and mums
with open flowers.
Acephate 97Up Systemic with ingestion
action. For use on limited
crops – e.g. only labeled in
greenhouse for anthurium,
cacti, carnations, foliage
plants, chrysanthemums,
orchids, roses, and
poinsettias. Do not apply
system. Do not apply to
freshly rooted cuttings. Do
after bract formation, or to
roses or chrysanthemum
in flower. See label for
phytotoxicity potential.
Toxic to bees & birds.
Orthene TT&O Systemic. For use on
(Turf, Tree, and limited crops - see label.
Ornamental) 97 WP Not for cut flowers. Do not
hand wand. Do not apply
to poinsettias after bract
formation or to roses or
chrysanthemums in flower.
Do not apply to freshly
rooted cuttings.
142
Table 11.6 Insecticides for Mealybug Control (continued)
Interval
(hours)
Acetamiprid 4A Neonicotinoid TriStar 30 SG 12 Contact insecticide with
important. The addition of
a surfactant may improve
efficacy. Do not overhead
irrigate for 6 hrs after
application. Do not make
per year and do not
every 7 days.
TriStar 8.5 SL Contact and translaminar
activity. Water-soluble
bags applied as a foliar
spray. Do not make more
year and do not reapply
Azadirachtin NC Botanical Aza-Direct 4 IGR. By contact or
antifeedant, and
Azamax
interference with the
(=NeemAzal)
molting process. May
Azatin O repel adults. Will break
Bayer/Bonide neem down in the spray solution
oil concentrate if pH >7.0 and/or not used
Molt-X within 8 hrs.
AzaSol: May be applied
AzaSol to any food crop. High
Azatrol percent active ingredient
and water solubility; need
Ecozin Plus 1.2% thorough coverage.
ME Azatin XL: Apply to
waxy bloom on certain
ornamental plants.
greenhouse.
Ornazin 3% EC 12 See above.
143
Interval
(hours)
by ingestion. Quick
Effective on all insect
life stages. Do not apply
directly to or near water,
storm drains or drainage
ditches. Do not apply
when windy. Do not apply
>1 time/ day. Or >10 times
per season.
Beauveria NC Microbial Botanigard 22 WP 4 Insect-specific fungus.
bassiana Do not tank mix with
Mycotrol O (WP)
fungicides. Acts by
contact; thorough coverage
is essential. Needs relative
humidity greater than
70 % and 65-75 °F for
8-10 hrs. Normally takes
3-7 days for insects to die
and 7-10 days after first
spray to see a reduction
in an insect population.
fungicides. Product may
be used as a pre-plant
dip for cuttings. For
soil applications do not
apply to water-saturated
soils. See label for plant
instructions. Do not treat
poinsettias in bract. Note:
Formulated for application
without additional wetting
agents and spreaders.
144
Interval
(hours)
Best to apply during early
Ventilate greenhouse
before reentry. Do not
reapply product within
48 hrs of a previous
application.
Menace GC 7.9% F Contact insecticide.
Thorough coverage of
plants is important. Do
allow runoff to occur.
Talstar P Thorough coverage
(Professional) (F) is important. Foliar
application. Do not
apply to food crops. Do
irrigation system.
Talstar Select Thorough coverage is
edible plants. Can tank
regulators.
Up-Star SC Do not apply through
irrigation system. Use as a
foliar application. Can use
as a drench application for
larval control.
product to enter any drain
during or after application.
145
Interval
(hours)
Buprofezin 16 Buprofezin Talus 70 DF 12 IGR: suppresses egg-
laying and controls
immature stages. Make no
per season. Do not apply
system. Apply as soon
as mealybug activity is
observed.
formulation. Can apply
as a foliar spray and as
a coarse spray to soil
surface. Caution on roses,
variegated ivies, and
poinsettias. Do not use
on kalanchoes. Direct
treatment to open blooms
may cause petal drop.
Cyfluthrin 3A Pyrethroid (=Descriptor Total Micro Total Release spray;
Release Insecticide) contact action. Apply
60-80 °F. Do not apply
Do not apply under
conditions of extreme
heat or drought stress.
Available in 2 oz container
that treats up to 3,000 ft2.
rium subtsugae stomach poison. Proper
strain PRAA4-1 timing targeting newly
hatched larvae is
important. Apply to non-
blooming plants. Thorough
label warning if mixing
with other pesticides. Can
use on greenhouse herbs
and vegetables.
146
Interval
(hours)
Cyfluthrin 3A Pyrethroid Decathlon 20WP 12 Do not apply through any
type of irrigation system.
coverage is necessary. See
label for specific rates and
instructions.
Dinotefuran 4A Neonicotinoid Safari 2 G 12 Contact and systemic
insecticide. Foliar
applications and/or 1 soil
application may be made
substrate. Do not apply to
dry or saturated substrate.
Do not apply foliar
sprays to plants that have
received a soil drench.
Toxic to bees.
Fenoxycarb 7B Fenoxycarbs Prescription 12 IGR. Micro encapsulated
Treatment Preclude release. Cans must be
TR stored at >65 °F for 24 hrs
Fenpyroximate 21A METI-acaricides Akari 5SC 12 Contact. Only vegetables
Mitochondria on label are tomatoes
electron transport and cucumbers. Spray
inhibitor water should be buffered
to pH 5–7. Can be used
foliage cuttings. Do not
use through any irrigation
system. See label for plant
safety information.
147
Interval
(hours)
Flonicamid 9C Pyridinecarbox- Aria 12 Water-soluble packets.
amide Insects stop feeding
this product more than 2
times consecutively before
Imidacloprid 4A Neonicotinoid Amtide 12 Systemic. Protection
Imidacloprid 2F period is reduced if media
T&O has >30–50 % bark
Bounty (restricted content. Do not apply to
use) waterlogged or saturated
soils. Do not apply while
bees are foraging. Do not
apply to plants in flower
(only apply after all petals
have fallen off). See label
for rates/restrictions based
application type.
Discus Tablets Tablets are formulated to
provide consistent delivery
of active ingredient over
time. Release of active
ingredient is dependent on
presence of adequate soil
moisture.
Imidacloprod 2F For herbs in greenhouse
Select only (7 day PHI). See
AmTide. Do not apply
Do not foliar apply
following soil application
in same crop.
planting. Caution on ferns,
lantana.
148
Interval
(hours)
Imidacloprid 4A Neonicotinoid Lada 75 WSP 12 For containers only. See
(continued) label.
Mallet 2F T&O Not to be used more than
once every 16 weeks.
options, rates, and details.
established.
Mantra 2F Do not apply through any
Mantra 60 WSP Protection period is
reduced if media has >30–
50 % bark content. See
label for use restrictions.
Marathon 1%G Apply when root systems
are well established. See
label for plant list, rates,
Marathon II (F) Applications can be made
of target pests.
Imidacloprid + 4A Discus N/G 12 Contact & systemic
Cyfluthrin 3A insecticide for foliar or soil
applications. Protection
period is reduced if
substrate has >30–50 %
bark content. Do not use a
Highly toxic to bees. Make
applications to flowering
plants during times when
and details.
149
Interval
(hours)
Insecticidal soap NC Potassium salts Insecticidal Soap 12 Kills by contact so
of fatty acids (Bayer, Bonide, complete coverage is
Earth-Tone, Natural essential. Caution on
Guard, Safer) Euphorbia, bleeding
DES-X heart, gardenia, fuchsia,
impatiens, poinsettias
M-Pede and new seedlings for
phytotoxicity. Do not
use on new transplants,
unrooted cuttings, or
plants stressed by drought
or heat (>90 °F). Apply
early in morning or
evening or when overcast;
do not spray during full
sun. Do not apply more
than once per day. Do
not spray open blooms
or partially open flower
buds. See label for details
on plant safety and tank
mixing.
Isaria NC Biological NoFly WP 12 Contains live spores of
fumosorosea an insect-killing fungus.
Apopka Strain For non-food crops. Foliar
97 application. Works best at
(previously temperatures between 72
known as -86 °F with high humidity.
Paecilomyces Typically takes 3-7 days
fumosoroseus) for insects to die. Avoid
May cause moderate eye
irritation. Do not apply
when bees are actively
foraging. See label for
application information,
storage, and details.
Preferal See above. Most effective
when use begins at first
appearance of pest, before
high populations develop.
critical to success. Follow
label directions.
150
Interval
(hours)
analogues specific instructions for
root mealybug control.
necessary. Some varieties
of roses show delayed
damage. See label
instructions.
Lambda- 3A Pyrethroid Scimitar GC 24 Not for food crops.
cyhalothrin Contact insecticide.
plant parts is important;
a spreader-sticker is
recommended. Do not
or oils.
Neem oil NC Clarified Triact 70 4 Apply before insects or
hydrophobic eggs are present in large
extract of neem numbers. Do not apply to
oil wilted or stressed plants,
or new transplants prior
to root establishment.
hibiscus flowers. Do
not spray on impatiens
flowers or on cut roses.
once every 7 days. Product
is also a fungicide. See
label for specifics.
70% Neem Oil See above. Do not
exceed 1.0 % rate in the
greenhouse.
151
Interval
(hours)
Horticultural Horticultural Spray needed. Horticultural oil
(paraffinic (mineral oil) sprays applied to new
hydrocarbon Golden Pest Spray leaf growth may inhibit
oils; petroleum Oil (soybean oil) egg laying, but must be
oil, soybean oil, JMS Stylet Oil # repeated on a weekly basis
vegetable oil) (Paraffinic/mineral during each flush cycle.
oil) Do not apply if plants are
Lesco Horticultural under any stress or during
Oil (mineral oil) periods of prolonged high
temperatures combined
Monterey
with high relative
Horticultural Oil
humidity. Avoid spraying
(mineral oil)
in greenhouses under
PureSpray Green, overcast conditions. Do
Saf-T-Side not exceed label rates
(petroleum oil) or apply more often
RTSA Horticultural than recommended.
Oil (mineral oil) Effectiveness at
Suffoil-X (paraffinic temperatures below
oil) 50 °F is reduced. Do
TriTek (mineral oil) not apply through any
irrigation system. See
Ultra-Pure Oil
label for cautions if using
(petroleum oil)
with/before/following
application of certain
restrictions and mixing
cautions.
#
Only labeled for mums,
poinsettias, dieffenbachia,
& philodendron.
and peppermint labeled for herbs,
vegetables, and woody
plants. Use an adjuvant.
temps are >90 °F.
152
Interval
(hours)
Permethrin 3.2 Ag
blooms may cause
browning of petals.
Marginal leaf burn
may occur on salvia,
fern.
Pyrethrins 3A Pyrethrin Pyganic Crop 12 See label for rates and
Protection applications. Herbs are
listed on the label. Buffer
final spray mix to a pH of
5.5-7.0. In the greenhouse,
do not exceed maximum
application rate of .0036
lbs a.i./1,000 sq. ft. or
1.18fl. oz./1,000 sq. ft. Do
per day.
Pyrethrins and 3A Pyrethrin Pyrenone 5.0 Crop 12 A botanical insecticide
Piperonyl Spray (EC) plus a synergist to flush
butoxide insects out of hiding
spray residues. See
not use on cyclamen
or nasturtium. Can be
tank mixed with other
insecticides. See label.
Pyronyl Crop Spray See above. No more than
(Prentox) 10 applications/season in
greenhouse. See label.
Pyreth-It Formula 2 See Pyrenone 5.0 Crop
Spray above.
Pyrethrum TR Micro total release
aerosol formulation for
greenhouses that treats up
to 3,000 ft2. See label for
specific instructions
153
Interval
(hours)
Pyrifluquinazon Rycar 12 Contact and translaminar
insecticide. Only for
non-food crops. Causes
Do not harvest cut flowers
for 48 hrs after spraying.
Do not compost treated
plant material. Do not
allow spray solution to run
off outside of application
area. Do not make more
crop cycle.
Pyriproxyfen 7C Pyriproxyfen Fulcrum 12 IGR for suppression of
eggs, nymphs and pupae.
Apply no more than
2 times per cropping
to poinsettias in bract.
Do not apply to salvia,
Spirotetramat 23 Sulfoximine Kontos 12# Contact, stomach
knockdown and up to
on an as-needed basis. See
label for important plant
safety information.
154
Interval
(hours)
Sulfoxaflor 4c Sulfoximine XXpire WG 12 Has systemic and
(IsatoxR) + translaminar activity. Not
Spinetorum 5 a neonicotinoid. Provides
consecutive applications.
Tau-fluvalinate 3A Pyrethroid Mavrik Aquaflow 12 Buffer spray water to pH
5-7. Do not apply more
than 4 sprays per month.
May work slowly on some
species; allow 3–4 days to
evaluate. Caution on roses
and poinsettias. Can use
as a dip for cuttings. May
response.
Thiamethoxam 4A Neonicotinoid Flagship 0.22 G 12 Systemic product; allow at
least one week for smaller
plants to translocate to
feeding sites. If leaching,
allow at least 7 days after
watering-in for maximum
uptake.
Flagship 25 WG Apply to foliage or
substrate. Product applied
to foliage is rapidly
absorbed for rapid control
of foliar feeding insects.
Product applied to soil will
kill soil pests upon contact
Tolfenpyrad 21A METI- Hachi-Hachi 12 Contact insecticide. Phyto-
insecticides toxic to blooms and some
plants. Allow at least 10
days between applications.
Do not apply to gypso-
philia, impatiens, salvia, or
poinsettias in bract.
155
Mite Control
Mites are closely related to spiders. Since they are not an insect, many insecticides do not control them
effectively. Two different types of mites are typically found in the greenhouse: Tarsonemid mites (broad
mites, cyclamen mites), and Tetranychid mites (twospotted spider mites, Lewis mites, and carmine mites).
A separate control chart appears for each mite group.
A. Tarsonemid Mites: Broad mite and Cyclamen mite
Identification and damage: Broad mites and cyclamen mites are closely related and look very similar. Both
are white and very small with setae covering their body. The males have 6 legs that are used for walking
and the two hind legs turn upward to grasp females and carry immature females around. Both stages cause
similar damage. Broad mite can be distinguished from cyclamen mites by their egg stage. Broad mite eggs
are covered with bumps that look like a row of diamonds and are best seen using a dissecting microscope.
Adults and larvae are smaller than the cyclamen mites and walk rapidly on the underside of leaves. The
development of broad mites is favored by high temperatures of 70 to 80°F. Broad mites can complete their
life cycle in as little as one week. Females lay from 30 to 75 eggs.
Monitoring: Broad mites can affect a number of ornamentals including sweet potato vine, gerbera daisy,
New Guinea impatiens, salvia, ivy, verbena and zinnia. They may migrate to peppers or tomatoes. Look for
characteristic damage to new growth or leaf edges: curling and twisting of new growth on plants/curling
downward. Terminal buds may be killed. As they feed, broad mites inject toxic saliva which causes the
characteristic twisted and distorted growth. Do not confuse broad mite injury with herbicide injury, boron
deficiency or physiological disorders. With a 20X hand lens, inspect the curled and cupped leaves for mites.
Treatment: Sprays must be fine mists to penetrate the cryptic areas in plants where mites are found. Broad
and cyclamen mites are not spider mites and are not necessarily controlled with the same materials used for
spider mites (with a few exceptions).
156
Table 11.7 Miticides for Tarsonemid (Broad, Cyclamen, Bulb Scale, and Fern) Mite Control

(hours)
Abamectin 6 Avermectin Abamectin SPC 12 Foliar spray with
Avid 0.15 EC For Tarsonemid mites,
Ardent 0.15EC repeat applications
to new tissue may be
Merlin (Phoenix
necessary to maintain
Merlin)
Lucid through any type of
Minx irrigation system.
Caution on roses,
chrysanthemums,
and gerberas. Not
recommended for
use on ferns or shasta
daisies. Do not get
in eyes, on skin, or
on clothing. Avoid
See label for plant
safety and resistance
management.
Acequinocyl 20B Shuttle O 12 Contact miticide.
Provides quick
knockdown and long
residual activity. Do
not use on impatiens
or miniature roses.
instructions and details.
Bifenazate 25 Sirocco 12 Thorough coverage
(=Prevamite O) of foliage is essential;
Abamectin 6+ young immatures must
UN be contacted by the
spray. Do not make >2
applications per crop
per year. See label for
details
157
(continued)

(hours)
Bifenthrin 3A Pyrethroid Menace GC 7.9% 12 Contact insecticide.
Flowable (F) Thorough coverage
of all plant parts is
important. Do not
apply through any
irrigation system. Do
not make applications
during the rain. Do
not allow runoff or
dripping to occur.
Talstar Select Thorough coverage
Spreader stickers
are not necessary.
Do not use on edible
plants. Can tank mix
with plant growth
regulators.
not apply if rain is
expected within 12 hrs.
Do not apply if wind is
>10mph. Do not apply
when a temperature
inversion exists. Use
as a foliar application.
Can use as a drench
application for larval
control. See label for
Wisdom F Thorough coverage
apply through any
not allow product to
enter any drain during
or after application.
See label specific
instructions.
158
(continued)

(hours)
Chlorfenapyr 13 Pyrrole Pylon 12 Contact; stomach
poison with translami-
nar activity. For orna-
mentals and fruiting
vegetables. Thorough
coverage is needed. Do
not apply >3 times in
a season. Not ovicidal.
Toxic to bees; apply
prior to bloom. Phy-
totoxicity caution on
carnations, dianthus,
kalanchoe, roses,
poinsettias, salvias
and zinnias. See label
for application details
(including plugs).
Pylon TR See above for Broad
mite only. Total release
product in 2 oz con-
tainer treats up to 3,000
ft2. Do not compost any
discarded treated plant
material. See label for
precautions.
Fenazaquin 21 METI-acaricides Magus 12 Kills by contact and
ingestion for both
immature and adult
mites. Thorough
coverage is required.
Do not use on roses.
No more than one
application per crop.
Fenpyroximate 21A METI-acaricides Akari 5SC 12 For greenhouse
ornamentals, tomatoes,
cucumbers and interi-
orscapes only. Spray
water should be buff-
ered to pH 5–7. Can
use as a dip for flower
Do not use through
irrigation system.
159
(continued)

(hours)
Insecticidal soap NC Potassium salts M-Pede 12 Kills by contact so
of fatty acids complete coverage
is essential. Caution
using on Euphorbia,
bleeding heart,
gardenia, fuchsia,
and new seedlings-
see label. Do not use
on new transplants,
unrooted cuttings,
or plants stressed by
drought or heat (>90
°F). Apply early in
morning or evening
or when overcast; do
not spray during full
sun. Do not spray open
blooms or partially
open flower buds.
See label for on plant
safety and tank mixing.
cyhalothrin Contact insecticide
for adults. Thorough
parts is important; a
spreader-sticker is
recommended. Do not
Do not mix with EC
formulations or oils.
vegetables, and
woody plants. Use an
adjuvant. Thorough
Repeat application
every 5-7 days. Do not
use if temps are >90
°F..
160
(continued)

(hours)
Pyridaben 21A METI-acaricides Sanmite WP 12 For all stages; most
effective on juvenile
mites. Good coverage
of the upper and
lower leaf surfaces is
recommended. Do not
apply to geraniums and
impatiens. Do not use
in successive miticide
applications during the
same cropping cycle.
Spiromesifen 23 Tetronic and Judo 12 For all mite stages,
tetramic acid but is most effective
derivatives on juvenile stages.
For best results good
coverage of the upper
and lower leaf surfaces
is recommended. Do
not apply to geraniums,
peperomia, dracaena,
certain rose varieties,
ivy, and fuchsia.
See label for plants
with phytotoxicity
potential. Do not use
same cropping cycle.
Spirotetramat 23 Kontos 24# Not a neonicotinoid.
Contact, stomach
poison, systemic
and translaminar
insecticide for knock-
down and up to one
month residual control.
Do not apply to edible
crops or geraniums.
Start treating before
high populations
develop; reapply as-
needed.
#See label for drench
REI.
161
Mite Control (continued)
B. Tetranychid Mites: Twospotted spider mite, Lewis mite and Carmine mite
Identification and damage: Tetranychid mites include twospotted spider, Lewis mite and carmine mites.
Adult are slightly orange in color and very small (1/50th inch or 0.5mm). Most spider mites are found on the
underside of leaves. Feeding injury (called stippling) often gives the top leaf surfaces a mottled/speckled,
dull appearance. Leaves then turn yellow and drop. Large populations produce visible webbing that can
completely cover the leaves. Buds may become distorted.
Eggs are laid singly, up to 100 per female, during her 3- to 4-week life span. Eggs hatch into larvae in as few
as 3 days. The egg to adult life cycle can be completed in 7 to 14 days depending upon temperature. Hot and
dry conditions (>81 °F) favor rapid spider mite development.
Monitoring: Pay close attention to plants growing on the south side of a greenhouse as well as warm
locations near heaters or steam pipes. Hanging baskets in the upper canopy of the greenhouse also tend to be
very susceptible. Check for mites weekly by examining foliage using a hands-free magnifier (Optivisor) or
hand lens. Be sure to examine the undersides of leaves.
Adult mites are not found on sticky cards. Mites often develop as localized infestations on particular groups
of plants. Weeds should be removed/controlled as they can harbor twospotted mites.
Treatment: Avoid overfertilization. If using beneficial predaceous mites or other natural enemies, release
prior to damaging pest population levels. If using mite growth regulators (TetraSan), application must occur
prior to mite population buildup.
Sprays must be fine mists to penetrate the cryptic areas in plants where mites are found. Translaminar
miticides are therefore recommended. Thorough coverage is necessary with repeated applications. Most
miticides are not effective against the egg stage, so repeat applications are necessary. Remember to rotate
insecticides, as resistance is common.
162
Table 11.8 Miticides for Spider Mite Control
Chemical Name IRAC Class Trade Name (For- Re-entry Comments

Code mulation) Interval
(hours)
Abamectin 6 Avermectin Abamectin SPC 12 Foliar spray; translaminar
0.15 EC properties. Repeat
Avid 0.15 Ec applications to new
tissue may be necessary
Ardent 0.15 EC to maintain control.
Merlin (Phoenix Do not apply through
Merlin) any irrigation system.
Lucid Caution on roses,
chrysanthemums, and
Minx gerbera. Do not use on
ferns or Shasta daisies.
Avoid breathing spray
mist. See label for details,
plant safety and resistance
management.
Acequinocyl 20B Acequinocyl Shuttle O 12 Contact miticide. Provides
quick knockdown and
long residual activity. Do
not use on impatiens or
miniature roses. See label
are between 60 - 80 °F.
before reentry. See label
Azadirachtin 18B Botanical Aza-Direct 4 IGR. Controls by
(neem oil) contact or ingestion as
AzaGuard
a repellent, antifeedant,
Azamax and interference with the
(=NeemAzal) molting process. Use as a
drench or as a foliar spray
Azatin O to repel adults. Do not
use in spray tank mixtures
Bayer/Bonide Neem with pH >7.0. Use
Oil Concentrate promptly after mixing.
Azatin XL See above. Apply to
AzaTrol See above. May reduce
the waxy bloom on certain
ornamental plants.
163
Table 11.8 Miticides for Spider Mite Control (continued)
Chemical Name IRAC Class Trade Name (For- Re-entry Comments
Code mulation) Interval
(hours)
by ingestion. Quick
Effective on all mite
directly to or near water,
storm drains or drainage
ditches. Do not apply >1
time/ day. Or >10 times
per season.
Bifenazate UN Bifenezate Floramite SC 12 Contact; active against
all life stages (also has
ovicidal activity). Apply
as soon as mites appear;
will provide residual
control for up to 28 days.
Do not use in successive
applications. Make only
one application of product
before rotating to products
of an alternative chemical
class, and use at least
two alternative products
between treatments. Do
applications per crop per
year. Product degrades
rapidly when mixed
and stored with alkaline
water of high temperature
(122 °F). See label for
Toxic to bees.
Bifenazate 6+ Sirocco 12 Thorough coverage
UN (=Prevamite O) of foliage is essential;
Abamectin 25 young immatures must be
per crop per year.
164
(hours)
Best to apply in early
Ventiliate greenhouse
application.
Do not spray to runoff.
Talstar Select Thorough coverage is
system. Spreader stickers
are not necessary. Do
not use on edible plants.
Can tank mix with plant
growth regulators.
irrigation system.
Wisdom F
with translaminar activ-
ity. For ornamentals and
fruiting vegetables. Thor-
ough coverage is needed.
Do not apply >3 times in a
season. Not ovicidal.
Toxic to bees; apply prior
to bloom. Caution on car-
nations, dianthus, kalan-
choe, poinsettias, roses,
salvias and zinnias. See
label for application
details (including plugs).
cans. A 2 oz can treats
compost any treated plant
material.
165
(hours)
as a foliar spray and as a
coarse spray to substrate
surface. Caution on
poinsettias, roses, and
treatment to open blooms
may cause petal drop.
(=Descriptor Total Micro Total Release can;
Cyfluthrin 3A Pyrethroid Release Insecticide) contact action. Apply
to dry foliage in early
evening when temperature
stress. A 2 oz container
Chromobacte- UN Biological Grandevo 4 Contact biological stom-
rium subtsugae ach poison. Proper timing
strain PRAA4-1 targets newly hatched lar-
vae. Apply to non-bloom-
ing plants. Thorough
label warning if mixing
with other pesticides. Can
and vegetables.
Clofentezine 10A Clofentezine Ovation SC 12 Active on mite eggs
and early mite stages. It
has shown activity and
persistence up to 45 days.
Tank mix with an adult
miticide if adult activity.
See label for low volume
applications. Product is
magenta in color and may
leave a residue. Thorough
coverage necessary. Use
only once per cop cycle.
166
(hours)
Cyflumetofen 25 METI beta- Sultan 12 Contact; selective activity
ketronitrile on spider mites only.
if irrigation event is
expected within 1 hr
Do not make more than
2 applications per crop
per year. Compatible with
most biological control
organisms used for mite
control.
Emamectin 6 Enfold 12 Mite suppression only.
benzoate Contact and ingestion
activity, pests stop feeding
and die after 2-4 days.
Apply before populations
reach damaging levels.
is essential. Avoid
application when the
temperature is high and/or
the humidity is low. Toxic
to bees. Do not apply this
product through any type
Etoxazole 10B Etoxazole TetraSan 5WDG 12 Translaminar. Kills
nymphs and eggs. Treated
adults do not produce
viable eggs. Can apply in
combination with miticide
for adults. Apply no more
cycle or no more than
twice per 6 months. Do
after bract formation.
Beethoven 24 Total release cans treat
up to 3,000 ft2. For
ornamentals only. Contact
and translaminar activity.
under stress.
167
(hours)
Fenazaquin 21 METI-acaricides Magus 12 Kills by contact and
ingestion for both
immature and adult mites.
required. Do not use on
roses. No more than one
application per crop. See
label for information on
plant safety.
Fenbutatin-oxide 12B Organotin ProMITE 50 WP 48 Contact miticide. Apply
miticide when mite populations are
just beginning to build.
important; best if daily
temperature averages >70
°F. Do not use in sprayers
that have any residues of
boron or chlorine. Apply
only to chrysanthemum
pre-bloom and
poinsettias pre-bract.
Some ferns, mums, and
other ornamentals have
exhibited phytotoxicity.
plant list, rates, and
Fenoxycarb 7B Fenoxycarbs Prescription 12 Mite growth regulator.
Treatment Brand Micro-total release. Store
Preclude TR cans >65 °F for 24 hrs
Fenpyroximate 21A METI-acaricides Akari 5SC 12 For greenhouse
cucumbers and
interiorscapes only. Good
spray coverage needed.
Spray water should be
buffered to pH 5–7. Can
use as a dip for flower and
safety information.
168
(hours)
Hexythiazox 10A Insect growth Hexygon DF 12 Mite growth inhibitor.
regulator Controls eggs and
immature stages. Will also
control immature motile
stages that are sprayed
or move onto treated
surfaces. Will not kill
adults, but treated adults
will not produce viable
eggs. Not labeled for
chemigation. Product has
some residual activity. See
label for details.
Insecticidal NC Potassium salts DES-X 12 Kills by contact so
Soap of fatty acids complete coverage is
M-Pede
essential. Caution on
Euphorbia, bleeding
heart, gardenia, fuchsia,
and new seedlings
for phytotoxicity (see
label). Do not treat new
transplants, unrooted
cuttings, or plants stressed
by heat (>90 °F) or
drought. Apply early in
morning or evening or
when overcast; do not
spray in full sun. Do not
apply more than once per
day. Do not spray open
blooms or partially open
flower buds. See label on
tank mixing.
Isaria NC Preferal 12 Contains live spores of
fumosorosea an insect-killing fungus.
(previously Mites come into contact
known as with spores and can be
Paecilomyces infected. Foliar spray. Use
fumosoroseus before high populations
develop. Frequent
scouting is critical. Most
effective when relative
humidity is >80 % for
8-10 hrs.
169
(hours)
cyhalothrin Contact miticide for
adults. Thorough coverage
is important; a spreader-
or oils.
Metarhizium NA Biological MET 52 EC 0-4 For use as foliar
anisopliae strain application. Do not apply
F52 on poinsettias after bract
formation. Apply to moist
substrate and keep moist.
See label for information
and rates.
Methiocarb 1A Carbamate Mesurol 75WP 24 Contact miticide. Do not
apply with oil or foliar
fertilizer. Effectiveness
spray solution pHis >7.
applications per year per
crop; must apply at least
10 days apart.
Neem oil NC Oil Triact 70 4 Apply before mites
or eggs are present
in large numbers. Do
not exceed 1.0% rate
in the greenhouse. Do
not apply to wilted or
otherwise stressed plants,
or to newly transplanted
materials before roots
established. Best not to
use on cut roses. Do not
spray impatiens flowers.
Reapply every 7-21 days
until pest pressure is over.
Caution when treating
hibiscus flowers. Product
is also a fungicide.
70% Neem Oil See above. Do not exceed
1.0% rate in greenhouse.
170
(hours)
Oil, NC Oil Bonide All Seasons 4 Contact miticide; works
Horticultural Horticultural Spray via suffocation. Thorough
(paraffinic Oil (mineral/ coverage of all plants is
hydrocarbon paraffinic oil) very important. Cover
oils; petroleum Golden Pest Spray both top and bottom of all
oil, soybean oil, Oil (soybean oil) of the leaves and stems
vegetable oil) Lesco Horticultural until wet but without
Oil #019492 significant runoff. Be
(mineral oil) cautious on open blooms.
Monterey Foliar injury may occur
Horticultural Oil if applied during hot,
(mineral oil) humid conditions. Do
not tank mix with more
Pure Spray Green
than one pesticide. Do not
(mineral oil)
apply through irrigation
RTSA Horticultural systems. Do not spray
Oil (mineral oil) more than once per week.
Saf-T-Side Spray Do not spray when there
Oil (petroleum oil) is an obvious moisture
Suffoil-X deficit in leaves or plants
(petroleum oil) are under stress. Test
Summit Year Round for phytotoxicity for
Spray Oil each plant variety before
(mineral oil) treating. Do not exceed
SunSpray Ultra Fine four applications per
Oil, growing season. Do not
TriTek use in combination or
(mineral oil) immediately before/after
Ultra-Pure Oil
(mineral oil)
(Sevin) or dimethoate
(Cygon). See label for
phytotoxicity safety.
parts is important.
171
(hours)
Pyrethrins 3A Pyrethrin Pyrenone Crop 12 Botanical miticide
Spray with synergist to flush
Piperonyl insects out of hiding and
butoxide (PBO) into contact with spray
residues. Apply to dry
foliage. Do not use on
cyclamen or nasturtium.
Pyrethrum TR Micro total release aerosol
formulation for up to
3,000 ft2.
Pyridaben 21A METI-acaricides Sanmite 12 Contact; water soluble
packets. Thorough
irrigation system. May
be fatal if inhaled. Do not
use in successive miticide
applications; rotate.
Spinosad 5 Spinosyn Conserve SC 4 Suppression only. Contact
and stomach poison;
thorough coverage is
important. Not for edible
crops. Apply when
mites first observed
before damage is severe.
A nonionic adjuvant
enhances control. See
label for application types
and rate restrictions.
Entrust Apply before webbing
and populations become
severe. Reapply after
7-10 days (3-5 days in
greenhouses) to contact
newly hatched nymphs;
repeat until under control.
critical. A nonionic spray
adjuvant may enhance
period. Do not treat more
than 3 consecutive times.
Toxic to bees.
172
(hours)
Spiromesifen 23 Tetronic and Judo 12 Active on all mite
tetramic acid development stages,
derivatives but is most effective on
juvenile stages. For best
results good coverage of
the upper and lower leaf
surfaces is recommended.
Do not apply to dracaena,
geraniums, peperomia,
certain rose varieties,
ivies, fuchsia and others
-- see label for plants with
phytotoxicity potential.
Do not use in successive
miticide applications
during the same cropping
cycle.
Spirotetramat 23 Kontos 24 Contact, stomach
neonicotinoid. Do not
apply to greenhouse
grown vegetables other
than vegetable transplants
Make applications
preventatively or when
populations are first
detected. If spider mite
populations are heavy
at time of application,
control may not be
achieved rapidly enough.
Apply as a drench, not a
foliar spray. If a second
miticide application is
necessary to achieve
control, use a product
with an alternative mode
of action. Do not apply to
populations.
173
(hours)
Sulfoxaflor 4C Sulfoximine XXPire 12 For suppression of spruce
(IsatoxR) mites and twospotted
mites. Mixture gives
Spinetorum 5 both knockdown and
residual control. Not
a neonicotinoid. Has
systemic and translaminar
activity. Provides
crops.
Tau-fluvalinate 3A Pyrethroid Mavrik Aquaflow 12 Contact; thorough
(F) coverage needed. May
response. Spray water
should be buffered to pH
5-7. Do not spray more
than 4 times per month.
174
Scale Control
Identification and damage: Scale insects are classified as either soft scales or armored scales. Soft scales
are larger (2–5 mm) and usually have a circular or oval shape. Colors are usually shades of gray or brown.
Soft scales produce honeydew as they feed. The protective waxy cover (teste) cannot be detached from
the body of soft scales. Common species include black scale, soft brown scale, and hemispherical scale.
Armored scales secrete a hard, waxy cover (shield) over their bodies. Armored scales do not produce
honeydew. The protective waxy cover (teste) can be separated from the body of armored scales. Examples
include Florida red scale and fern scale.
All immature scales, called “crawlers”, hatch from eggs. The first nymphal instar of both soft and armored
scales has functional legs. Soft scale crawlers crawl out over the leaves and stems to feed on the plant, and
may move back again. Armored scale crawlers move a short distance from where they were hatched and
find a suitable place to settle down and feed. They do not move again for the remainder of their lives. The
crawler stage is the most sensitive to insecticides.
Scale insects are small, sucking insects that remove sap from plants as they feed. This causes spotting
or yellowing of leaves, overall poor plant growth, and dieback. Soft scales can produce distorted foliage
from their feeding on young tissue causing the leaves to turn yellow. High populations can cause twigs
and branches to die back. Soft scales excrete a sugary product called honeydew which can fall onto leaves
and cause them to become shiny and sticky. Honeydew can support the growth of unsightly sooty mold.
Armored scales can produce either yellow or brown spots or streaks on the leaves. They can cause general
yellowing of the foliage, poor growth, and incrustations of both stems and leaves. In very high populations
they can cause twig dieback or even kill the plant.
Monitoring: Check foliage and stems for presence of scale covers. The presence of honeydew and sooty
mold is a good indication of an infestation.
Treatment: Avoid overfertilization. If releasing beneficial predaceous mites or other natural enemies, do
so prior to damaging pest population levels. Time all treatments to the susceptible crawler stage. Systemic
insecticides have shown better control levels on soft scales than armored scales.
175
Table 11.9 Insecticides for Scale Control

Interval
(hours)
Acephate 1B Organophosphate Acephate 90 24 Contact insecticide for
crawlers.
All Acephate Products:

Do not apply to poinsettias
after bract formation or to
roses and chrysanthemums
with open blooms.
Acephate 97 Up Systemic; ingestion
action for crawlers.
For use on limited
crops – only labeled in
greenhouse for cacti,
anthurium, carnations,
plants, orchids, roses, and
system. Do not apply to
Toxic to bees & birds.
1300 Orthene TR Total release cans. Best
to dry foliage with
greenhouse temperatures at
60-80 °F. Ventilate before
reentry.
Orthene TT&O 97 Systemic insecticide
(WP) (Turf, tree, & for crawlers. For use on
ornamental) limited crops - see label.
Not for cut flowers. Do not
hand wand. Apply as
crawlers begin to appear;
repeat applications, at a 2
week or more interval if
there is continuous crawler
activity. Do not treat
176
Table 11.9 Insecticides for Scale Control (continued)

Interval
(hours)
Acetamiprid 4A Neonicotinoid TriStar 30 WSP 12 Contact insecticide; trans-
laminar activity. Thorough
not irrigate overhead for 6
hrs after application. Test
for phytotoxicity if using
a surfactant. Do not treat
>5 times/year or more than
once every 7 days.
TriStar 8.5 SL Water-soluble bags as a
foliar spray. Do not treat
>5 times per year; do not
reapply more than once ev-
ery 7 days. Toxic to bees.
Azadirachtin 18B Botanical Aza-Direct 4 IGR. Controls by contact
AzaGuard or ingestion as a repellent,
Azamax antifeedant, and interfer-
(=NeemAzal) ence with molting process.
Use as a drench or foliar
Azatin O
spray. May repel adults.
Azatin XL Breaks down if spray solu-
Bayer/Bonide Neem tion pH >7.0 and/or not
Oil Concentrate used within 8 hrs. Aza-
Ecozin Plus 1.2% Guard, Molt-X, and Or-
ME nazin 3% EC are for soft
Molt-X scales only. Ecozin Plus
Ornazin 3% EC 12 1.2% is only for green-
house vegetables/herbs.
AzaSol 4 See above; for armored
and soft scale crawlers.
High water solubility;
thorough coverage needed.
Azatrol See AzaDirect; for
armored and soft scale.
May reduce waxy bloom
on some plants.
Azadirachtin & 3A Pyrethroid Azera 12 Soft scale only. Works by
Pyrethrins contact or by ingestion.
Interferes with molting
process and by contact.
once per day or >10 times/
season.
177

Interval
(hours)
Best to apply during early
is 60-80 °F. Ventilate
application.
Flowable (F) Thorough coverage of all
make applications during
the rain. Do not apply to
runoff.
Talstar P For crawlers only. Foliar
(Professional) (F) applications. Thorough
not apply to food crops.
irrigation system.
Talstar Select For crawlers only. See
above. Spreader stickers
are not necessary. Do not
use on edible plants.
Up-Star SC (F) For crawlers only. See
Wisdom F Menace information.
Buprofezin 16 Buprofezin Talus 70 DF 12 IGR: controls crawler
stages. Apply no more than
2 applications per season.
irrigation system.
formulation. Caution on
poinsettias, camellias,
roses, and variegated ivies.
Do not use on kalanchoes.
May causes petal drop on
some open blooms.
178

Interval
(hours)
Cyfluthrin 3A Pyrethroid (=Descriptor Total Micro Total Release spray;
Release Insecticide) contact action. Apply when
foliage is dry during early
evening when tempera-
ture is between 60-80 °F.
stress. A two ounce can
Chromobacte- UN Biological Grandevo 4 Contact biological stomach
rium subtsugae poison for armored scale
strain PRAA4-1 only. Target newly hatched
crawlers. Thorough cover-
age is important. Apply to
non-blooming plants. See
label if mixing with other
pesticides. For greenhouse
herbs/vegetables.
Cyanoaniliprole 28 Diamide Mainspring 4 Contact and systemic
this product or allow it to
drift to blooming plants or
weeds if bees are foraging.
Cyfluthrin 3A Pyrethroid Decathlon 20WP 12 Do not apply through
irrigation systems. Spread-
er-sticker may help with
hard to wet leaf surfaces.
Good coverage is neces-
sary.
Dinotefuran 4A Neonicotinoid Safari 2 G 12 Contact and systemic. Use
after flowering ends, pol-
len and nectar are not pres-
ent. Toxic to bees. Make
no more than 2 foliar or
broadcast and/or 1 soil ap-
plication per crop per year.
Only drench moist sub-
strate. Do not make foliar
spray after soil drench.
179

Interval
(hours)
Fenoxycarb 7B Fenoxycarbs Prescription Treat- 12 IGR. Micro-total release.
ment Preclude TR Cans must be stored at
>65 °F for 24 hrs before
release. Do not use more
than every 7 days.
Imidacloprid 4A Neonicotinoid AmTide Imidaclo- 12 Systemic. For armored
prid 2F* T&O scale suppression only.
has >30–50 % bark
content. Do not apply to
waterlogged or saturated
soils. Do not apply while
bees are foraging. Do not
apply to plants that are
flowering (only apply
after all flower petals have
fallen off). See label for
on container size and
application type.
Bounty Labeled for armored
(suppression) and soft
scales.
Discus Tablets For armored and soft scale.
Tablets are formulated to
ingredient is dependent on
presence of adequate soil
moisture.
180

Interval
(hours)
Imidacloprid 4A Neonicotinoid Imidacloprid 2F 12 For greenhouse herbs only
(continued) Select (7 day PHI). Do not apply
system. Do not foliar apply
following soil treatment.
Lada 2F For armored and soft
scale. Can incorporate into
substrate before planting.
Caution on ferns, Crassula,
petunias, and lantana.
Lada 75 WSP For soft and armored
(suppression; soil
application only) scale.
Mallet 2F T&O Systemic; to suppress
armored scale (soil
application only) and soft
scale. Do not use more
than once every 16 weeks.
Mallet 75 WSP For armored and soft
scale. Soil treatment only.
Mantra 1 G Systemic; to suppress
armored scale (soil
application only) and
soft scale. Do not apply
system. Do not apply until
roots are well established.
Mantra 2F Systemic insecticide to
suppress armored scale
(suppression; soil applica-
tion only) and soft scale.
irrigation system.
Mantra 60 WSP For soft scale. See
AmTide.
Marathon 1% G For armored and soft
scales. Apply to well
established root systems.
Marathon II (F) For armored and soft
scales. Can apply before
egg-laying activity.
181

Interval
(hours)
insecticide for foliar or soil
Cyfluthrin 3A applications. Protection
period is reduced if
substrate has >30–50 %
bark content. Do not use a
Highly toxic to bees. Treat
flowering plants when
and details.
M-Pede and new seedlings for
phytotoxicity (see label
for others). Do not use on
new transplants, unrooted
by drought or heat (>90
spray during full sun. Do
per day. Do not spray open
blooms or partially open
flower buds. See label for
details on plant safety and
tank mixing..
analogues application information.
necessary. Some varieties
of roses show delayed
damage.
182

Interval
(hours)
Lambda-cyhalo- 3A Pyrethroid Scimitar GC 24 Not for food crops.
thrin Contact insecticide.
recommended. Do not
or oils.
Neem oil NC Botanical Triact 70 4 Apply before insects or
eggs are present in large
numbers. Do not apply to
wilted or stressed plants or
new transplants before root
establishment. Caution
if applying to hibiscus
flowers. Do not spray on
impatiens flowers or cut
roses. Do not make more
year and do not reapply
days. Product is also a
fungicide - see label.
70% Neem Oil See above. Do not exceed
1 % rate in the greenhouse.
Oil of rosemary NC Botanical Ecotec 4 Contact insecticide for soft
and peppermint scale crawlers. Thorough
Repeat every 5-7 days. Do
not use if temperatures are
>90 °F.
183

Interval
(hours)
Horticultural Horticultural Spray needed. Suffocates
(paraffinic Oil (mineral oil) crawlers, eggs; suppresses
hydrocarbon Golden Pest Spray adults. Do not apply to
oils; petroleum Oil (soybean oil) stressed plants or during
oil, soybean oil, JMS Stylet Oil# prolonged periods of high
vegetable oil) (paraffinic/mineral temperatures and high
oil) relative humidity. Avoid
Lesco Horticultural using in greenhouses when
Oil (mineral oil) overcast. Do not exceed
label rates or apply more
Monterey Horticul-
often than recommended.
tural Oil
Effectiveness reduced at
(mineral oil)
temperatures below 50 °F.
PureSpray Green Do not apply through any
(petroleum oil) irrigation system. See label
RTSA Horticultural if using with/before/after
oil+ (mineral oil) certain products and for
SuffOil-X use restrictions and mixing
(paraffinic oil) cautions.
SunSpray Ultra-fine #
Only labeled for mums.
Spray Oil poinsettias, dieffenbachia,
(paraffinic oil) & philodendron.
+
For armored scale.
TriTek (mineral oil)
Pyriproxyfen 7C Pyriproxyfen Distance (F) 12 IGR. Apply no more than

twice per crop cycle or
per 6 months. Do not
apply to Boston fern, coral
bells, ghost plant, salvia,
gardenia, schefflera or
Pyrethrins 3A Pyrethrin Pyganic Crop 12 Buffer final spray
Protection mix to pH 5.5-7.0. In
greenhouses, do not
exceed maximum rates-see
label. Do not apply more
than once per day. Herbs
are on label.
184

Interval
(hours)
Pyrethrin 3A Pyrethrum TR 12 Total release aerosol
+ formulation. Available in 2
Piperonyl oz container that treats up
Butoxide (PBO) to 3,000 ft2.
Pyriproxyfen 7C Pyriproxyfen Fulcrum 12 IGR for armored
scales only. Suppresses
immatures only. Apply
no more than 2 times per
cropping cycle or not >2
times in 6 months. Do not
bract formation; see label
for more. Do not apply
complete list, rates, and
Spirotetramat 23 Sulfoximine Kontos 24 Contact, stomach poison,
insecticide for both
knockdown control
and up to one month of
neonicotinoid. Do not
apply to edible crops or
geranium. Treat prior to
as needed. See label for
application types and plant
safety information.
Sulfoxaflor 4C Sulfoximine XXpire WG 12 See label for allowable
(IsatoxR) crops; not for edible crops.
Not a neonicotinoid. Has
Spinetorum 5 systemic and translaminar
activity. Provides
Do not apply more than 2
consecutive times or more
than 4 times per year.
185

Interval
(hours)
Thiamethoxam 4A Neonicotinoid Flagship 25 WG 12 For suppression of soft
scales. Apply to foliage
or soil or growing media.
Product applied to foliage
is rapidly absorbed/
distributed for rapid
control of foliar feeding
insects. Product applied
to soil will be taken up by
plant roots to pest feeding
sites.
Tolfenpyrad 21A METI- Hachi-Hachi 12 Contact insecticide. For
insecticides use on non-food crops.
some plants. Refer to label
for more information.
See label for rates for
cut flowers. Allow at
least 10 days between
applications. Do not apply
to gypsophilia, impatiens,
salvia, or poinsettias in
bract. No more than 2
applications per crop cycle
or 4 applications/year
See label for other crop
tolerances.
186
Shore Fly Control
Identification and Damage: Shore flies (Scatella tenuicosta) feed on algae and are found in areas where
algae is growing such as under benches or on shaded, wet substrate. Adult shore flies are small, dark-gray
flies (approximately 1/8 in. long) that slightly resemble a Drosophila fruit fly, with a robust body and short
legs and antennae. They have five distinctive whitish spots on their grey wings. Their single pair of wings
lacks the characteristic Y-shaped vein at the tip seen on fungus gnats. In addition, the shore fly adult has
short antennae, unlike the long multi-segmented antennae of fungus gnat adults. Larvae of the shore fly
are small translucent-white maggots without a distinct head capsule as seen in fungus gnat larvae. Larvae
and adults are found in close association with algae. Larvae develop through 3 instars while feeding on the
algae.
Adult shore flies are considered a nuisance pest by greenhouse workers and consumers. In heavy infestations
they also deposit characteristic unsightly black “fly specks” on foliage. Larvae are considered algae feeders
and do not feed on crop plant tissue. Adult shore flies are capable of transmitting Pythium/damping off
disease.
Monitoring: Yellow sticky traps or tape are useful in monitoring adults as well as for mass trapping. Look
for fly specks on foliage. Look for pupae that attach themselves (often in groups) to the sides of pots or
objects just above the water level. Pay close attention to misted propagation facilities where algal growth
and shore flies are common.
Treatment: Reducing algae in the greenhouse—on pots, floors, walls, and potting mix surfaces—is the best
way to reduce the populations of these pests. Avoid overwatering.
187
Table 11.10 Insecticides for Shore Fly Control

(hours)
contact or ingestion as
AzaGuard
and interference with
the molting process. For
Azamax use as a drench. May
(=NeemAzal) repel adults. Can use as a
drench or as a foliar spray.
Molt-X Will break down in spray
solution if pH >7.0 and/or
not used within 8 hrs. Use
promptly after mixing.
Ornazin 3% EC 12
Azatin XL 4 Soil drench for controlling
soil-borne larvae - apply
to moderately moist soils.
See above.
Azatrol See Aza-Direct; for larvae
only. May reduce waxy
bloom on ornamental
plants.
Azadirachtin & 3A Pyrethroid Azera 12 Works by contact or
Pyrethrins by ingestion. Quick
knockdown. Can use on
Effective on all insect life
stages. Do not apply >1
time/ day or >10 times per
season.
as a foliar spray and as
a coarse spray to soil
surface. Caution on
poinsettias, camellias,
roses, and variegated ivies.
Do not use on kalanchoes.
Treating open blooms may
cause petal drop.
188
Table 11.10 Insecticides for Shore Fly Control (continued)

(hours)
Chlorpyrifos and 1B Organophosphate Duraplex TR (WP) 24 For wholesalers only.
Cyfluthrin 3A Pyrethroid Micro Total Release
spray; contact action.
when temperature is
between 60-80 °F. Do
stress. A 2 oz container;
instructions.
Cyromazine 17 Cyromazine Citation (WSP) 12 IGR for control larvae;
will not kill adult insects.
Available in water soluble
packets. See label use
in low volume systems.
Mandatory rotation details
on label. Do not make
more than a total of 6
applications to a single
crop.
Diflubenzuron 15 Benzoylureas Adept (WSP) 12 IGR; water soluble bags.
processes of insect larvae.
Apply as soil drench
or coarse spray to soil
surface. For control of
certain foliar-feeding
insects, apply as foliar
spray. Do not apply to
Rieger begonia. Do not
potting substrate. See label
189

(hours)
Insecticidal NC Potassium salts M-Pede 12 Contact; short residual
Soap of fatty acids activity. Caution on
Euphorbia, bleeding heart,
gardenia, fuchsia, impa-
tiens, poinsettias and new
seedlings (see label for
others). Do not use on new
transplants, unrooted cut-
tings, or drought or heat
stressed plants (> 90 °F).
Apply early in morning or
evening or when overcast;
do not spray in full sun.
once per day. Do not spray
open blooms or partially
open flower buds. See
label for tank mixing.
Metarhizium N/C Biological Met 52 Exempt Bioinsecticide for larvae.
anisopliae strain Can use as foliar applica-
F52 tion or drench. Apply to
moist substrate and keep
moist.
Nematodes , Biological Millenium Exempt For larvae only. Insect-
beneficial or (Steinernema parasitic nematode
entomopatho- carpocapsae) seeks out larvae, enters
genic ScanMask natural body openings,
(Steinernema (Steinernema and releases symbiotic
carpocapsae) feltiae) bacteria that kill the
pests. Preventive or
curative control. Apply
to moist substrate right
after potting. Continuous
agitation is essential.
Works best at 50 to 85 °F.
See label for tank mixing .
and peppermint labeled for herbs and
vegetables. Use an
adjuvant. Thorough
190

(hours)
Pyriproxyfen 7C Pyriproxyfen Fulcrum 12 IGR; controls immatures.
Do not use low volume
application equipment to
control soil-inhabiting
insects; use as a sprench.
Treat under benches or
where insects breed.
Ensure complete coverage.
Apply no more than twice
per cropping cycle or not
>2 times in 6 months. Do
in bract; see label for
other damage potential.
Do not apply to salvias,
Spinosad 5 Spinosyn Conserve SC 4 Contact and stomach
poison; thorough coverage
of both upper and lower
leaf surfaces is important.
crops. See label for
application types and
See label for resistance
management.
Entrust See above. Do not apply
period. Never make
applications. Can use
on herbs and vegetable
transplants. Toxic to bees.
Sulfoxaflor 4C Sulfoximine XXpire WG 12 See label for crop list.
(IsatoxR) Not a neonicotinoid. Has
5 systemic and translaminar
knockdown and up to
control. Do not make
applications. Do not make
> 4 applications per year.
191
Slug Control
Identification and Damage: Slugs are soft bodied arthropods with beak–like mouthparts. Garden slugs,
pear slugs and brown slugs are three common species found in the greenhouse. High moisture levels in
the greenhouse create ideal conditions. The slugs lay eggs in cryptic spots. Slugs live for several years,
depending on species and can build up over several years in a greenhouse. Foliage is torn and shredded from
slug feeding. Slime trails are often found on foliage.
Monitoring: Look for slime trails on plants. Examine foliage for torn or shredded damage. Slugs
hide during sunny weather and during the day. Since slugs are active in overcast weather and at night,
monitoring should occur during these times. Rotting wooden benches are favored by slugs and should be
inspected.
Treatment: Inspect incoming plants and containers for the presence of slugs. Remove weeds and slug
hiding places (debris, boards, empty containers, etc.) in and around the greenhouse. Research shows that
fewer slug problems exist in greenhouses where plants are grown on expanded metal benches vs. wooden
benches or on the ground. Handpicking slugs can be helpful in small infestations and is best done in the
early evening (~two hours after sunset). Copper flashing/strips can act as a slug barrier; wrap copper tape on
bench legs or surround raised beds with flashing to help exclude slugs. Abrasive materials such as dry gravel
or diatomaceous earth may also act as a barrier that slugs may not cross, as long as these materials remain
dry. Poison baits must be eaten by slugs. Apply baits in the evening – irrigating prior to placement -- when
slugs are active.
192
Table 11.11 Pesticides for Slug Control

(hours)
Iron phosphate NC Inorganic Bonide Slug Magic 0 RTU bait pellets
(granules). Apply in
Earth Tone Slug and
evening when soil is moist
Snail Control
but not saturated. Reapply
Escar-Go Slug and as bait is consumed
Snail Bait or every two weeks as
Garden Safe Slug needed. Do not place
and Snail Bait in piles. For terrestrial
Ortho EcoSense use only. See label for
Slug and Snail complete plant list, rates,
Killer and specific instructions.
Sluggo-AG
Snail & Slug Killer
Bait
Worry Free Lilly
Miller Slug & Snail
Bait
Iron phosphate + NC Inorganic Sluggo Plus 0 See above. Do not make
Spinosad 5 Spinosyn applications less than
7 days apart. See label
for application rates and
details.
Bonide Bug & Slug None See above. Wet soil before
Killer application. Do not apply
>3 times/month. Best to
apply in the evening. See
label.
Bug-N-Sluggo 4 Highly compressed pellets
(shorts). Do not apply >3
times/month. See label.
193
Table 11.11 Pesticides for Slug Control (continued)

(hours)
Metaldehyde NC Aldehyde Deadline Bullets 12 Bait granules/pellets.
molluscicide Soil treatment. Apply in
early evening preferably
after watering. Do not
water for 48 hrs. Do not
apply directly to plants.
Maximum of 6 treatments
per year.
Deadline M-Ps Mini-pellets. Most plants
show tolerance to product;
caution on tender plants
such as orchids.
Hi-Yield® Natural plant oil
Improved Slug & attractants are added to
Snail Bait each mini pellet. Do not
apply to dry soil.
Metarex 4% Slug & Do not treat dry soil.
Snail Bait Do not water again for
48 hrs. Maximum of 6
applications/year.
Mesurol 75 WP Restricted use. Do not
apply with foliar fertilizers
or oils. Do not use >2
times per year. Spray
solution pH should be >7.
Apply at least 10 days
apart.
Mesurol Pro Restricted use. Do not
use on plants grown for
food. Irrigate before
broadcasting bait over
foliage or treating soil
around plants, under
benches or around
building foundations. Do
not use more than twice
per year.
Durham Metalde- Water thoroughly before
hyde Granules 3.5 treatment. Do not water
again for 48 hrs. Do not
apply to plants unless
known tolerance.
Durham Metalde-
hyde Granules 7.5
194
Table 11.11 Pesticides for Slug Control (continued)

(hours)
Sodium ferric Iron Fist 0 Do not apply to water or
EDTA to areas around surface
water or intertidal areas.
Do not apply bait to soft-
leaved plants. See label
directions.
Sulfur Ortho Bug-Geta Unique blend of sulfur
Slug and Snail with slug and snail bait
Killer 2 additives. Will degrade
and return sulfur and
calcium to the soil. Slugs/
snails cease feeding after
ingestion; become less
mobile and die within
1-3 days. See specific
directions for different
plant types and for inside
greenhouses.
195
Thrips Control
Identification and Damage: Adult thrips are small, about 1/16-inch - 1/32 inch long, with long, narrow
bodies and fringed wings. Females are reddish brown and males are light tan to yellow. Most adult thrips
seen in a greenhouse are females; reproduction without fertilization is common. Adults are gregarious, large
numbers are found feeding in protected areas of the plant such as flowers and terminals. Eggs are inserted
into leaf or petal tissue and are thus protected from insecticides. The two wingless larval stages vary in
color from light yellow to orange to green. The larvae usually remain protected in flower buds or foliage
terminals. While in two pupal stages in the soil, they are protected from insecticides directed at the crop.
Currently, no pesticides are labeled as drenches to kill thrips pupae in soil.
The pest’s rapid developmental time (egg to adult in 7 to 15 days under fluctuating temperatures), high
reproductive rate, and preference for protected areas can make early detection difficult. Adults fly readily
and can be carried by wind currents or on clothing to greenhouses near an infested field. They can fly from
a sprayed to an unsprayed area or move into or out of a greenhouse through doors or greenhouse vents.
Some species of thrips such as the western flower thrips (WFT) vector tospoviruses. Feeding marks from the
rasping mouthparts of thrips destroy plant cells and appear as silvery-white streaks on the leaves or flowers.
Infested new growth may curl under, and leaves are often deformed.
Monitoring: Early detection of a thrips infestation is critical because the symptoms of thrips feeding are
often not noticed until after damage or virus transmission has occurred and because an infestation is easier
to control when it is small. When the crop is in flower, detect thrips using a white or yellow piece of paper
placed under open flowers. Gently tap the flowers and use a 10x magnifier to examine the insects that fall
out. Using yellow or blue sticky cards is the easiest way to detect the onset of an infestation. To monitor the
movement of thrips, place the cards just above the crop canopy, at about one per 500 square feet, as well
as near doors, vents, and over thrips-sensitive cultivars. Recent research shows that light- to medium-blue
sticky cards catch more thrips than yellow ones.
To monitor only for adult thrips, use the blue sticky cards. Keep a weekly record of the number of thrips
per card and graph the totals to detect trends. This information will help with population estimates and in
correctly timing pesticide applications.
Treatment: Remove any weeds and plant debris in and around the greenhouse that may harbor thrips.
Locate all trash containers away from the growing area. Screen any building openings (vents, walls with
cooling pads) to prevent or exclude thrips from entering the greenhouse.
Sprays must thoroughly cover plants, including flowers. Small spray droplets are recommended in order
to penetrate flower buds. Mixing a pyrethroid ‘irritant’ into the spray mix can compel thrips to leave their
hiding places for better spray exposure. Rotate all sprays in order to minimize resistance. If releasing
beneficial natural enemies, do so prior to damaging pest population levels.
196
Table 11.12 Insecticides for Thrips Control

Interval
(hours)
Abamectin 6 Avermectin Ardent 0.15 EC 12 Suppression. Foliar con-
Avid 0.15 EC tact spray; with translami-
nar properties.Thorough
Lucid 2F coverage is important. Do
Merlin (Phoenix not apply through any irri-
Merlin) gation system. Caution on
Minx roses, chrysanthemums,
and gerbera. Do not use
on ferns or Shasta daisies.
Avoid contact and breath-
ing spray mist.
Acephate 1B Organophosphate 1300 orthene TR 24 Total release cans. Best
are 60°- 80 °F. Ventilate
bract or roses and chry-
santhemums in bloom.
Acephate 97 Up Systemic with ingestion
action. Only labeled in
greenhouse for anthur-
ium, cacti, carnations
plants, orchids, roses, and
Do not treat freshly rooted
cuttings, poinsettias in
bract or roses or chrysan-
themum in flower. Toxic
to bees & birds.
Orthene TT&O 97 Systemic. Do not apply
to freshly rooted cuttings.
Limited crop use. Not
for cut flowers. Do not
use a low pressure hand
wand. Do not apply to
poinsettias in bract or to
in flower.
197
Table 11.12 Insecticides for Thrips Control (continued)
Interval
(hours)
important. A surfactant
may improve efficacy. Do
not overhead irrigate for
6 hrs after application.
once every 7 days.
TriStar 8.5 SL Water-soluble bags
applied as a foliar spray.
once every 7 days. See
label for plant list, rates,
Toxic to bees..
Azadirachtin 18B Botanical Aza-Direct 4 IGR. Controls by contact
AzaGuard or ingestion as a repellent,
antifeedant, and interfer-
Azamax ence with the molting
(=NeemAzal) process. For use as a
Azatin-O drench or as a foliar spray.
Molt-X May repel adults. Can be
used as a drench or as a
foliar spray. Will break
down in the spray solution
if pH >7.0 and/or not used
within 8 hrs. Use promptly
after mixing.
AzaSol May be applied to any
food crop. High water
solubility; thorough cover-
age is needed.
Azatin XL EC See Aza-Direct above.
Apply to moderately moist
soils.
Ornazin 3% EC 12 See Aza-Direct. See label.
198
Interval
(hours)
Azadirachtin & 3A Pyrethroid Azera 12 For greenhouse thrips
Pyrethrins only; contact or inges-
tion. Quick knockdown.
Can use on herbs. Kills
by interfering with the
molting process and as an
adulticide. Effective on all
insect life stages. Do not
apply when windy. Do not
apply >1 time/ day or >10
times per season.
Beauveria NC Microbial Botanigard ES 4 Insect-killing fungus;
bassiana Botanigard 22 WP kills on contact. Do not
GHA stain Mycotrol O (WP) tank mix with fungicides.
essential. Needs relative
humidity greater than 70%
and 65-75 ˚F for 8-10
hrs. Normally takes 3-7
days for insects to die and
7-10 days after first spray
to see a reduction in an
insect population. Product
may be used as a pre-
plant dip for cuttings. For
soil applications do not
apply to water-saturated
soils. See label for plant
instructions. Do not treat
Bifenazate + N/A Sirocco (=Prevamite 12 For suppression only.
abamectin O) Contact and translaminar
insecticide. For non-food
crops. Thorough coverage
of foliage is essential;
young immatures must be
per crop per year.
199
Chemical Name IRAC Class Trade Name Re-
Interval
(hours)
60-80 °F. Greenhouse
should be ventilated
application. See label
for plant list, rates, and
specific instructions
Flowable (F) Thorough coverage of all
allow runoff to occur.
Talstar P (Profes- Foliar application. Do
sional) (F) not apply to food crops.
Talstar Select (FC) Spreader stickers are not
edible plants. Can be tank
mixed with plant growth
regulators. See label for
details.
UpStar SC Do not use more than 1
fl. oz. per 1000 ft2. Foliar
application. Do not use
system.
system.
200
Interval
(hours)
For ornamentals and
fruiting vegetables.
times within a season. Not
Phytotoxicity caution
on carnations, dianthus,
kalanchoe, poinsettias,
roses, salvias and zinnias.
See label for plant safety,
details and application
information (including use
on plugs).
oz containers that treat
precautions.
formulation. Caution
on azaleas, poinsettias,
camellias, roses, and
instructions.
201
Interval
(hours)
+ (=Descriptor Total Micro Total Release spray;
Cyfluthrin( 3A Pyrethroid Release by contact. Apply to dry
Insecticide)) foliage in early evening
when temperature is 60-
80 °F. Do not apply
Do not apply when
stress. A 2 oz container
Chromobacte- UN Biological Grandevo 4 Contact stomach poison.
rium subtsugae Target newly hatched
strain PRAA4-1 nymphs. Thorough cover-
age is important. Apply to
non-blooming plants. See
label if tank mixing. Can
and vegetables.
Cyanoaniliprole 28 Diamide Mainspring 4 Both contact and systemic
Cyfluthrin 3A Pyrethroid Decathlon 20 WP 12 Do not apply through any
Dinotefuran 4A Neonicotinoid Safari 2G 12 Contact; systemic. Apply
after plants bloom and
pollen and nectar are not
present. Apply no more
and/or 1 soil application
drench moist substrates,
not dry or saturated. Do
not apply foliar sprays
after plants receive a soil
202
Interval
(hours)
Fenoxycarb 7B Fenoxycarbs Prescription 12 IGR. Micro encapsulated
Treatment Preclude release. Cans must be
TR stored at >65 °F for 24 hrs
Flonicamid 9C Flonicamid Aria (WDG) 12 Water-soluble packets.
on plants for up to
5 days. Product has
residual control. Do not
consecutively before
Imidacloprid 4A Neonicotinoid AmTide 12 For suppression only.
Imidacloprid 2F* Systemic. Protection
T&O period is reduced if
substrate has >30–50
% bark content. Do
not apply to substrate
that is waterlogged or
saturated. Do not apply
while bees are foraging;
apply after all flower
petals have fallen off.
application type.
Bounty For suppression only. See
above.
Discus Tablets Tablets are formulated
delivery of active
Release of active
directions.
203
Interval
(hours)
Imidacloprid 4A Neonicotinoid Imidacloprid 2F 12 Suppression only. See
(continued) Select AmTide. For Greenhouse
herbs only (7 day PHI).
a soil application in the
same crop.
Lada 2 F Thrips suppression on
foliage only. Thrips in
buds and flowers will
not be suppressed. Can
incorporate into substrate
before planting. Caution
on ferns, Crassula,
options, rates, and details.
Lada 75 WSP Systemic. Can incorporate
planting. Do not apply to
flowering plants. Caution
on ferns, Crassula,
Mallet 2F T&O Suppression only. Not to
be used more than once
every 16 weeks.
Mallet 75 WSP Suppression only. Soil
treatment only. Do
Mantra 1 G Suppression only. For
crops grown in flats, on
benches, in beds, and in
containers. Apply when
established.
Marathon 1% G Suppression only. Beware
of pollinator warnings
when treating.
Marathon II Applications can be made
of target pests.
204
Interval
(hours)
Imidacloprid 4A Neonicotinoid Discus N/G 12 Contact & systemic
reduced if substrate has
to flowering plants when
pollinating insects are not
present.
and new seedlings for
for others). Do not use on
spray during full sun. Do
time per day. Do not spray
open blooms or partially
open flower buds. See
label for information on
tank mixing..
M-Pede See above; only labeled
for blossom thrips on
African violets.
205
Interval
(hours)
Isaria fumoso- NC Biological NoFly WP 12 Contains live spores of
rosea Apopka an insect-killing fungus.
Strain 97 For non-food crops. Foliar
(previously application. Works best at
known as temperatures between 72-
Paecilomyces 86 °F with high humidity.
fumosoroseus) Typically takes 3-7 days
for insects to die. Avoid
May cause moderate eye
irritation. Do not apply
when bees are foraging.
when use begins at first
appearance of pests before
high populations develop.
critical to success.
Kinoprene 7A Juvenile hormone Enstar AQ 4 IGR. Thorough coverage
analogues is necessary. Some
varieties of roses show
delayed damage.
important; a spreader-
or oils.
Metarhizium N/A Biological Met 52 0-4 For western flower thrips
anisopliae strain only. Can be used as foliar
F52 application or drench. Do
after bract formation.
Apply to moist substrate
and keep moist. .
Met 52 G See above. For thrips
pupae only. Thoroughly
mix product into growing
substrate, ensuring even
distribution
206
Interval
(hours)
Methiocarb 1A Carbamate Mesurol 75WP 24 For western flower thrips.
Contact insecticide. Do
not apply with foliar
fertilizers. Effectiveness
spray solution pH >7. Do
times per year per crop or
less than 10 days apart.
Neem Oil NC Clarified hydro- Triact 70 4 Apply before insects
phobic extract of are present in large
neem oil numbers. Do not apply
to stressed plants or new
transplants prior to root
establishment. Caution
flowers. Do not treat
impatiens flowers or cut
roses. Do not apply more
than 5 times per year or
less than 7 days apart.
70% Neem Oil See above. Do not
exceed 1.0% rate in the
greenhouse.
Nematodes, NC Biological Entonem 0 Insect-parasitic nematode
beneficial or (Steinernema seeks out western flower
entomopatho- feltiae) thrips adults and pupae.
genic NemaShield Preventive or curative
(Heterohabditis suppression. Apply to
bacterophora) moist substrate after pot-
Nemasys ting as a drench or through
(Steinernema drip irrigation system
feltiae) (remove filters). Do not
exceed 300 psi pump pres-
sure. Apply in evening or
on cloudy days due to ex-
treme UV light sensitivity.
Repeat applications are
usually needed. Substrate
temperatures must be 50-
80 °F. Irrigate before and
after application. See label
for tank mixing cautions.
207
Interval
(hours)
Novaluron 15 Benzoylurea Pedestal 12 IGR; controls immatures
(not adults). Do not use
more than once within
each generation cycle.
per year. Do not apply to
poinsettias. See label for
Oil of Rosemary NC Botanical Ecotec 4 Contact insecticide;
and Peppermint thorough coverage of all
temps are >90 °F.
Oil, NC Oil Golden Pest Spray 4 Suffocates eggs, nymphs
Horticultural Oil (soybean oil) and adults; complete
(paraffinic PureSpray Green coverage needed. Do
hydrocarbon (petroleum oil) not apply to stressed
oils; petroleum SuffOil-X plants or during periods
oil, soybean oil, (paraffinic oil) of prolonged high
vegetable oil) Summit Year Round temperatures and high
Superior Horti- relative humidity. Avoid
culture Spray Oil spraying in greenhouses
(mineral oil) under overcast conditions.
Effectiveness is reduced
SunSpray Ultra-fine
at temperatures below 50
Spray Oil (paraf-
°F. Do not apply through
finic oil)
TriTek (mineral oil) label for cautions if using
Ultra-Pure Oil (Pe- with/before/following
troleum oil) application of certain
restrictions, and mixing.
Permethrin 3 Pyrethroid Astro 12 Contact insecticide for cit-
Permethrin 3.2 AG rus thrips only. Thorough
coverage is important. Di-
rect application to blooms
may cause browning of
petals. Marginal leaf burn
may occur on salvia, dief-
fenbachia, and Pteris fern.
208
Interval
(hours)
Pyrethrins 3A Pyrethrin Pyganic Crop 12 Herbs listed on label.
Protection Buffer spray mix to a pH
of 5.5-7.0. In greenhouse,
do not exceed maximum
rate of .0036 Ibs a.i./1,000
ft2 or 1.18fl. oz./1,000 ft2.
Pyrethrins 3A Pyrethrin Pyrenone 5.0 Crop 12 Includes a synergist
Spray (EC) to flush insects out of
Piperonyl butox- 27A hiding into contact with
ide spray residues. Apply
Pyronyl Crop Spray See above. No more than
(Prentox) 10 applications/season in
greenhouse.
Pyrethrum TR Total release aerosol. 2 oz
can treats up to 3,000 ft2.
Pyridalyl NC Pyridalyl Overture 35WP 12 Contact, ingestion and
translaminar activity. Do
not apply >3 times per
cropping cycle. Can use
high volume sprayers or
low volume applicators
including PulseFOG or
Electrostatic Spraying
Systems. Do not apply
insecticide for chilli thrips
only on non-food crops.
Causes immediate stop-
feed. Thorough spray
coverage needed. Do not
apply through irrigation
cut flowers for 48 hrs. Do
not compost treated plant
material. Do not allow
spray to run off outside
of area. Do not apply >2
times per crop cycle.
209
Interval
(hours)
Spinosad 5 Spinosyn Conserve SC 4 Contact and stomach
poison; thorough
coverage of both upper
apply to edible crops.
type, use and application
rate restrictions. Can be
used on aquatic plants in
commercial pools only.
management.
Entrust For exposed Cuban laurel
and western flower thrips
only. Thorough coverage
of both upper and lower
leaf surfaces is critical.
Do not apply >6 times
in a 12-month period.
Never apply more than 3
Can apply to herbs and
vegetable transplants.
Toxic to bees.
Spirotetramat 23 Sulfoximine Kontos 12 Contact, stomach poison,
insecticide for knockdown
and residual control of
immature thrips. Not a
crops. Start treatments
prior to establishment of
high pest populations and
reapply on an as-needed
basis. See label for drench
REI. See label for list of
plants, application types,
and important plant safety
information.
210
Interval
(hours)
Sulfoxaflor 4C Sulfoximine XXpire WG 12 See label for crops
(IsatoxR) allowed. Has contact,
Spinetorum 5 systemic and translaminar
activity. Do not treat
edible crops. Not a
Tau-fluvalinate 3A Pyrethroid Mavrik Aquaflow 12 Buffer spray to pH 5-7.
4 sprays per month. May
work slowly on some
poinsettias. Can use
foliage cuttings. May
response.
Thiamethoxam 4A Neonicotinoid Flagship 25 WDG 12 Product applied to foliage
is rapidly absorbed/dis-
tributed for rapid control
of foliar feeding insects.
Product readily taken
up by plant roots to pest
feeding sites. See label for
application directions.
Tolfenpyrad 21A METI- Hachi-Hachi 12 Contact insecticide. For
insecticides use on non-food crops.
some plants; refer to label.
between applications. Do
not apply to gypsophila,
poinsettias in bract. Apply
no more than twice per
crop cycle or 4 times/year
211
Whitefly Control
Identification and Damage: Whiteflies are small flying insects (0.06 in. or 1-2 mm) that feed on many
greenhouse crops, particularly poinsettias and bedding plants. Both the adults and immature stages are found
on the underside of the leaves where they suck plant fluids.
Adults of greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum) have powdery-white wings that are held flat
over their bodies. Bemesia tabaci whitefly adults are slightly smaller than the greenhouse whitefly adults
and yellowish in color. They hold their wings roof-like, at a 45-degree angle close to their body. The adult
bandedwinged (Trialeurodes abutilonea) have two grayish bands that form a zigzag pattern across each
front wing. Eggs are white when first laid and turn dark grey (greenhouse whitefly) or amber brown (B.
tabaci whitefly) with time. The insect hatches from the egg as a crawler, which is an active, mobile stage
and moves about on the plant looking for a feeding site on which to settle. The crawler and other nymphal
stages of the most common species are oval, greatly flattened, and somewhat translucent with a white, light-
green or light-yellow cast.
On floricultural crops, even a few whiteflies can reduce the retail value for several reasons. Flying adults
can result in consumer complaints. High populations of whiteflies can weaken plants, causing chlorotic
foliage and reduced vigor. Whiteflies are phloem feeders and can weaken plants by directly consuming
carbohydrates and other nutrients carried within a plant’s vascular system. Heavy populations can cause
defoliation.
Whiteflies also produce “honeydew” excretions, which cause leaves to become sticky and shiny, as well as
the resulting sooty mold fungus. Furthermore, Bemesia tabaci (B strain or Q strain) can cause tomato fruit
to become mottled (uneven ripening), the leaves of squash to turn silver green, and hibiscus foliage to have
yellow speckles. In severe infestations, the insect can cause stems and bracts of red poinsettia cultivars to
turn whitish yellow. B. tabaci whiteflies are found to be capable of transmitting plant viruses.
Monitoring: Sampling for whiteflies is critical to establishing whether a treatment threshold has been
reached and to determining whether a treatment is effective. Use a combination of yellow sticky traps and
foliage inspection. Monitor the location and relative numbers of adults with yellow sticky traps; nymphs
must be monitored by frequent foliage inspection. Observe adult activity on foliage to become aware of egg
laying and potential population build-up on “hotspot” plants in a greenhouse. The older life stages are often
found on older foliage; eggs and younger life stages are usually found on younger leaves.
Sticky cards are best used at 1 to 2 cards per 1,000 square feet of growing area; check the cards weekly at a
minimum. The threshold of adults found on a card per day and numbers of nymphs per leaf often changes
according to the maturity of the crop. Early in a crop cycle a grower may tolerate 0.5 whitefly per day on
cards. At the time near the sale of the crop the grower may have an increased tolerance of adults, allowing
2 whiteflies per card per day.
Treatment: Proper species identification is important in order to choose the most effective management
option. Insecticides are applied as either foliar sprays (targeting nymphs and adults), systemic drenches
(targeting nymphs), or smoke fumigation (targeting adults).
Rotate all sprays in order to minimize resistance. If releasing beneficial natural enemies, do so prior to
damaging pest population levels.
212
Table 11.13 Insecticides for Whitefly Control

Interval
(hours)
Abamectin 6 Avermectin Abamectin SPC 12 Foliar contact spray;
Ardent 0.15 EC Suppression. Thorough
Avid 0.15 EC
Merlin (Phoenix irrigation system. Caution
Merlin) on roses, chrysanthemums,
Lucid and gerberas. Do not
Minx use on ferns or Shasta
daisies. Avoid contact and
are 60-80 °F. Ventilate
bract or roses and chry-
santhemums in flower. See
label for phytotoxicity.
Acephate 97 UP Systemic; ingestion action.
Only labeled in green-
house for cacti, anthurium,
carnations chrysanthe-
mums, foliage plants,
orchids, roses, and poin-
settias. Do not apply
Do not treat poinsettias in
bract, roses or chrysanthe-
mums in flower, or freshly
rooted cuttings. Toxic to
bees and birds.
Acephate 1B Organophosphate Orthene TT&O 97 24 Systemic. For use on
(continued) WP limited crops. Do not
hand wand. Do not apply
to poinsettias in bract,
in flower, cut flowers, or
213
Table 11.13 Insecticides for Whitefly Control (continued)

Interval
(hours)
important. A surfactant
may improve efficacy. Do
not overhead irrigate for
6 hrs after application.
4 applications per year or
every 7 days.
TriStar 8.5 SL Water-soluble bags used
as a foliar spray. Make no
per year; do not reapply
AzaGuard contact or ingestion as
Azamax and interference with the
(=NeemAzal) molting process. For use
Bayer/Bonide Neem as a drench or as a foliar
Oil Concentrate spray. May repel adults.
Azatin-O Will break down in the
spray solution if pH >7.0
Bayer/Bonide Neem and/or not used within 8
Oil Concentrate hrs. Use promptly after
Molt-X mixing.
AzaSol Can use on any food crop.
High water solubility;
thorough coverage needed.
Azatrol May reduce waxy bloom
on some plants.
Neemix 4.5 (EC) Only immature stages.
Direct spray to pest, longer
duration of leaf wetness
increases efficacy. Do not
treat stressed plants or
before roots established.
Ornazin 3% EC 12 See Aza-Direct.
214

Interval
(hours)
Azadirachtin & 3A Pyrethroid Azera 12 Works by contact or
Pyrethrins( by ingestion. Quick
knockdown. Can use
on herbs. Adulticide.
Interferes with molting
process. Effective on all
>1 time/ day or >10 times
per season.
Beauveria NC Microbial Botanigard ES 4 Insect-specific fungus.
bassiana Do not tank mix with
GHA stain Botanigard 22 WP fungicides. Acts by
contact; thorough coverage
is essential. Needs
Mycotrol O (WP) temperature of 65-75 °F
and relative humidity
>70% for 8-10 hrs. Takes
3-7 days for insects to die
and 7-10 days after first
spray to see reduction
in pest population. Can
use as a pre-plant dip
for cuttings. For soil
applications do not apply
to water-saturated soils.
Do not treat poinsettias in
bract. Formulated for use
without wetting agents and
spreaders.
Bifenazate + N/A Sirocco 12 Contact and translaminar.
abamectin (=Prevamite O) For suppression only. For
non-food crops. Thorough
coverage is essential;
Spray must contact young
immatures. Do not make
>2 applications per crop
per year.
215

Interval
(hours)
temperature is 60-80 °F.
reapply it within 48 hrs.
Do not treat to runoff.
Talstar P For adults. Thorough
(Professional) (F) coverage is important.
Foliar application. Do
not apply to food crops.
irrigation system.
Talstar Select (FC) Spreader stickers are
not necessary. Can tank
regulators.
Wisdom F label for specifics.
Buprofezin 16 Buprofezin Talus 70 DF 12 IGR for nymphs. Apply
season. Do not apply
system. Apply as soon as
activity is observed.
+ (=Descriptor Total Micro Total Release; a
Cyfluthrin 3A Pyrethroid Release Insecticide) 2 oz container treats up
to 3,000 ft2. Contact.
dry in early evening when
temperature is 60-80 °F.
apply when extreme heat
or drought stress.
216

Interval
(hours)
rium subtsugae stomach poison. Proper
strain PRAA4-1 timing targeting newly
hatched nymphs is
important. Thorough
Apply to non-blooming
plants. See label warning
if mixing with other
pesticides. Can use on
greenhouse herbs and
vegetables.
Cyanoaniliprole 28 Diamide Mainspring 4 Foliar or soil application;
both contact and systemic
activity. Do not apply
Cyfluthrin 3A Pyrethroid Decathlon 12 Do not apply through any
Dichlorvos 1B Organophosphate DDVP 20% EC * Only for greenhouse
ornamentals, tomatoes
and cucumbers. Spray
until runoff; thoroughly
ventilate before reentering
the next day. Do not apply
when foliage or blossoms
are wet as injury may
result. Some damage has
been noted on Shasta
and Pink Champagne
Chrysanthemums
and some varieties of
snapdragons. See label
precautions.
* Meet WPS Ventilation

requirements
217

Interval
(hours)
Diflubenzuron 15 Benzoylurea Adept (WSP) 12 IGR; water soluble bags.
Dimilin SC (F) processes of nymphs.
Apply as soil drench or
coarse spray to substrate
surface. For control of
certain foliar-feeding
insects, apply as foliar
spray. Do not apply to
Rieger begonia. Do treat
pots on capillary mats. Do
not reuse treated potting
substrate.
Dinotefuran 4A Neonicotinoid Safari 2G 12 Contact and systemic
insecticide. Apply after
plants finish blooming and
applications and/or 1
soil application may be
made per crop per year.
Only apply soil drench to
moist soil substrate, dry
or saturated. Do not apply
foliar sprays to plants
that have received a soil
Etoxazole 10B Beethove TR 24 Total release cans for
suppression only; treats
up to 3,000 ft2. For
ornamentals only. Contact
and translaminar activity.
under stress. Apply during
early evening when foliage
is dry and greenhouse
temperatures are between
60-80 °F. See label for
application details and
specifics.
218

Interval
(hours)
Fenazaquin 21A METI-acaricides Magus 12 Kills by contact and
ingestion. Thorough
coverage is required. Do
not use on roses. No more
than one application per
crop. Do not apply through
any type of irrigation
system. See label for
information on plant
safety.
Fenoxycarb 7B Fenoxycarb Preclude TR 12 IGR; micro encapsulated
release. Cans must be
stored at >65 °F for 24 hrs
See label for details.
Flonicamid 9C Flonicamid Aria (WSP) 12 Spray water should be
buffered to pH 5–7. Can
be used as a dip for flower
and foliage cuttings. Do
not use through any type
Fenpyoximate 21 Akari 5 SC 12 For greenhouse
cucumbers only. Spray
water should be buffered
to pH 5–7. Can be used
safety information.
219

Interval
(hours)
Imidacloprid 4A Neonicotinoid AmTide 12 Systemic. Protection
Imidacloprid 2F period is reduced if
Bounty substrate has >30–50 %
bark content. Protection
onset is translocation
delayed in woody plants.
Do not apply to soils
that are water logged or
saturated. Do not apply
Do not apply to plants in
flower (only apply after all
flower petals have fallen
off). See label for details
and rates/restrictions based
application type.
Discus Tablets Tablets are formulated to
directions.
Imidacloprid 2F See AmTide. For
Select greenhouse herbs only (7
day PHI). Do not apply
system. Do not foliar
apply following a soil
application in the same
crop. See label for
specifics.
into the medium before
Lada 75 WSP
planting. Do not apply
Do not apply to flowering
plants. Apply only after
all petals have fallen off.
Caution on ferns, Crassula,
220

Interval
(hours)
Imidacloprid 4A Neonicotinoid Mallet 2F T&O 12 Not to be used more than
(continued) once every 16 weeks. See
label for details.
applications per year. See
label.
established. See label.
Mantra 2F Do not apply through any
See label.
Marathon 1%G See Lada. Beware of
pollinator warnings when
treating. See label for
details.
Marathon II Can apply before egg-
laying activity of target
pests.
reduced if media has
to flowering plants during
times when pollinating
insects are not present. See
rates, and details.
221

Interval
(hours)
Insecticidal NC Potassium salts Bonide Insecticidal 12 Kills by contact so
Soap of fatty acids Soap complete coverage is
Bayer Insecticidal essential. Caution on
Soap euphorbia, bleeding
Earth-Tone
and new seedlings for
Insecticidal Soap
M-Pede for others). Do not use on
Natural Guard In-
secticidal Soap
spray when full sun. Use
no more than once per day.
Do not spray open blooms
or partially open flower
Safer Insecticidal buds. See label on plant
Soap safety and tank mixing.
Isaria fumoso- NC Biological NoFly WP 12 A naturally occurring
rosea Apopka fungus that is not toxic to
Strain 97 humans. The fungus takes
(previously 3-7 days to infect and
known as kill the pest. Works best
Paecilomyces at temperatures between
fumosoroseus) 72 - 86 °F and requires
high humidity. See label
for storage and application
details. May cause
moderate eye irritation.
used at first sign of pests,
before high populations
develop. Frequent scouting
is critical to success.
Kinoprene 7A Juvenile hormone Enstar AQ 4 IGR. Thorough coverage
analogues is necessary. Some
varieties of roses show
delayed damage. See
label for specific rates and
instructions.
222

Interval
(hours)
recommended. Do not
or oils.
Neem oil NC Clarified hydro- Triact 70 4 Apply before insects are
(clarified hydrophobic extract of present in large numbers.
phobic extract of neem oil Do not apply to wilted
Neem oil) or stressed plants or new
See also : azadi- transplants before roots
ractin established. Caution
flowers. Do not spray on
impatiens flowers or on
cut roses. Do not make
per year; do not reapply
days.
70% Neem Oil For immatures only. See
above. Do not exceed 1 %
rate in the greenhouse.
Novaluron 15 Benzoylurea Pedestal 12 IGR; does not control
adults. Do not use more
than once per generation
cycle. Do not make more
crop per year. Do not
apply to poinsettias. See
label for complete plant
list, rates, and instructions.
Oil of Rosemary NC Botanical Ecotec 4 Contact insecticide;
and Peppermint thorough coverage of all
223

Interval
(hours)
Oil NC Oil Golden Pest Spray 4 Suffocates eggs and
(horticultural: Oil (soybean oil) nymphs; complete
Parrafinic, JMS Stylet Oil# coverage needed. Do not
petroleum, (parafinic) apply if plants are under
soybean) Lesco Horticultural any stress, or during
Oil #019492 periods of prolonged
(mineral oil) high temperatures
Monterey Horticul- combined with high
tural Oil relative humidity. Avoid
(mineral oil) spraying in greenhouses
under overcast conditions.
PureSpray Green
Effectiveness is reduced
(mineral oil)
at temperatures below 50
Suffoil-X (paraffinic °F. Do not apply through
oil) any irrigation system. See
Summit Year Round label for cautions if using
Spray Oil (mineral with/before/following
oil) application of certain
SunSpray Ultra-fine products and for use
Spray Oil restrictions, mixing, and
(paraffinic oil) other details.
TriTek (mineral oil)
Ultra-Pure Oil
(mineral oil)
Permethrin 3A Pyrethroid Astro 12 Thorough coverage is
important for adult control.
May cause browning
of petals. Marginal leaf
burn may occur on salvia,
fern. Avoid spraying
chrysanthemum blooms.
Permethrin 3.2 Ag See above. Some rose
varieties are sensitive.
Pymetrozine 9B Pyridine Endeavor (WDG) 12 Systemic, translaminar
activity. Insects stop feed-
ing within hours; remain
on plant 2-4 days. Some
residual activity; con-
trols pests that move onto
treated plants. Do not treat
poinsettias in bract. Appli-
cation amounts restricted.
224

Interval
(hours)
Pyrethrins 3A Pyrethrin Prentox Pyronyl 12 A botanical insecticide
+ Crop Spray plus a synergist to flush
Piperonyl 27A Synergist insects out of hiding
butoxide (PBO) and into contact with
spray residues. See
not use on cyclamen
or nasturtium. Can be
tank mixed with other
insecticides. See label.
Pyrenone Crop See above. No more than
Spray 10 applications/season in
greenhouse. See label.
Pyreth-It Formula 2 For adults. See above.

(Prescription Treat-
ment Brand)
Pyrethrum TR For adults. Micro
Total Release aerosol
formulation for
greenhouses; treats up
to 3,000 ft2. See label
instructions.
insecticide. Causes
cut flowers for 48 hrs after
spraying. Do not compost
discarded plant materials
treated with this product.
For non-food crops only.
Do not allow pesticide
spray solution to run off
outside of the application
area. Do not apply more
crop cycle.
225

Interval
(hours)
Pyridaben 21A METI-acaricides Sanmite 75 WP 12 Contact; water soluble
packets. Active on adult
and nymphal life stages.
Thorough coverage
of all plant parts is
this product through any
not use in successive
miticide applications;
rotate. May be fatal if
inhaled. See label for plant
lists, specific rates and
instructions.
Pyriproxyfen 7C Pyriproxyfen Fulcrum 12 IGR for control of eggs,
nymphs, and pupae. Apply
no more than 2 times per
cropping cycle or not >2
times in 6 months. Do not
bract formation; see label
for details. Do not apply
Spiromesifen 23 Tetronic acid Judo (F) 12 For nymphs; good
derivative coverage of the upper
is recommended. Do
not apply to geraniums,
peperomia, dracaena,
certain rose varieties, ivy,
fuchsia and others -- see
label for phytotoxicity
potential. Do not use
same cropping cycle. See
label for plant list, rates.
226

Interval
(hours)
Spirotetramat 23 Sulfoximine Kontos 12# Contact, stomach poison,
insecticide for both
month residual control.
Not a neonicotinoid. Do
not apply to edible crops.
on an as-needed basis.
#See label for drench
REI. See label for list of
plants, application types,
and important plant safety
information.
Sulfoxaflor 4C Sulfoximine XXpire WG 12 Not a neonicotinoid. Has
(IsatoxR) + 5 systemic and translaminar
knockdown and up to
edible crops. Do not make
applications or more than
4 applications per year.
Thiamethoxam 4A Neonicotinoid Flagship 0.22 G 12 Systemic product - allow
a minimum of one week
translocate to feeding
sites of the target pest. If
leaching, allow at least
7 days after watering-in
for maximum uptake. See
label for application types
and rates.
Flagship 25 WG Systemic. See above.
directions.
227

Interval
(hours)
Tau-fluvalinate 3A Pyrethroid Mavrik Aquaflow 12 Spray water should be
buffered to pH 5-7. Do
sprays per month. May
work slowly on some
and foliage cuttings. May
response.
Tolfenpyrad 21A METI- Hachi-Hachi 12 Contact insecticide
insecticides for suppression only.
some plants. See label
for rates for cut flowers.
between applications. No
per crop cycle or 4
applications/year. Do
not apply to gypsophilia,
See label for other crop
tolerances.
228
Chapter 12
Insect Control for Greenhouse Vegetable Production and
Herbs
Gerald E. Brust, IPM Vegetable Specialist
Insect Control for Greenhouse Vegetable Production

The following table lists the insecticides that are labeled for use on greenhouse grown vegetable transplants/
crops. Also included are the targeted pests, crops labeled for use, the pre harvest interval (PHI) and various
important comments about the use of these chemicals. These products have been tested and formulated for
greenhouse use. Some products, however, while not prohibited from use in the greenhouse lack information
on application and use in the greenhouse environment.
Note that unless a pesticide label specifically states that a product cannot be used in a greenhouse vegetable
crop, the product can be used on those crops for which it is registered.
Note: * The EPA has ventilation criteria for greenhouses: If a pesticide is being applied as a fumigant,
smoke, mist, fog or aerosol, one of the following ventilation criteria must be met. The concentration of the
pesticide in the air is measured to be less than or equal to any inhalation exposure level required on the
labeling. If no inhalation exposure level is listed on the labeling, workers must not enter the treated area
until after:
• 10 air exchanges, or
• 2 hours of ventilation using fans or other mechanical ventilating systems, or
• 4 hours of ventilation using vents, windows or other passive ventilation, or
• 11 hours with no ventilation followed by 1 hour of mechanical ventilation, or
• 11 hours with no ventilation followed by 2 hours of passive ventilation, or
• 24 hours with no ventilation.
229
Table 12.1 Insecticides for Greenhouse Vegetable Production
Chemical IRAC Class Trade Re-entry Pests and *Comments

Name Name Interval Crop(s)
(hours) Labeled
Azadirachtin 18B Tetranortri- Aza-Direct 4 Aphids, Repellant, anti-feedant,
terpenoid Azatrol caterpillars, and IGR. Controls
Azatin XL leafminers, pests on contact or
fungus gnats by ingestion. Apply
(except as spray or drench.
Neemix), Constant agitation is
mealybugs, rust required. Do not mix
mites, spider with Captan, Bordeaux
mites, soft mixtures, and highly
scale, whiteflies alkaline products. May
and thrips reduce “waxy bloom”
(suppression) on some crops. Can
Also registered apply via drip irrigation.
for fungal Reapply every 14-21
disease control. days as necessary. See
label for restrictions.
For all OMRI listed.
Ornazin 3% 12 vegetables and IGR and repellent. Spray
EC herbs. or drench. Use promptly
after mixing (breaks
down within 8 hours).
Use with buffering agent
and surfactant. Spray
both sides of leaves. Do
not use with Bordeaux
mixture, triphenyltin
hydroxide, lime sulfur,
Rayplex iron, or
other highly alkaline
materials.
Neemix 4.5 Repellant, anti-feedant,
and IGR. Apply as spray
or drench. Not labeled
for fungus gnats. Spray
both sides of leaves. Can
use in chemigation.
Trilogy 4 Insecticide, miticide,
and fungicide. Avoid
tank mixes with Captan,
Sulfur, Bravo, Echo,
chlorothalonil, orother
similar products.
Agroneem 4 Fruiting and OMRI Listed
Plus baby vegetables
230
Table 12.1 Insecticides for Greenhouse Vegetable Production (continued)

(hours) Labeled
Bacillus 11B1 Microbial Agree WG 4 Caterpillars Stomach poison that
thuringiensis XenTari only: loopers, must be ingested. Most
var Aizawai tomato effective against newly
Bacillus 11B2 Microbial BioBit HP 4 fruitworms/ hatched, small 1st
thuringiensis corn earworms, instar larvae. Insects
var kurstaki leafrollers, stop feeding and die
diamondback 1-5 days later. Can
moths be applied through
For all combine with fungicides
greenhouse or fertilizers containing
vegetables, copper or chlorine.
herbs, spices, OMRI Listed
and watercress
Deliver Fungus gnat Larvicide; will not
Dipel DF larvae control adult gnats. Can
Dipel Pro be applied by injection
DF For tomatoes, into drip or overhead
Bacillus 11A1 Microbial Gnatrol 4 leafy and (sprinkler) irrigation
thuringiensis WDG cole crops, systems. Apply with
var israelensis cucumbers, adequate water by soil
peppers, and drench to sufficiently
eggplants. wet soil surface above
and under benches. Do
not use in combination
with fertilizers or
fungicides containing
copper or chlorine. Do
not apply soil drenches
to stressed plants.
Beauveria UN Microbial Botanigard 4 Aphids, thrips, Slow acting; contains
bassiana ES psyllids, a fungus that infects
Botanigard whiteflies insects. Must make
22WP at least 3 applications
Mycotrol O For all at 7-10 day intervals.
greenhouse Thorough spray
Naturalis
vegetables, coverage needed; must
L (strain
herbs and contact target pest. Treat
ATCC)
spices when insect levels are
low. May need repeated
applications may be d.
Do not use Botanigard
or any ES formulations
on tomatoes.
231

(hours) Labeled
Bifenazate 25 Unclassified Floramite 12 Twospotted Not effective against
SC spider mites rust mites or broad
and European mites. Compatible with
red mite beneficial predatory
mites. Rapidly degrades
For tomatoes in alkaline water of
>1 inch in high temperature. Use
diameter at solutions promptly
maturity or add a commercial
buffering agent. Do not
use adjuvants. Use no
per crop/season.
Buprofezin 16 Thiadiazine Talus 40 SC 12 Whiteflies, IGR targeting active
mealybugs, and immature stages of
leafhoppers on insects. Suppresses egg
tomatoes. laying and reduces egg
viability. Treated pests
may remain alive for 3
to 7 days, but feeding
damage is low. Apply
season, at least 28 days
between applications.
Chlorfenapyr 13 Pyrazole Pylon 12 Caterpillars Do not use on tomato
(e.g. beet and varieties with mature
yellowstriped fruit less than 1 inch
armyworms, in diameter. Allow
loopers, tomato 5-7 days between
fruitworm, applications. No more
hornworms, than 3 applications per
broad mites, crop. Do not apply more
twospotted than 39 fl oz (0.6 lb
spider mites, a.i.) per acre, per crop
tomato russet growing cycle.
mites, melon
thrips, western
flower thrips
For peppers,
tomato, egg-
plant, ground
cherry, pepinos,
tomatillo
232

(hours) Labeled
Dinotefuran 4A Neonicoti- Safari 20 12 Whiteflies, For vegetable
noid SG aphids transplants ONLY.
(suppression), Apply as transplant or
leafhoppers post-seeding drench.
One application per
For lettuce crop.
Endosulfan 2A Cyclodiene Thionex * Aphids, Restricted use. Use
50WP armyworms, 1.5-2 lb/A for all pests
Thionex blister beetles, except whiteflies. For
3EC cabbage whiteflies: Apply
loopers, 1 b/100 gal - thorough
Colorado coverage is needed for
potato and flea high populations.
Phaser 3EC beetles, stink Good coverage
bugs, thrips, necessary. Higher
tomato fruit- spray volume may be
worms, tomato needed for high whitefly
russet mites, populations. Do not
whiteflies make more than 6
For tomatoes * See label.
Imidacloprid 4A Neonicoti- Benefit 12 For aphids, Systemic insecticide.
noid 60WP leafminers, Incorporate into media
mealybug, before planting, or
whiteflies, use as soil drench via
thrips micro, drip irrigation,
(suppression) overhead, ebb and flood
irrigation, or hand-held
For broccoli or motorized calibrated
raab, Chinese irrigation equipment.
broccoli, Protection period is
Brussels shorter if media has
sprouts, kale, > 30 - 50% bark content.
cabbage, Irrigate thoroughly after
cauliflower, application, allowing
collards, rape no leaching and runout
and mustard from container for at
greens, least three irrigations
ground cherry, or 10 days. Do not
kohlrabi, egg- use packets in a tank
plant, lettuce, mix with products that
pepper, potato, contain boron or release
tomato, sugar- free chlorine.
beet, tomatillo
233

(hours) Labeled
Imidacloprid 4A Neonicoti- Lada 12 Aphids, For use on vegetable
noid armored scale, plants intended for
(suppression), resale only.
fungus gnats
(larvae only),
leafhoppers
(inc luding
glassy-winged
sharpshooter),
leafminers,
mealybugs
(including root
mealybugs),
soft scale,
thrips
(suppression),
whiteflies
For Chinse and

raab broccoli,,
Brussels
Sprouts,
cabbage,
Chinese
cabbage,
cauliflower,
collards,
eggplants,
ground cherry,
kale, kohlrabi,
lettuce, mustard
greens, pepinos,
pepper, potato,
rape greens,
sorghum,
sugarbeet,
tomatillo, and
tomato.
234

(hours) Labeled
Imidacloprid 4A Neonicoti- Marathon II 12 Adelgids, Apply as a broadcast
noid Marathon aphids, treatment and
1G armored scale incorporate into
(suppression), substrate before
fungus gnats planting. On established
(larvae only), plants, irrigate
leaf beetles, moderately after
leafhoppers, application to move
leafminers, active ingredient (a.i.)
Japanese into root zone. Minimize
beeetles, leaching and runoff for
psyllids, root at least 3 irrigations
mealybugs, root or 10 days, whichever
weevils, soft is longer. Adding a
scales, thrips nitrogen containing
(suppression), fertilizer, if applicable,
whiteflies, into the solution may
white grub enhance uptake of the
larvae a.i.. Treat as a foliar or
soil application. Media
For Chinese with 30% or more bark
broccoli, content may reduce
cabbage, period of protection.
cauliflower, Controls fungus gnat
collards, larvae in the soil by
eggplant, incorporation, but no
ground cherry, adult control. Foliar
kale, kohlrabi, insect control is by the
lettuce, mustard uptake by a healthy root
greens, pepinos, system translocating
potatoes, the a.i. up into the
rape greens, plant. Control of root
sorghum, mealybug requires
sugarbeet, thorough incorporation
tomatillo, and of containerized media.
tomato. Coverage is essential
for control while
minimizing leachate.
Suppresses thrips on
foliage, but not in buds
or flowers.
235

(hours) Labeled
Insecticidal UN Fatty acid M-Pede 12 aphids, white- Works well on whiteflies
Soap flies, spider and aphids if applied
mites, fungus frequently. However,
gnats, plant do not apply more than
bugs, thrips, 3 applications over a 2
caterpillars. week period
Registered on
all vegetables,
herbs and
spices
Iron Inorganic Sluggo N/A Slugs on Scatter the bait in
phosphate tomatoes the plant pots of
plants being damaged
or around pots on
greenhouse benches.
Do not apply directly to
plants.Apply about 1/2
teaspoon per 9-inch pot.
OMRI approved.
Malathion 1B Organophos- Malathion 8 12 Aphids, Be sure to check label as
phate aquamul cucumber the plant harvest interval
beetles, (PHI) differs for certain
mites, thrips, crops depending on
whiteflies formulation type.
For cucumber,
egg plant,
head lettuce,
endive,
leaf lettuce
pepper, tomato,
onions (bulb &
green).
Metaldehyde UN Aldehyde Metalde- 12 Slugs and Apply on and beneath
hyde 2% snails on most greenhouse benches.
vegetables. Keep bait from coming
in contact with plants.
Nicotine 4B Botanical Fulex Ventila- Aphids, thrips. Restricted use. Smoke
Nicotine tion For cucumbers, fumigator. Apply when
Fumigator criteria lettuce, foliage is dry.
met tomatoes
236

(hours) Labeled
Oil UN Paraffinic Prescription 4 Aphids, beetle Must contact pest.
Oil Treatment larvae, certain Maintain a two week
Ultra-Fine caterpillars, leaf interval between
Oil miners, thrips, treatments. Test for
Soybean Oil Pure Spray whiteflies, phytotoxicity for each
Green spider mites. plant variety before
Golden Pest treating. Do not exceed
Spray Oil Registered on four applications per
Petroleum Saf-T-Side all vegetables, growing season. Oils
Oil Spray Oil herbs and can cause foliar injury if
spices very hot and humid.
Pyrethrin + 3 Botanical Pyrenone 12 Aphids, beetles, PBO is used to increase
crop spray after caterpillars effectiveness of
PBO Unclassified Prentox ventilat- (army worms, Pyrethrin, but is not
(Piperonyl pyronyl tion loopers), flies, OMRI approved. Can
Butoxide) crop spray criteria flea beetles, be tank mixed with
Prescription met fungus gnats, other insecticides for
Treatment mealybugs, enhanced control. See
Pyreth-It whiteflies, label for details.
thrips, spider
mites Micro total release. See
directions on can for
All vegetables, area coverage.
herbs, spices
Pyriproxyfen 7C Unclassified Distance 12 Aphids IGR. Do not apply
(suppression), to tomato varieties
fungus gnat less than one inch in
and shore fly diameter or to non-bell
larvae (apply peppers. Use as a drench
as a sprench or sprench against
or drench), fungus gnats or shore
whiteflies flies. Do not make more
(greenhouse, than 2 applications per
silverleaf, & season.
sweetpotato)
Tomatoes
Spinosad 5 Microbial Conserve 4 Lepidopteran Not for use on
SpinTor (caterpillar) greenhouse transplants
2SC larvae, thrips, that will go to the field
leafminers, (resistance issues).
pinworms on Excellent product for
tomatoes thrips control. Will not
kill sawfly larvae.
237
Part 3
Disease, Weed, and Algae
Management
Chapter 13 Managing Plant Diseases
Chapter 14 Weed and Algae Control in Commercial Greenhouses

Chapter 13
Managing Plant Diseases
Karen Rane, Plant Pathologist
Megan McConnell, Extension Assistant
Introduction
An IPM program helps to prevent and manage plant diseases using environmental, cultural and chemical
practices. Ideally, the crop should be monitored regularly for disease symptoms while keeping in mind
the three primary factors for disease development: a susceptible host plant, a pathogen present, and
favorable environmental conditions. Reducing one or more of these factors will reduce the level of disease.
Greenhouse sanitation is extremely important, as is reducing condensation and keeping foliage dry.
Eliminating weeds and managing insect pests in the greenhouse also helps to reduce disease problems.
Relying on fungicide applications alone without first implementing these cultural practices to reduce disease
pressure will result in disease management failures. Refer to other sections of this manual for detailed
information on these topics.
Diagnosis
Before treating any disease, it is important to make an accurate diagnosis of the cause of the symptoms. It is
very important to identify the pathogen, its host range, and the optimum conditions for disease development.
Often the reason that diseases are not controlled well with chemical applications is because the problem
was misidentified and therefore treated with an ineffective product applied at the improper time. Most
plant diseases are caused by fungi, but bacteria and viruses can also cause significant losses in greenhouse
crops. Noninfectious disorders, such as nutritional deficiencies and environmental damage, can mimic
the symptoms of infectious diseases. It may be necessary to submit plants to a diagnostic laboratory for
specialized tests to confirm the presence of plant pathogenic microorganisms (see Appendix A).
General Guidelines For Fungicides

When used in conjunction with greenhouse sanitation and optimum nutrition and environmental conditions
for plant health, fungicides can be an excellent tool to help manage certain plant diseases. Applications for
control of root diseases are generally used preventively. For most foliage diseases, fungicides are applied
when symptoms are first observed, but for highly susceptible crops, or when conditions are known to be
favorable for disease, fungicides may be used preventively. Make sure spray coverage is thorough; for
soil drench applications, additional irrigation water may be necessary to move the product deeply into the
medium. Always follow label directions regarding rates, crops and application method allowed.
Fungicide Resistance Management

Fungicides are grouped by their mode of action or chemical structure, and the groups are given a code
number (called a FRAC code) by the Fungicide Resistance Action Committee. Products having the same
FRAC code will attack plant pathogens in a similar manner, even if they have different generic chemical
names. In addition, fungicides are classified as systemic (the active ingredient is absorbed into plant tissues)
or protectant (the active ingredient does not penetrate plant tissues, but provides a barrier on the plant
surface that prevents fungal infection). A third classification system focuses on the specific biochemical
processes , or target sites, that a product disrupts in the biology of the fungus. Site-specific fungicides
attack one specific biochemical process in fungus physiology, while multi-site fungicides affect a number
of different biochemical processes at the same time. Protectant fungicides generally have multiple modes of
241
action (multi-site), and are designated with an “M” in the FRAC code. Most systemic fungicides have a site-
specific mode of action.
True fungicide resistance occurs when a genetic mutation occurs in a fungus that allows the biochemical
process targeted by the fungicide to continue, making the fungus insensitive to the effects of the fungicide.
Fungal pathogens are more likely to develop resistance to products with single target sites because this
situation involves a single genetic mutation. If the same single-site fungicide is used repeatedly and
exclusively, over time the portion of the population with the mutation will survive and multiply, rendering
the fungicide ineffective. Site-specific fungicide groups known to have a high risk of resistance development
include benzimidasoles (FRAC 1), phenylamides (4), and strobilurins (11). Resistance is much less likely
to develop with multi-site products because a number of simultaneous mutations would be necessary to
overcome multiple modes of action. Groups with low risk of resistance development include aromatic
hydrocarbons (14), inorganics (M1), dithiocarbamates (M3), and chloronitriles (M5).
Several tactics are necessary to avoid fungicide resistance. First, use good cultural practices to improve
plant health and reduce diseases, thereby reducing the need for fungicide applications. Apply fungicides
only when necessary and always follow label instructions regarding rates and application intervals. Products
with high potential for resistance development in the fungal population will provide specific instructions to
minimize resistance risk. Use a diversity of products with different modes of action in rotation to provide
broad-spectrum disease control. Products with the same FRAC code will have the same general mode of
action, so rotate with products with different codes. Plant pathogens are less likely to develop resistance to
commercially available combination products, which include two fungicides from different FRAC groups.
Tank mixes of products with different modes of action are also effective in reducing fungicide resistance,
but always check product labels for guidelines on compatible tank-mix options.
Biological Control of Plant Diseases

In recent years, scientists have discovered naturally-occurring microorganisms that are able to outcompete
plant pathogenic microorganisms, resulting in less plant disease. Some of these biological control agents
have been developed into commercial products called biofungicides, and they are becoming common
weapons in the greenhouse grower’s arsenal for plant disease defense.
Biological control microorganisms can reduce plant disease by one or more of four basic methods. Some
beneficial fungi or bacteria can “outgrow” plant pathogenic microorganisms and successfully compete for
the nutrients and space available on plant surfaces. Some biocontrol agents produce toxins or antibiotics
that inhibit or kill the pathogenic organisms. A third method is parasitism, where the biocontrol agent
directly attacks the pathogenic microorganism, using it as a food source. The fourth method is called
“induced resistance”. In this case, the biocontrol agent induces specific biochemical changes in the plant
without causing any visible symptoms. These changes make the plant more resistant to infection from plant
pathogens, while not directly affecting the pathogen itself. Often, a single biocontrol agent will utilize more
than one of these mechanisms for disease control.
There are benefits to using biological control microorganisms in a disease management program. In general,
these products are safer for workers to use, have shorter re-entry intervals than traditional fungicides and
are less phytotoxic. Plant pathogens are less likely to develop resistance to biofungicides, because of varied
mechanisms these microorganisms use to control plant pathogens. They can reduce the amount of traditional
chemical fungicides needed to finish a crop, thus saving money, and they are among the few disease control
options available to organic growers.
Biofungicides must be used with standard cultural control practices to be successful. Biocontrol
microorganisms are protectants, and are not effective in eradicating a pathogen or in “curing” infected
242
plants. To be effective, biological control agents must be applied before infection takes place. Some of
the commercially available biofungicides have a narrower range of target plant pathogens than traditional
fungicides, and they may be more expensive. There may also be compatibility problems between
biofungcides and some traditional fungicides, and biofungicides require specific storage conditions to
remain active. Nevertheless, biofungicides can be used efficiently and effectively when keeping these
factors in mind.
Biofungicides labelled for use in greenhouse ornamentals include:
Rootshield and PlantShield: These products are formulations of Trichoderma harzianum strain T-22,
which is labelled for control of soil-borne pathogens such as Pythium, Fusarium, Rhizoctonia and
Sclerotinia as well as several foliar pathogens.
SoilGard 12G: This is a granular formulation of the soil fungus Gliocladium virens strain GL-21. It is
labelled for control of damping-off and root rot due to Pythium, Fusarium and Rhizoctonia.
Mycostop: The active ingredient of this product is the soil fungus Streptomyces griseoviridis strain K-16. It
is labelled for control of Fusarium diseases, among others.
Cease: This formulation of Bacillus subtilis strain QST 713, is labelled for several fungal and bacterial
diseases of ornamentals.
Actinovate: This product, containing Streptomyces lydicus WYEC108, is labeled for control of
Rhizoctonia, Pythium and Fusarium root rots, as well as for suppression of some foliar diseases.
DISCLAIMER
The following tables serve as guidelines only. The fungicides listed are recommended only if
they are registered with the Environmental Protection Agency and your state department of
agriculture. If a registration is changed or cancelled, any products listed here are no longer
recommended. Before you apply any pesticide, fungicide or herbicide, check with your
Extension agent for the latest information. The USER is responsible for using products that are
registered for use on specific crops in their own state, and for using products according to label
instructions.
If any information presented here is inconsistent with the product label, follow the label
instructions. Always consult the product label for rates and crops listed. Presence of a product
in these tables is not an endorsement, and absence of a labeled product from this list does not
imply ineffectiveness.
243
Bacterial Diseases
Bacteria are tiny, single-celled microorganisms that can multiply at a very rapid rate. Bacterial pathogens
require films of water to enter plant tissues and can be spread through splashing water or handling.
Symptoms of bacterial diseases on ornamentals include leaf spots, stem rot, vascular wilt and galls.
Leaf spots caused by bacteria are initially watersoaked or greasy in appearance, then turn dry and dark
to light brown. In some cases, yellow “haloes” develop near the edges of the brown lesions. Cool, wet
conditions favor leaf spots caused by Pseudomonas species. Bacterial leaf spot diseases are becoming more
common, particularly in plug production where mist irrigation is often used. Bacterial soft rot of stems
is usually associated with wounds caused by handling or insect feeding. Fungus gnat larvae can spread
soft rot bacteria. Bacterial soft rot is a common problem with poinsettia cuttings, often causing significant
losses. Bacterial leaf spot diseases are common on zinnia and chrysanthemum. Bacterial blight (caused
by Xanthomonas pelargonii) is a serious disease of zonal and ivy geranium (Pelargonium x hortorum, P.
peltatum) that causes leaf spots, blight, vascular wilt and plant death.
Management Strategies:
Promote leaf drying by managing irrigation and air circulation. Destroy infected plants, being careful to
avoid contact with other plants. Remove all plant debris, and keep tools and benches free of unsterilized soil
which may harbor soft rot bacteria. The products listed in the following table may help reduce the spread
of bacterial leaf spot diseases, but they must be used along with a strict sanitation program for effective
control.
Table 13.1 Products for Managing Bacterial Leaf Spot Diseases

*Refer to disclaimer statement on page 243.
Chemical Name Code Class Trade Name REI Comments

(hour)
Bacillus subtilis NC Microbial Companion Liquid 4 Do not mix with copper
GB03 Biological Fungicide based fungicides, con-
centrated acids, solvents,
oxidizing agents or bacte-
ricides. Do not mix with
products with a pH below
4 or above 9. Apply tank
mix solution the same day
to assure spore viability.
Bacillus subtilis 44 Microbial Cease 4 Apply when environment
QST 713 strain favors disease develop-
ment.
Copper M1 Inorganic Champ Dry Prill 24* Possible phytotoxicity
hydroxide Nu-Cop 50DF when applied in a spray
Nu-Cop 50 WP solution with pH <6.5. Do
Nu-Cop HB not apply Champ Dry Prill
to hibiscus in flower. See
Champ Formula 2 48
label for crop restrictions.
Flowable
Do not apply just before
Cu-Pro 5000 selling season.
*24 hrs in greenhouses
with specific conditions.
244
Table 13.1 Products for Managing Bacterial Leaf Spot Diseases (continued)

(hour)
Copper salts of M1 Inorganic Camelot O 4 May cause some copper
fatty/rosin acids toxicity on some plant
species. For organic
production. See label for
cautions when mixing with
other products.
Copper M1 Inorganic Junction 48 Do not apply with a spray
hydroxide solution with pH <6.5. For
+ plants not listed on label,
mancozeb M3 Dithiocarbamate test a small group and
observe for 7-10 days for
phytotoxicity. Restricted
use.
Copper sulfate M1 Inorganic Phyton 27 24* Compatible with most
pentahydrate biopesticides when applied
at least 2 days before or
after application of the
Phyton 35 biopesticide. Do not tank
mix with B-NINE and
do not apply within 7
days either before or after
applications of B-NINE,
as burning of leaves
may result. Do not tank
mix with strongly acidic
compounds such as Aliette
and do not apply within
14 days either before or
after applications of such
products
* REI in greenhouses
when specific conditions
met - see label.
Mono- and di- 33 Ethyl Alude Fungicide 4 Apply before disease
potassium salts phosphonates development. Do not apply
and Phosphorous to plants under heat and
acid moisture stress.
Reynoutria P5 Plant Extract Regalia Biofungicide 4 For use on edible crops as
sachalinensis a preventative.
extract (P)
Streptomycin NC Streptomycin Agri-Mycin 17 12 See label for preventative
sulfate and curative rates and
list of plants that can be
treated.
245
Botrytis Blight
Botrytis blight is an ever-present threat to ornamental plants in the greenhouse. The fungus causes a range
of symptoms, including spots and blights on leaves or petals, stem cankers, crown rot, wilting and damping-
off. Botrytis infections may also cause discoloration and death of flower buds and premature loss of flowers.
The fungus is spread primarily by the movement of spores in air currents and in splashing water. The fungus
commonly invades wounded or senescent tissue, such as fallen flower petals or other fresh plant residues.
It can also invade healthy tissue in contact with infected residues. Masses of fuzzy, grayish-brown spores
on thin black stalks develop on infected plant tissues under cool, moist, humid, and cloudy conditions. The
presence of these spores is diagnostic for confirming Botrytis infections.
Sanitation is critical to Botrytis blight management. Even a small piece of infected debris can generate huge
numbers of spores when environmental conditions are favorable to development, and these spores are easily
dispersed in air currents during normal greenhouse operations such as watering or spacing plants. Rogue out
infected plants and clean up any plant debris on the benches or greenhouse floors. Use plastic bags to collect
this material and carry it out of the greenhouse for disposal. If trash containers are used, make sure they
have tight-fitting lids and empty the containers frequently.
Botrytis spores require free moisture on plant surfaces to germinate and cause infection. Reduce leaf
wetness periods, films of moisture and relative humidity in the greenhouse to make conditions unfavorable
for Botrytis blight development. Heating and venting the greenhouse for a short time before sunset will help
to reduce humidity and condensation (dew formation) on plant surfaces that commonly occurs at nightfall
when warm humid air cools down. Use horizontal air flow systems or fans to circulate the air, which will
help reduce humidity as well. If overhead irrigation is used, make sure watering occurs early enough in the
day to allow plant surfaces to dry off before evening. Proper plant spacing will reduce the humidity within
the plant canopy by allowing increased air circulation around the plants.
The fungicides listed are effective in managing Botrytis blight, but they must be used in conjunction with
cultural practices to obtain maximum disease control. Resistance management is an important consideration
when choosing a fungicide for Botrytis control. Resistance to the benzimidazole fungicides is common in
Botrytis populations, so these compounds are often ineffective in managing the disease. To minimize the
chances of fungicide resistance, it is important to rotate applications of products from different fungicide
groups.
246
Table 13.2 Fungicides for Managing Botrytis Blight

(hour)
Azoxystrobin 11 Strobilurin (QoI) Heritage 4 Do not apply more than
Mika WG 3 times in sequence.
Alternate with a non-
strobilurin product to
avoid resistance. Do not
apply to leatherleaf fern.
GB03 Biological Fungicide based fungicides,
solvents, concentrated
acids, oxidizing agents or
bactericides. Do not mix
with products with a pH
<4 or >9. Apply tank mix
solution the same day to
assure viability of spores.
Bacillus subtilis NC Biopesticide Cease 4 Apply when environmental
QST 713 strain conditions favor disease
development.
Chlorothalonil M5 Chloronitrile Daconil Ultrex 12 Do not combine with
Daconil Weather horticultural oil. See
Stik 54F label for other tank mix
Echo 720 T+O restrictions. Applications
Echo Ultimate during bloom may damage
flowers. For plants not
Echo Zn T+O
specified on label, apply
Legend to a small group to ensure
Mainsail 6.0 F plant safety.
Mainsail WDG
Manicure 6 FL
Manicure Ultra
Pegasus 6 L
PrimeraOne Chloro-
thalonil 720 SFT
Quali-Pro Chloro-
thalonil 720 SFT
Quali-Pro Chloro-
thalonil 500 Zn
Quali-Pro Chloro-
thalonil DF
Exotherm Termil Only treat plants when dry
and temperature is <75 °F.
Do not apply to blooms if
injury is unacceptable.
247
Table 13.2 Fungicides for Managing Botrytis Blight (continued)

(hour)
Chlorothalonil M5 Chloronitrile Quali-Pro Enclave 12 Do not use on Swedish ivy,
Iprodione 2 Dicarboximide 5.3 F Boston fern, and Easter
Thiophanate 1 Benzimidazole cactus. Test a small group
methyl of plants not on label
Tebuconazole 3 Triazole before treating large areas.
Chlorothalonil M5 Chloronitrile Spectro 90 WDG 12 Do not mix with copper
+ compounds. See label
Thiophanate 1 Benzimidazole for additional tank mix
methyl restrictions. Do not use on
Swedish ivy, Boston fern
or Easter cactus.
Copper M1 Inorganic Champ Dry Prill 48 Possible phytotoxicity
hydroxide Champ Formula 2 when applied in a spray
Flowable solution with pH <6.0. Do
not apply to hibiscus plants
in flower. Do not apply to
plants just before selling
season.
CuPro 5000 Possible phytotoxicity
when applied in a spray
solution with pH < 6.5.
See label for specific crop
restrictions.
Nu-Cop 50 DF
hydroxide solution with pH <6.5.
+ For plants not listed on
mancozeb M3 Dithiocarbamate label, test a small group;
observe for 7-10 days for
phytotoxicity. Restricted
use.
fatty/ toxicity on some plant
rosin acids species. For organic
other products.
248

(hour)
pentahydrate Phyton 35 biopesticides when applied
biopesticide. Do not tank
mix with B-NINE; do not
apply within 7 days either
before or after applications
of B-NINE as burning of
leaves may result. Do not
tank mix with strongly
acidic compounds such
as Aliette; do not apply
within 14 days before or
after such applications.
met - see label.
Cyprodinil 9 Anilino- Palladium 12 Excessive runoff of spray
pyrimidines or drenches to soil/media
Fludioxonil 12 Phenylpyrroles may result in stunting or
chlorosis.
Dicloran 14 Aromatic Botran 75 W 12 Labeled for use on
hydrocarbon roses, geraniums and
chrysanthemums. May
cause plant injury when
combined with miscible
oil formulations of
insecticides.
Fenhexamid 17 Hydroxyanilide Decree 50 WDG 4 Do not apply through any
irrigation system.
Fludioxonil 12 Phenylpyrrole Medallion WDG 12 May cause stunting and/
or chlorosis in impatiens,
New Guinea impatiens and
geraniums. Do not use on
leatherleaf ferns. See label
on rates for high organic
matter soil mixes.
Mozart TR Can use on New Guinea
impatiens - see label for
crops listed.
Fluxastrobin 11 Strobilurin (QoI) Disarm O 12 Rotate with non-strobilurin
fungicide. See label on
249

(hour)
Iprodione 2 Dicarboxamide 26 GT Flowable 12 For plants not specified
Chipco 26019 Brand on label, test on a small
Fungicide number of plants to
Chipco 26019 N/G evaluate for phytotoxicity
before large-scale use. Do
Iprodione Pro 2 SE not use as a soil drench on
Lesco 18 Plus Turf impatiens or pothos. Do
and Ornamental not use on spathiphyllum.
Fungicide
Nufarm Iprodione
SPC
Sextant
Iprodione 2 Dicarboximide 26/36 Fungicide 12 Do not use as a soil drench
+ on impatiens or pothos. Do
Thiophanate 1 Benzimidazole not use on spathiphyllum.
methyl Lesco TwoSome Do not drench impatiens,
Fungicide petunias, and pothos.
Nufarm TM + IP 24 Do not make repeated
SPC drenches at high rates to
mums.
Mancozeb M3 Dithiocarbamate Dithane 75 DF 24 Addition of spreader
Rainshield T+O sticker may improve
Fore 80 WP performance. For plants
Rainshield T+O not specified on label,
Lesco Mancozeb DG trial applications are
recommended.
Manzate Pro-Stick
T&O Fungicide
Manzate Flowable
T&O Fungicide
Pentathlon DF
Pentathlon LF
Protect DF
Polyoxin D Zinc 19 Polyoxin Affirm WDG 4 For resistance
Salt Veranda O management, alternate
with products having
different mode of action.
Endorse
250

(hour)
Pyraclostrobin 11 Strobilurin (QoI) Insignia 12 Make no more than 2
before rotating with a non-
strobilurin product. Do
not apply to impatiens or
petunias in flower. Do not
use organosilicone-based
adjuvants. For plants not
specified on label, test on
a small group to check for
phytotoxicity.
Pyraclostrobin 11 Strobilurin (QoI) Pageant 12 Make no more than 2
+ sequential applications
Boscalid 7 Anilide before rotating with a
non-strobilurin product.
Do not use organosilicone-
based adjuvants. Injury
may occur to flowers of
impatiens and petunia.
Reynoutria P5 Plant extract Regalia PTO 4 For use on edible crops as
sachalinensis Biofungicide a preventative.
extract (P)
Streptomyces sp. NC Biopesticide Mycostop 4 For suppression of
K61 Biofungicide Botrytis.
Streptomyces NC Biopesticide Actinovate SP 1* For use on vegetables
lydicus WYEC and herbs. Product is
108 completely soluble and
does not require agitation
to keep in suspension.
Product is active in soil
above 45 °F.
*1 hour or until solution
has dried
Thiophanate 1 Benzimidazole 3336 DG Lite 12 Do not tank mix with
methyl 3336 WP copper compounds. For
3336 F plants not specifically
Nufarm T-Methyl listed on label, trial
SPC 4.5 Fungicide applications are
recommended. For
Nufarm T-Methyl
resistance management,
SPC 50 WSB
rotate with products
OHP 6672 50 WP having different mode of
OHP 6672 4.5 F action. Do not apply to
Phoenix Phoenix Swedish ivy, Boston fern,
T-Bird 85 WDG or Easter cactus.
251

(hour)
Thiophanate 1 Dithiocarbamate Zyban WSB 12 Do not use on French
methyl marigold or gloxinia.
+ M3 Benzimidazole
Mancozeb
Trifloxystrobin 11 Strobilurin (QoI) Compass O 50 WDG 12 For resistance
management, after each
application make 2
applications of a non-
strobilurin fungicide. Do
not drench to pansy crop
or apply to leatherleaf fern.
252
Downy Mildew
Symptoms of downy mildew include blotchy yellow or brown lesions on leaves, a general yellowing, leaf
distortion and stunting. These symptoms can be mistaken for other infectious or noninfectious problems.
Check the undersides of symptomatic leaves to look for the gray, brown or white fungal growth typical of
downy mildew infections. Common hosts for downy mildew include snapdragon, rose, coleus, sunflower,
impatiens, and basil.
Early detection is key for minimizing spread of downy mildew. Remove infected plants promptly, and use
protectant fungicides on the rest of the crop.
Table 13.3 Fungicides for Managing Downy Mildew


(hour)
Azoxystrobin 11 Strobilurin (QoI) Heritage 4 Do not treat leatherleaf
Mika WG fern. Do not make
more than 3 sequential
applications before
rotating with a non-
strobilurin fungicide.
Chlorothalonil M5 Nufarm TM + CTN 12* Do not apply through any
+ SPC 66.6 WDG irrigation system.
Thiophanate 1 Benzimidazole *See label for specific
methyl criteria.
Copper M1 Inorganic Champ Dry Prill 24* Possible phytotoxicity
hydroxide when applied in spray
solution of pH <6.5.
Do not apply Champ
Dry Prill to hibiscus in
Nu-Cop 50 DF
flower. See label for crop
Nu-Cop 50 WP restrictions. Do not apply
Nu-Cop HB just before selling season.
Champ Formula 2 48 * 24 hrs in greenhouses
Flowable with specific conditions
Cu-Pro 5000 met.
Mancozeb M3 Dithiocarbamate label, test a small group
and observe for 7-10
days for phytotoxicity.
Restricted use.
fatty/ toxicity on some species.
rosin acids For organic production.
See label for cautions
when tank mixing.
253
Table 13.3 Fungicides for Managing Downy Mildew (continued)

(hour)
pentahydrate Phyton 35 biopesticides when
applied at least 2 days
before or after application
of the biopesticide. Do not
tank mix with B-NINE
and do not apply within
7 days either before or
after applications of
B-NINE, as burning of
as Aliette and do not
apply within 14 days
either before or after
applications of such
products.
met - see label.
Fixed copper M1 Inorganic Nu-Cop HB 24* Possible phytotoxicity
tannate when applied in a spray
solution with pH <6.5.
*In greenhouses when
label restrictions met.
Cyazofamid 21 Cyanoimidazole Segway 34.5 EC 12 See label for resistance
management guidelines.
cycle.
Dimethomorph 40 Cinnamic acid Stature DM 50% 12 Make no more than 2
See label for additional
resistance management
guidelines.
Fenamidone 11 Imidazolinone Fenstop 12 For foliar spray, do
applications of maximum
rate per crop per season.
Fludioxonil 12 Phenylpyrrole Hurricane 48 Applications to impatiens,
+ New Guinea impatiens,
Mefenoxam 4 Phenylamide pothos, geranium and
Easter lily may cause
stunting and/or chlorosis.
254

(hour)
Fluopicolide 43 Acylpicolide Adorn 12 Do not apply sequentially.
Do apply more than twice
per cropping cycle.
Fluxastrobin 11 Strobilurin (QoI) Disarm O 12 Rotate with non-
Fosetyl-Al 33 Phosphonate Aliette 80 WDG 12 May not be compatible
with foliar fertilizers
or copper products.
Do not apply within 7
days of copper product
application to avoid
possible phytotoxicity.
Kresoxim 11 Strobilurin (QoI) Cygnus 12 Do not apply more than
methyl 8 times per year. Do
irrigation system.
Rainshield T+O not specified on label,
Manzate Flowable recommended.
T&O
Manzate Pro-Stick
T&O Fungicide
Pentathlon DF
Pentathlon LF
Protect DF
Mandipropamid 40 Mandelic acid Micora 4 For use as a foliar
amide protectant fungicide.
Do not allow to stand
overnight. Agitate before
and during application.
Mefenoxam 4 Phenylamide Ariel 48 Foliar application. Apply
Subdue Maxx only 1 foliar application
before alternating with a
non-Group 4 fungicide.
Neem oil NC Triact 70 4 Test first on open blooms.
Do not apply to impatiens
in bloom.
255

(hour)
Phosphorous 33 Phosphonate Alude Systemic 4 Mixing with some foliar
acid-potassium Fungicide fertilizers and copper
salts Alude 45.8% products may cause
phytotoxicity. Test for
Fosphite
crop safety before use.
KPhite
Phostrol
Rampart T&O EC
Endorse
before rotating with a
or petunias in flower. Do
not use organosilicone-
based adjuvants. For
plants not listed on label,
test on a small group to
check for phytotoxicity.
Boscalid 7 Anilide before rotating with
a non-strobilurin
product. Do not use
organosilicone-based
adjuvants. Injury may
occur to impatiens and
petunia flowers.
Reynoutria P5 Plant extract Regalia PTO 4 For use on edible crops as
sachalinensis Biofungicide a preventative.
extract (P)
Streptomyces NC Biopesticide Actinovate SP 1* Product is completely
lydicus WYEC soluble and does not
108 require agitation to keep
in suspension. Product is
active in soil above 45 °F.
has dried.
256

(hour)
Thiophanate 1 Benzimidazole Zyban WSB 12 Do not use on French
+
Mancozeb M3 Dithiocarbamate
Triadimefon 3 Triazole Strike Plus 50 WDG 12 Apply as a preventative.
+
Trifloxystrobin 11 Strobilurin (QoI)
management, make no
applications before
making 2 applications of a
non-strobilurin fungicide.
Do not drench pansy crop
257
Fungal Leaf Spots
Some plants, such as dusty miller, ageratum, pansy and marigold, are occasionally affected by fungal leaf
spot diseases. Symptoms range from tiny discolored specks to larger blotches. The lesions may have red or
purple margins depending on the host plant and pathogen involved. Most of these diseases affect only one
or a few plant species. Fungal leaf spot pathogens survive on infected plant debris and are spread by spores
carried in air currents or splashing water. Prolonged leaf wetness usually favors fungal leaf spot disease
development.
Inspect plants on a regular basis for fungal leaf spot symptoms. Discard symptomatic plants. Reduce
humidity in the greenhouse. Use protectant fungicide sprays if disease continues to spread. Specific
fungicides may not control all leaf spot fungi – check the label carefully for list of fungal pathogens.
Table 13.4 Fungicides for Managing Fungal Leaf Spots


(hour)
Azoxystrobin 11 Strobilurin (QoI) Heritage 4 Do not treat leatherleaf
Mika WG fern. To avoid resistance
development, do not make
Bacillus subtilis NC Biopesticide Cease 4 Apply when
QST 713 strain environmental
conditions favor disease
development.
Daconil Ultrex horticultural oil. See
Daconil Weather Stik label for other tank mix
54F restrictions. Applications
during bloom may
Echo 720 T+O
damage flowers. For
Echo Ultimate plants not specified on
Echo Zn T+O label, apply to a small
Mainsail 6.0 F group to ensure plant
Mainsail WDG safety.
Pegasus 6L
Quali-Pro
Chlorothalonil 500
Zn
Quali-Pro
Chlorothalonil 720
SFT
Quali-Pro
Chlorothalonil DF
258
Table 13.4 Fungicides for Managing Fungal Leaf Spots (continued)

(hour)
Chlorothalonil M5 Chloronitrile Quali-Pro Enclave 12 Do not use on Swedish
Iprodione 2 Dicarboximide 5.3 F ivy, Boston fern, and
Thiophanate 1 Benzimidazole Easter cactus. Test a small
methyl group of plants not on
Tebuconazole 3 Triazole label before treating large
areas.
methyl restrictions. Do not use
on Swedish ivy, Boston
fern or Easter cactus.
Copper M1 Inorganic Champ Dr Prill 24* Possible phytotoxicity
hydroxide Nu-Cop 50 DF when applied in a spray
Nu-Cop 50 WP solution with pH <6.5.
Nu-Cop HB Do not apply Champ Dry
Prill to hibiscus in flower.
Champ Forumula 2 48
Flowable
restrictions. Do not apply
Cu-Pro 5000 just before selling season.
*24 hrs in greenhouses
met - see label.
Mancozeb M3 Dithiocarbamate label, test a small group
and observe for 7-10 days
for phytotoxicity.
cautions when mixing
with other products.
259

(hour)
Copper sulfate M1 Inorganic Phyton 27 24* Compatible with
pentahydrate Phyton 35 most biopesticides
when applied at least
2 days before or after
biopesticide application.
B-NINE. Do not apply
within 7 days either
before or after B-NINE,
may result. Do not tank
mix with strongly acidic
compounds (e.g. Aliette).
days before or after such
products.
*REI in greenhouse when
specific conditions met.
+ pyrimidines or drench to substrate
Fludioxonil 12 Phenylpyrroles may cause stunting or
chlorosis.
Fludioxonil 12 Phenylpyrrole Medallion 12 May cause stunting and/
New Guinea impatiens
and geranium. Do not use
on leatherleaf fern.
Iprodione 2 Dicarboxamide Iprodione 2 SE 12 For plants not specified on
OHP Chipco 26019 label, test on a few plants
N/G for phytotoxicity before
Sextant large-scale use. Do not
use as a soil drench on
impatiens or pothos. Do
not use on spathiphyllum.
Iprodione 1 Benzimidazole 26/36 Fungicide 12 Do not use as soil
+ drench on impatiens or
Thiophanate 2 Dicarboximide pothos. Do not use on
methyl spathiphyllum. For plants
not listed on label, test
on a small number for
phytotoxicity before use.
260

(hour)
Kresoxim 11 Strobilurin (QoI) Cygnus 12 Do not apply through any
methyl irrigation system. Do not
per year.
performance. For plants
Fore 80 WP not specified on label,
Rainshield T+O trial applications are
Lesco Mancozeb DG recommended.
Manzate Flowable
T&O
Manzate Pro-Stick
Pentathlon DF
Pentathlon LF
Protect DF
Myclobutanil 3 Dimethylation Eagle 20 EW 24 Test on plants not listed
inhibitor on label before large scale
Eagle 40 WP use. See label for cautions
regarding use of plant
growth regulators.
Endorse
Propiconazole 3 Triazole Lesco Spectator T&O 24 For plants not on label,
test on a small scale first.
plants not specified on
label, test on a small
group for phytotoxicity.
261

(hour)
Pyraclostrobin 11 Strobilurin (QoI) Pageant Intrinsic 12 Make no more than 2
Boscalid 7 Anilide before rotating to a non-
based adjuvants. May
injure impatiens and
petunia flowers.
above 45 °F.
has dried.
Tebuconazole 3 Triazole Tebuconazole 3.6 12 Do not make more than
T&O 4 applications per year at
Torque Fungicide the highest rate.
Thiophanate 1 Benzimidazole Cleary’s 3336 F 12 Do not tank mix with
methyl Cleary’s 3336 copper compounds. For
50% WP plants not listed on
Fungo Flo 50 label, trial applications
OHP-6672 50 WP are recommended. For
OHP 6672 4.5 F
Nufarm T-Methyl having different mode of
SPC 4.5 F action. Do not apply to
Nufarm T-Methyl Swedish ivy, Boston fern,
SPC 50 WSB or Easter cactus.
Phoenix T-Bird 85
WDG
Transom 4.5 F
+
262

(hour)
Triadimefon 3 Dimethylation Strike 50 Plus WDG 12 Labeled for use on
inhibitor calendula, carnation
chrysanthemum, cineraria,
crassula, daisy, geranium,
gerbera, grape ivy,
hydrangea, kalanchoe,
poinsettia, rose,
snapdragon.
management, make no
applications before
making 2 applications of a
Do not drench pansy crop
or apply to leatherleaf
fern.
263
Fusarium Root and Stem Rot; Fusarium Wilt
Although less common than other root rot pathogens, Fusarium can cause root rot in greenhouse crops,
particularly in plants that are under stress from other environmental or cultural factors. Symptoms of
Fusarium root rot are similar to other root rot diseases. Fusarium species are common inhabitants of
untreated field soil. Certain Fusarium subspecies cause vascular wilt of specific crops, such as cyclamen,
basil and chrysanthemum. The water-conducting tissue (xylem) of plants infected with Fusarium wilt will
often show a reddish or brown discoloration. The vascular wilt subspecies are host specific, while the root
rot Fusarium species can infect numerous plant species.
Management Strategies: As with other root rot diseases, good sanitation practices help to avoid
introduction of Fusarium into a greenhouse. Maintain the vigor of the crop using optimum cultural practices
to help plants resist Fusarium root rot infection. While protectant fungicides can help manage Fusarium root
rot, fungicides have little effect on Fusarium vascular wilts. Discard plants with vascular wilt symptoms, or
with severe root rot.
Table 13.5 Fungicides for Managing Fusarium Root Rot


(hour)
Azoxystrobin 11 Strobilurin (QoI) Heritage 4 Do not make more than
3 drench applications
Possible phytotoxicity on
small plants in seedling/
plug stage – test on a
small number of plants
Mika WG before large scale use.
Bacillus subtilis NC Microbial Companion 4 Do not mix with copper
concentrated acids,
solvents, oxidizing agents
or bactericides. Do not
mix with products with
pH <4 or >9. Can apply
through all types of
irrigation sytems.
Bacillus subtilis 44 Microbial Cease 4 OMRI Listed. See label
QST 713 for phytotoxicity details.
Etridiazole 14 Aromatic Banrot 8 G 12 Read label about irrigating
+ hydrocarbon Banrot 40 WP to activate.
Thiophanate 1 Benzimidazole
methyl
or chlorosis on impatiens,
264
Table 13.5 Fungicides for Managing Fusarium Root Rot (continued)
(hour)
Iprodione 2 Dicarboxamide Iprodione Pro SE 12 For plants not specified
OHP Chipco 26019 on label, test on a few
N/G plants first. Do not use as
Sextant a soil drench on impatiens
or pothos. Do not use on
spathiphyllum.
Iprodione 2 Dicarboxamide 26/36 12 Do not use as a soil
Thiophanate 1 Benzimidazole pothos. Do not use on
methyl spathiphyllum.
Lesco TwoSome Do not drench impatiens,
Fungicide petunias, and pothos. Do
Nufarm TM + IP SPC 24 not repeatedly drench
mums at high rates.
Mancozeb M3 Dithiocarbamate Manzate Pro-Stick 24 A spreader sticker may
T&O improve performance. For
plants not on label, test a
few plants first.
Pyraclostrobin 11 Strobilurin (QoI) Insignia Fungicide 12 Make no more than 2
before rotating with a non-
not apply to impatiens or
petunias in flower. Do not
on label, test on a few
plants first.
Boscalid 7 Anilide before rotating with a non-
based adjuvants. Injury
may occur to flowers of
265

(hour)
above 45 °F.
has dried
Actino-Iron 4 For incorporation into
substrate.
Thiophanate 1 Benzimidazole Phoenix Phoenix 12 Do not tank mix with
methyl T-Bird 85 WDG copper compounds. For
plants not specifically
listed on label, trial
applications are
recommended. For
having different mode of
action. Do not apply to
Swedish ivy, Boston fern,
or Easter cactus.
Trichoderma Incept 12 Incorporate into substrate
hamatum isolate to suppress diseases. Be
382 sure to mix uniformly.
Thiophanate 1 Benzimidazole Cleary’s 3336 DG 12 Do not tank mix with
methyl Lite copper compounds. For
Cleary’s 3336 F plants not specifically
Cleary’s 3336-WP listed on label, trial
50% applications are
Fungo Flo 50 recommended. For
Nufarm T-Methyl rotate with products
SPC Granular having different mode of
Fungicide action. Do not apply to
SPC 4.5 F or Easter cactus.
Nufarm T-Methyl
SPC 50 WSP
OHP-6672 50 WP
OHP 6672 4.5 F
Phoenix T-Bird 85
Transom 4.5 F
266

(hour)
Trichoderma NC Biopesticide Plant Shield HC 4 Check label for
harzianum 1.15% information on
KRL-AG2 RootShield WP 0 compatibility with certain
RootShield granules fungicides.
Triflumazole 3 Dimethylation Terraguard 50W 12 Do not use on impatiens
inhibitor Terraguard SC plugs. Some cultivars of
impatines ahve shown
sensivity to Terraguard
SC. Test a small number
of plants before treating.
267
Powdery Mildew
Powdery mildew is characterized by the presence of whitish fungal growth on the surfaces of leaves and
stems. Infection of young, expanding leaves or shoots can result in severe distortion. There are many
different fungi in the powdery mildew group; some are quite host specific while others can infect a wide
range of plants. The fungi obtain nutrients from host plants by penetrating the outermost layer of plant
cells. Powdery mildew spores are easily detached from the hyphae on which they develop and are carried
by air currents to surrounding plants. Unlike most fungal diseases, leaf wetness is not required for powdery
mildew infection. Disease development is favored by high humidity resulting from dry, sunny days followed
by cool, moist nights.
Management Strategies: Reduce humidity by increasing plant spacing and air circulation and
irrigating carefully. Scout plants regularly for the first signs of powdery mildew, as this disease can spread
very quickly throughout the crop. Fungicides may be necessary when conditions are favorable for disease.
Avoid repeated use of fungicides with the same mode of action to minimize the development of resistance.
Table 13.6 Fungicides for Managing Powdery Mildew


(hour)
Azoxystrobin 11 Strobilurin Heritage 4 Do not apply to leatherleaf
(QoI) Mika WG fern. Preventative application
only. Do not make more than
2 sequential applications
before rotating to another
class of fungicide.
concentrated acids, solvents,
oxidizing agents or
bactericides. Do not mix with
products with pH <4 or >9.
Can apply through all types
of irrigiation sytems.
Bacillus subtilis 44 Microbial Cease 4 See label for list of plants
QST 713 strain evaluated for phytotoxicity.
OMRI Listed.
268
Table 13.6 Fungicides for Managing Powdery Mildew (continued)

(hour)
Daconil Weather Stik horticultural oil. See label for
54F other tank mix restrictions.
Echo 720 T+O Applications during bloom
Echo Ultimate may damage flowers. For
plants not specified on label,
Echo Zn T+O
apply to a small group to
Legend ensure plant safety.
Mainsail 6.0 F
Mainsail WDG
Manicure 6FL
Manicure Ultra
Pegasus 6 L
Quali-Pro Chloro-
thalonil 720 SFT
Quali-Pro Chloro-
thalonil 500 Zn
Quali-Pro Chloro-
thalonil DF
Chlorothalonil M5 Inorganic Spectro 90 WDG 12 Do not mix with copper
Swedish ivy, Boston fern or
Easter cactus.
Nufarm TM + CTN Do not apply through any
SPC 66.6 WDG irrigation system.
*See label for specific
criteria.
Chlorothalonil M5 Chloronitrile Quali-Pro Enclave 12 Do not use on Swedish ivy,
Iprodione 2 Dicarboximide 5.3 F Boston fern, and Easter
Thiophanate 1 Benzimidazole cactus. Test a small group
methyl of plants not on label before
Tebuconazole 3 Triazole treating large areas.
Copper M1 Inorganic Champ Dry Prill 24* Possible phytotoxicity when
hydroxide Nu-Cop 50 DF applied in a spray solution
Nu-Cop 50 WP with pH <6.5. Do not apply
Nu-Cop HB Champ Dry Prill to hibiscus
in flower. See label for
Champ Formula 2 48
specific crop restrictions. Do
Flowable
not apply to plants just before
Cu-Pro 5000 selling season.
*24 hrs in greenhouses when
269

(hour)
hydroxide solution with pH <6.5. For
+ plants not listed on label, test
Mancozeb M3 Dithiocarbamate a small group and observe for
7-10 days for phytotoxicity.
Restricted use.
other products.
pentahydrate Phyton 35 biopesticides when applied
biopesticide. Do not tank
mix with B-NINE and do not
apply within 7 days either
before or after applications
of B-NINE, as burning of
tank mix with strongly acidic
compounds such as Aliette,
and do not apply within 14
days either before or after
applications of such products.
* REI in greenhouses when
+ pyrimidines or drenches to soil/substrate
Fludioxonil 12 Phenylpyrroles may result in stunting or
chlorosis.
Fluxastrobin 11 Strobilurin Disarm O 12 Rotate with non-strobilurin
(QoI) fungicide. See label about
Hydrogen NC ZeroTol 0 -1 Test for phytotoxicity on a
dioxide small number of plants before
large scale use – see label.
* REI depends on treatment
method.
Iprodione 2 Dicarboximide Lesco TwoSome 12 Do not drench impatiens,
+ Fungicide petunias, and pothos. Do not
Thiophanate 1 Benzimidazole Nufarm TM + IP 24 make repeated drenches at
methyl SPC high rates to mums.
270

(hour)
Kresoxim 11 Strobilurin Cygnus 12 Do not apply more than
methyl (QoI) 8 times per year. Do not
apply through any irrigation
system.
Mineral oil NC SuffOil-X 4 OMRI listed. See label
regarding compatibility with
other materials.
Myclobutanil 3 Dimethylation Eagle 20 EW 24 Test on plants not listed
inhibitor Eagle 40 WP on label before large scale
use. See label for cautions
regarding use of plant growth
regulators.
Neem oil NC Triact 70 4 Test first on open blooms.
Do not apply to impatiens in
bloom.
Piperalin 5 Amine Pipron 84.4% L 12 Do not use on hydrangeas
when flower buds are visible.
Polyoxin D Zinc 19 Polyoxin Affirm WDG 4 For resistance management,
Salt Veranda O alternate with products
having different mode of
action. Do not apply through
any type of irrigation system.
Endorse
Potassium NC Armicarb O 4
bicarbonate Kaligreen
MilStop 1 Do apply to New Guinea
impatiens with visible buds.
Do not use on young pansies.
See label about treating
poinsettias.
Propiconazole 3 Triazole Lesco Spectator 24 For plants not on label, test
T&O on a small scale first.
Pyraclostrobin 11 Strobilurin Insignia Fungicide 12 Make no more than 2
(QoI) sequential applications
See label about treating
impatiens and petunias. Do
not use organosilicone-based
specified on label, test on
a small group to check for
phytotoxicity.
271

(hour)
Pyraclostrobin 11 Strobilurin Pageant 12 Make no more than 2
+ (QoI) sequential applications
Boscalid 7 before rotating with a non-
Anilide strobilurin product. Do not
adjuvants. Injury may occur
to flowers of impatiens and
petunia.
Reynoutria P5 Plant extract Regalia PTO 4 For use on edible crops as a
sachalinensis Biofungicide preventative.
extract (P)
Streptomyces NC Biopesticide Actinovate SP 1* Product is completely soluble
lydicus WYEC and does not require agitation
108 to keep in suspension.
above 45 °F.
*1 hour or until solution has
dried.
Sulfur M2 Inorganic Microthiol Disperss 24 OMRI listed.
Tebuconazole 3 Triazole Phoenix Skylark 12 Do not make more than 4

applications per year at the
Tebuconazole 3.6 F
highest rate.
T&O
Torque Fungicide
Thiophanate 1 Benzimidazole Phoenix Phoenix 12 Do not tank mix with copper
methyl T-Bird 85 WDG compounds. For plants
not specifically listed on
label, trial applications are
recommended. For resistance
management, rotate with
products having different
mode of action. Do not apply
to Swedish ivy, Boston fern,
or Easter cactus.
272

(hour)
Thiophanate 1 Benzimidazole Cleary’s 3336 F 12 Do not tank mix with copper
methyl Cleary’s 3336 WP compounds. For plants
50% not specifically listed on
Fungo Flo 50 label, trial applications are
Nufarm T-Methyl recommended. For resistance
SPC 4.5 F management, rotate with
products having different
Nufarm T-Methyl
mode of action. Do not apply
SPC 50 WSP
to Swedish ivy, Boston fern,
OHP-6672 50 WP or Easter cactus.
OHP 6672 4.5 F
Phoenix Phoenix
T-Bird 85
Transom 4.5 F
+
Triadimefon 3 Dimethylation Strike Plus 50 WDG 12 Labeled for use on calendula,
inhibitor carnation chrysanthemum,
cineraria, crassula, daisy,
geranium, gerbera, grape
ivy, hydrangea, kalanchoe,
poinsettia, rose, and
snapdragon.
Triademefon 2 Dimethylation Armada 50 WDG 12 Excessive rates or
+ inhibitor applications (<30 days) may
Trifloxystrobin 11 Strobilurin result in shortening of the
(QoI) flower stalk.
Trichoderma NC Biopesticide Plant Shield HC 4 Check label for compatibility
harzianum 1.15% with certain fungicides.
KRL-AG2
Trifloxystrobin 11 Strobilurin Compass O 50 WDG 12 For resistance management,
(QoI) after each application make
2 applications of a non-
strobilurin fungicide. Do not
apply as drench to pansy or
Triflumizole 3 Dimethylation Terraguard 50W 12 Do not use on impatiens
impatiens have shown
sensivity to Terraguard SC.
Test a small number of plants
before treating.
273
Pythium and Phytophthora Root Rot and Blight
Pythium and Phytophthora are in the group of microorganisms called water molds. Both pathogens are soil
inhabitants and produce spores that swim in films of water. Both pathogens are favored by poorly drained
growing media and excessive moisture. Roots infected with water molds often show a dark, soft, wet rot. In
some hosts, the pathogens can invade the lower stem as well, causing a black stem discoloration or crown
rot. Symptoms can range from slight stunting and/or chlorosis of infected plants to wilting and plant death.
Pythium is more commonly found in greenhouse production, but Phytophthora is usually more aggressive
in killing infected plants. Phytophthora can also cause blighting of foliage and stems above the soil line.
Pythium root rot is favored by high soluble salts in the growing medium. Both pathogens can survive in
surface water sources, such as ponds, and can be distributed through irrigation. Fungus gnats and shore flies
can spread Pythium by carrying spores on their bodies or through their feeding activities.
Management Strategies: As with all root rot diseases, sanitation is important for keeping the
pathogen out of the greenhouse. Field soil in a potting mix should be sterilized before use. Clean pots, tools,
and benches with a greenhouse disinfectant. Use a well-drained growing medium, and monitor irrigation
practices to avoid saturated conditions. Do not over fertilize and avoid high soluble salt levels in growing
mix. If using pond water for irrigation, treat the pond water to reduce Phytophthora and Pythium prior
to irrigation. Remove and discard plants with root rot symptoms. Fungicide drenches can help protect
uninfected plants. Most fungicides effective against Pythium root rots will also control Phytophthora root
and crown rots. Products labeled for Phytophthora foliar blight may not be effective against Pythium root
rot. Many Pythium isolates and some Phytophthora isolates are insensitive to metalaxyl and mefenoxam
(Subdue and Subdue MAXX), so always rotate with products having different modes of action for the best
control of these diseases.
Table 13.7 Fungicides for Managing Phytophthora Foliar Blight


(hour)
Azoxystrobin 11 Strobilurin (QoI) Heritage 4 See label about resistance
Mika WG management. Do not
Daconil Weather Stik horticultural oil. See
54F label for other tank mix
Echo Ultimae T&O restrictions. Applications
during bloom may
Echo Zn T&O
damage flowers. For
Echo 720 T&O plants not specified on
Lesco Manicure 6 FL label, apply to a small
Lesco Manicure Ultra group to ensure plant
Mainsail WDG safety.
Phoenix Pegaus 6L
Quali-Pro Chlorotha-
lonil 500 Zn
Quali-Pro Chlorotha-
lonil 720 SFT
Quali-Pro
Chlorothalonil DF
274
Table 13.7 Fungicides for Managing Phytophthora Foliar Blight (continued)

(hour)
Copper M1 Inorganic Champ Dry Prill 24 Possible phytotoxicity
hydroxide when applied in a spray
solution with pH <6.5.
Do not apply Champ Dry
Prill to hibiscus in flower.
Nu-Cop 50 HB restrictions. Do not apply
Nu-Cop 50 WP just before selling season.
Champ Formula 2 48 *24 hrs in greenhouses
Flowable when specific conditions
CuPro 5000 met - see label.
cautions when mixing
with other products.
Copper sulfate M1 Inorganic Phyton 27 24 Compatible with most
pentahydrate biopesticides when
Phyton 35 applied at least 2 days
before or after application
of the biopesticide.
B-NINE and do not
apply within 7 days
applications of B-NINE,
may result. Do not
as Aliette, and do not
apply within 14 days
applications of such
products.
met.
275

(hour)
Cyazofamid 21 Cyanoimidazole Segway 34.5 EC 12 See label for resistance
cycle.
Dimethomorph 40 Cinnamic acid Stature DM 50% 12 Make no more than 2
Fenamidone 11 Imidazolinone Fenstop 12 For foliar spray, do
applications of maximum
rate per crop per season.
Fludioxonil 12 Phenylpyrrole Hurricane 48 May cause stunting and/
+ or chlorosis on impatiens,
Mefenoxam 4 Phenylamide New Guinea impatiens,
pothos, geranium and
Easter lily.
per cropping cycle.
or copper products.
Rainshield sticker may improve
Rainshield not specified on label,
Protect DF recommended.
Mandipropamid 40 Carboxylic Acid Micora 4 Do not make more than
Amide two foliar or two drench
applications per crop; do
not make consecutive
drench applications.
276

(hour)
Mefenoxam 4 Phenylamide Ariel 48 Foliar application. Apply
only 1 foliar application
before alternating with a
Subdue MAXX non-Group 4 fungicide.
Some Phytophthora
isolates are insensitive to
mefenoxam.
acid - Fungicide fertilizers and copper
postassium salts Alude 45.8% products may cause
Fosphite phytotoxicity. Test for
KPhite
Phostrol
Propanocarb 28 Carbamate Banol 24 For plants not listed on
label, test on a few plants
first.
plants not on label, test
on a a few plants first.
Boscalid 7 Anilide before rotating with a
Do not use organosili-
cone-based adjuvants.
May damage impatiens
and petunia flowers.
to keep in suspension and
is active in soil >45 °F.
has dried.
Trifloxystrobin 11 Strobilurin (QoI) Compass O 50 WDG 12 Do not drench pansy or
277
Table 13.8 Fungicides for Managing Pythium and Phytophthora Root and Crown Rots

(hour)
GB03 Biological Fungicide based fungicides, con-
centrated acids, solvents,
oxidizing agents or bacte-
ricides. Do not mix with
products with a pH <4 or
>9. Apply all of the tank
solution the same day to
Bacillus subtilis 44 Microbial Cease 4 When conditions
QST 713 favor severe disease
development, shorten
the spray interval or use
a higher rate. Thorough
Cyazofamid 21 Cyanoimidazole Segway 34.5 EC 12 Do not use more than
cycle for Pythium and
Phytophthora soilborne
diseases.
Dimethomorph 40 Cinnamic acid Stature DM 50% 12 Not effective against
Pythium. Do not make
applications per crop.
Etridiazole 14 Aromatic Terrazole 35 WP 12 See label for specific crop
hydrocarbon Terrazole L list. Irrigate immediately
after soil drench for
Truban 3 WP
improved penetration of
Truban 25 EC fungicide.
Etridiazole 14 Aromatic Banrot 8G 12 Read label about
+ hydrocarbon Banrot 40W irrigating to activate.
methyl
Fenamidone 11 Imidazolinone Fenstop 12 See label for resistance
4 drench applications at
maximum rate per crop
per season.
or chlorosis on impatiens,
278
(continued)
(hour)
per cropping cycle.
or copper products.
Mefenoxam 4 Phenylamide Ariel 48 Soil drench or soil surface
Mefonxam 2 AQ spray. For plants not
specified on label, test
Subdue GR on a small number to
Subdue MAXX check for phytotoxicity
before large scale use.
management comments.
Some Pythium and
Phytophthora isolates are
insensitive to mefenoxam.
acid Fungicide fertilizers and copper
Alude 45.8% products may cause
Fosphite phytotoxicity. Test for
KPhite
Phostrol
Rampart T&O 53%
EC
Propanocarb 28 Carbamate Banol 24 For plants not listed on
label, test on a small scale
before use.
279
(continued)
(hour)
group to check for
phytotoxicity.
a non-strobilurin
product. Do not use
occur to flowers of
Streptomyces sp. NC Biopesticide Mycostop 4 Can treat herb, vegetable,
K61 Biofungicide and ornamental seed. Do
not treat seeds of dusty
miller or melon. Use
as drench or spray; can
incorporate into substrate.
Active in soil >45 °F.
has dried
substrate.
Trichoderma Biopesticide Plant Shield HC 4 For suppression of
harzianum 1.15% Pythium root rot.
KRL-AG2 RootShield WP 0
RootShiled granules
280
Rhizoctonia Root and Crown Rot
Rhizoctonia root rot is common under a range of environmental conditions. Symptoms of Rhizoctonia root
rot are similar to those caused by other root pathogens, but Rhizoctonia lesions on lower stems and roots are
often drier and lighter in color than other root rots. The fungus tends to be most active in upper soil layers
where the medium is drier. Rhizoctonia can also cause foliar blight when plants are crowded and humidity
is high. Rhizoctonia is a common soil inhabitant and can produce small sclerotia that can persist for several
years in the soil. The primary means of introduction and spread in greenhouse production is the introduction
of contaminated soil on greenhouse floors, pots, tools, and plants.
Management Strategies: As with other root rot diseases, management is focused on sanitation to
keep the pathogen out of the greenhouse. Field soil in a potting mix should be sterilized before use. Clean
pots, tools and benches with a greenhouse disinfectant. Remove and discard plants with root rot symptoms.
Fungicide drenches can help protect uninfected plants.
Table 13.9 Fungicides for Managing Rhizoctonia Root and Crown Rot

(hour)
Azoxystrobin 11 Strobilurin (QoI) Heritage 4 Do not apply more than
Mika WG 2 times in sequence,
and alternate with a
non-strobilurin product
to avoid resistance
development. Do not
GB03 Biofungicide based fungicides,
concentrated acids,
mix with products with a
pH below 4 or above 9.
Apply all of the tank mix
the same day to assure
viability of spores.
Bacillus subtilis 44 Microbial Cease 4 When conditions
QST 713 favor severe disease
development, shorten
the spray interval or use
a higher rate. Thorough
coverage is essential for
effective disease control.
281
Table 13.9 Fungicides for Managing Rhizoctonia Root and Crown Rot (continued)

(hour)
Etridiazole 14 Aromatic Banrot 8 G 12 Read label about
+ hydrocarbon Banrot 40 WP irrigating to activate.
methyl
Fludioxonil 12 Phenylpyrrole Hurricane WDG 48 Applications to
+ impatiens, New Guinea
Mefenoxam 4 Phenylamide impatiens, pothos,
geranium and Easter lily
may cause stunting and/
or chlorosis.
Flutalonil 7 Carboximide Contrast 70 WSP 12 Trial applications
ProStar 70 WDG recommended for plants
not specified on label –
see label for details.
Iprodione 2 Dicarboxamide 26 GT Flowable 12 For plants not specified
Lesco 18 Plus Turf on label, test on a small
and Ornamental number of plants to
Fungicide evaluate for phytotoxicity
NuFarm Iprodione before large-scale use.
Pro SPC Do not use as a soil
OHP Chipco 26019 drench on impatiens or
N/G pothos. Do not use on
spathiphyllum.
OHP Chip 26019
Brand Fungicide
Iprodione 2 Dicarboximide 26/36 Fungicide 12 Do not use as a soil
Thiophanate 1 Benzimidazole pothos. Do not use on
methyl spathiphyllum.
Lesco TwoSome Do not drench impatiens,
Fungicide petunias, and pothos.
Nufarm TM + IP SPC 24 Do not make repeated
drenches at high rates to
mums.
282

(hour)
Mancozeb M3 Dithiocarbamate Manzate Pro-Stick 24 Addition of spreader
T&O sticker may improve
not specified on label,
trial applications are
recommended.
Pentachloro- 14 Aromatic Terraclor 400 12 Soil drench or pre-plant
nitrobenzene hydrocarbon bulb soak. See label.
Endorse
group to check for
phytotoxicity.
Pyraclostrobin 11 Strobilurin (QoI) Pageant Intrinsic 12 Make no more than 2
a non-strobilurin
product. Do not use
occur to flowers of
Streptomyces sp. NC Biopesticide Mycostop 4 Can be applied as a seed
K61 Biofungicide treatment for vegetables,
herbs, and ornamentals.
Do not treat seeds of
dusty miller or melon.
Can be incorporated into
substrate and applied as a
drench or spray.
283

(hour)
Streptomyces NC Biopesticide Actinovate SP 1 For use on vegetables
Active in soil >45 °F.
has dried
substrate.
Thiophanate 1 Benzimidazole Cleary’s DG Lite 12 Do not tank mix with
methyl Cleary’s 3336 F copper compounds. For
Cleary’s 3336 WP plants not specifically
50% listed on label, trial
Fungo Flo 50 applications are
recommended. For
Nufarm T-Methyl
SPC 4.5 F
Nufarm T-Methyl having different mode of
SPC Granular action. Do not apply to
SPC 50 WSB or Easter cactus.
OHP-6672 50 WP
OHP-6672 4.5 F
Transom 4.5 F
Trichoderma NC Biopesticide RootShield WP 0 Check label for
harzianum RootShield Granules compatibility with certain
KRL-AG2 fungicides.
Trifloxystrobin 11 Strobilurin (QoI) Compass O 50 WDG 12 Do not use more than 2
consecutive applications
Do not apply as a drench
to pansy or apply to
leatherleaf fern.
inhibitor plugs. Some impatiens’
Terraguard SC cultivars have shown
sensitivity to Terraguard
SC. Test a few plants first
before using.
284
Rusts
Rust diseases are caused by a group of highly specialized fungi with complex life cycles. They are obligate
parasites and must infect living plant tissue to grow and survive. Some rusts need two different host plants
to complete their development, while others require only one host. The disease gets its name from the
orange or brown spores produced by most of these fungi in at least one part of their life cycle. Spores
develop in erupent structures called pustules, which often develop in concentric rings on the foliage. Rust
diseases can be spread through the air via wind-blown spores or through the introduction of infected plants
in the greenhouse. Rust spores can also spread plant to plant through splashing water. High humidity and
long leaf wetness periods favor rust disease development. Snapdragon, geranium and fuchsia are among
greenhouse ornamentals that can be infected. Chrysanthemum white rust, caused by Puccinia horiana
is a federally regulated plant pathogen, and subject to quarantine restrictions. Incidents of suspected
Chrysanthemum white rust must be reported to state horticulture officials.
Management Strategies: Management of rust diseases starts with inspecting plants when they arrive.
Careful scouting and roguing out of any symptomatic plants is a great way to avoid plant disease problems.
Rust fungi can produce large quantities of spores in a relatively short period of time, so even a small number
of infected plants can cause an epidemic. There are several effective fungicides for controlling rust diseases,
but these are preventative, not curative. Fungicide treatment is no substitute for sanitation.
Table 13.10 Fungicides for Managing Rusts


(hour)
Azoxystrobin 11 Strobilurin (QoI) Heritage 4 Do not make more than
3 applications before
Mika WG strobilurin fungicide.
Bacillus subtilis 44 Microbial Cease 4 When conditions are
QST 713 favorable for severe
disease development,
shorten spray interval
or use a higher rate.
essential.
285
Table 13.10 Fungicides for Managing Rusts (continued)

(hour)
Daconil Weather Stik horticultural oil. See
54 F label for other tank mix
Echo 720 T+O restrictions. Applications
Echo Ultimate during bloom may
damage flowers. For
Echo Zn T+O
Lesco Manicure 6 FL label, apply to a small
Lesco Manicure Ultra group to ensure plant
Mainsail 6.0 F safety.
Mainsail WDG
Pegasus 6L
Quali-Pro
Chlorothalonil 720
SFT
Quali-Pro Chloro-
thalonil 500 Zn
Quali-Pro
Chlorothalonil DF
Chlorothalonil M3 Chloronitrile Quali-Pro Enclave 12 Do not use on Swedish
Iprodione 2 Dicarboximide 5.3 F ivy, Boston fern, and
Thiophane 1 Benzimidazole Easter cactus. Test a small
methyl group of plants before
Tebuconazole 3 Triazole treating large areas.
Thiophanate 1 Benzimidazole for details. Do not use on
methyl Boston fern, Swedish ivy,
or Easter cactus.
pentahydrate Phyton 35 biopesticides used at least
2 days before or after ap-
plication of biopesticide.
B-NINE or apply within 7
days before or after appli-
cation of B-NINE or leaf
burn may result. Do not
acidic compounds (i.e.
Aliette). Do not apply
within 14 days before or
after these applications.
with specific conditions.
286

(hour)
Flutalonil 7 Carboximide ProStar WDG 12 Make no more than 4
Kresoxim 11 Strobilurin (QoI) Cygnus 12 Do not apply more than
methyl 8 times per year. Do
irrigation system.
Mancozeb M3 Dithiocarbamate Dithane DF 24 Addition of spreader
Dithane 75 DF sticker may improve
Rainshield T+O performance. For plants
Fore 80 WP not specified on label,
Rainshield T+O trial applications are
Lesco Mancozeb DG recommended.
Manzate Florable
T&O
Manzate Pro-Stick
T&O Fungicide
Pentathlon DF
Pentathlon LF
Protect DF
Mineral oil NC SuffOil-X 4 OMRI listed. See label
regarding compatibility
with other materials.
Myclobutanil 3 Dimethylation Eagle 20 EW 24 Test plants not on label
inhibitor Eagle 40 WP before large scale use.
See label for cautions on
plant growth regulators.
Neem Oil NC Triact 70 4 See label regarding
sensitive speces.
Propiconazole 3 Triazole Lesco Spectator T&O 24 For plants not on label,
Fungicide test on a small scale first.
based adjuvants. Test
small groups of plants not
on label before treatment.
287

(hour)
a non-strobilurin
product. Do not use
occur to flowers of
Sulfur M2 Inorganic Microthiol Disperss 24 OMRI Listed.
Tebuconazole 3 Triazole Tebuconazole 3.6 12 Do not make more than
T&O 4 applications per year at
Torque Fungicide the highest rate.
Thiophanate 1 Benzimidazole Cleary’s 3336 F 12 Do not tank mix with
methyl Cleary’s 3336 WP copper compounds. For
50% plants not specifically
Fungo Flo 50 listed on label, trial
Nufarm T-Methyl applications are
SPC 4.5 F recommended. For
Nufarm T-Methyl
rotate with products with
SPC 50 WSB
different modes of action.
OHP 6672 50 WP Do not apply to Swedish
OHP 6672 4.5 F ivy, Boston fern, or Easter
Transom cactus.
Triadimefon 3 Triazole Strike Plus 50 WDG 12 Phytotoxicity noted on
+ petunias, violets, and
Trifloxystrobin 11 Oximino-acetate New Guinea impatiens.
management, do not use
applications before
strobilurin fungicide. Do
not apply as a drench
to pansy or apply to
leatherleaf fern.
of plants before treating
large areas.
288
Sclerotinia Blight and Crown Rot
Sclerotinia blight, also called white mold, can occur on a wide variety of herbaceous ornamentals as well as
vegetables, field crops and weeds. Symptoms include crown rot, stem rot, and flower blight. The pathogen
produces hard, black structures called sclerotia that are irregular in shape and about 1/8 to 1/4 inch in size.
Sclerotia may appear on the plant or soil surface, or inside the stem of infected plants. Under conditions of
high humidity, fluffy white fungal growth develops on infected plant parts as well, giving the disease the
name “white mold”. Sclerotia are very resistant to environmental extremes, and can survive in soil and plant
debris for several years. The disease is primarily spread through movement of sclerotia in soil or infected
plants. Under certain environmental conditions, sclerotia can produce cup-like structures that release air-
borne spores.
Management Strategies: Sanitation is critical for managing Sclerotinia blight. Do not use unsterilized
field soil in potting mixes. Avoid introducing untreated field soil to the greenhouse on tools or equipment,
and keep weeds under control. Discard infected plants promptly. Fungicide drenches can help protect plants
from infection.
Table 13.11 Fungicides for Managing Sclerotinia Blight and Crown Rot

(hour)
Bacillus subtillis NC Microbial Companion Liquid 4 Do not mix with copper
concentrated acids,
mix with products with
a pH below 4 or above
9. Apply all of the tank
mix solution the same to
Swedish ivy, Boston fern
or Easter cactus.
+ pyrimidines or drenches to soil/
Fludioxonil 12 Phenylpyrroles substrate may result in
stunting or chlorosis.
Iprodione 2 Dicarboxamide Nufarm TM + IP SPC 12 Use as a drench for
+ Fungicide Sclerotinia management.
Thiophanate 1 Benzimidazole Do not drench impatiens,
methyl petunias, and pothos.
Do not make repeated
drenches at high rates to
mums.
289
Table 13.11 Fungicides for Managing Sclerotinia Blight and Crown Rot (continued)

(hour)
Mancozeb M3 Dithiocarbamate Manzate Flowable 24 Addition of a spreader
T&O sticker may improve
Manzate Pro-Stick not specified on label,
T&O trial applications are
Pentathlon LF 37% recommended.
Protect DF
Pentachloro- 14 Aromatic Terraclor 400 12 Soil drench or pre-plant
nitrobenzene hydrocarbon soak - see label.
group to check for
phytotoxicity.
a non-strobilurin
product. Do not use
occur to flowers of
Stretomyces NC Biopesticide Actinovate SP 1* Product is completely
lydicus WYEC soluble and does not
108 require agitation to keep
in suspension. Product is
active in soil above 45 °F.
has dried.
substrate.
290
Table 13.11 Fungicides for Managing Sclerotinia Blight and Crown Rot (continued)

(hour)
methyl Cleary’s 3336 F copper compounds. For
Cleary’s 3336-WP plants not specifically
50% listed on label, trial
Cleary’s 3336-G 2% applications are
recommended. For
Fungo Flo 50
Nufarm T-Methyl rotate with products
SPC 4.5 F having different mode of
Nufarm T-Methyl action. Do not apply to
SPC 50 WSB Swedish ivy, Boston fern,
Nufarm T-Methyl or Easter cactus.
SPC Granular
OHP-6672 50 WP
Phoenix Phoenix
T-Bird 85 WDG
TM 4.5 T&O
T-Storm 50 WSB
T-Storm Flowable
Transom 4.5 F
291
Thielaviopsis Root Rot
Thielaviopsis root rot disease is also called black root rot, due to the discrete black lesions present in
infected roots. In severe cases, the root system is almost entirely black. The dark color is due to numerous
dark, thick-walled spores produced by Thielaviopsis in infected plant tissues. Plants with Thielaviopsis root
rot are often stunted and have chlorotic (yellowing) foliage. The pathogen has a wide host range, but the
most common greenhouse ornamentals affected include pansy, vinca, calibrachoa, and fuchsia. Thielaviopsis
root rot is favored by high soil pH (6.5 and higher) and poor drainage.
Management Strategies: Keep the growing medium pH at 6 or below to reduce Thielaviopsis

problems. As with all root rot diseases, sanitation is key to keeping the fungus out of the greenhouse.
Discard diseased plants. Fungicides applied as a soil drench can help protect roots from Thielaviopsis
infection.
Table 13.12 Fungicides for Managing Thielaviopsis Root Rot


(hour)
Etridiazole 14 Aromatic Banrot 8 G 12 Read label about
+ hydrocarbon Banrot 40 W irrigating to activate.
methyl
Mefenoxam 4 Phenylpyrrole pothos, geranium and
Iprodione 2 Dicarboximide Nufarm TM + IPM 12 Do not drench impatiens,
+ SPC petunias, and pothos.
Thiophanate 1 Benzimidazole Do not make repeated
methyl drenches at high rates to
mums.
Polyoxin D 19 Peptidyl Affirm 4 Apply as a drench every
pyrimidine Endorse 14 – 28 days for crown
nucleoside and root rot diseases.
292
Table 13.12 Fungicides for Managing Managing Thielaviopsis Root Rot (continued)
(hour)
methyl Cleary’s 3336 50 WP copper compounds. For
Cleary’s 3336 F plants not specifically
listed on label, trial appli-
Cleary’s 3336 G 2%
cations are recommended.
Fungo Flo 50 For resistance manage-
Nufarm T-Methyl ment, rotate with products
SPC 4.5 F having different mode of
Nufarm T-Methyl action. Do not apply to
SPC 50 WSB Swedish ivy, Boston fern,
Nufarm T-Methyl or Easter cactus.
SPC Granular
OHP-6672 50 WP
OHP 6672 4.5 F
Phoenix Phoenix
T-Bird 85 WDG
T-Storm 50 WSB
Transom 4.5 F
Trichoderma NC Biopesticide PlanShield HC 4 Check label for
harzianum 1.15% information on
KRL-AG2 RootShield WP 0 compatibility with certain
RootShield Granules fungicides.
of plants before treating
large areas.
293
Virus Diseases
Virus symptoms are often quite striking and distinctive. Chlorotic mottling, ringspots and line patterns
on the foliage or stems may occur. Stunting is commonly observed. The single most important virus in
ornamental plant production is Impatiens Necrotic Spot Virus (INSV). New Guinea and common impatiens
are often affected, although the virus can infect a wide range of bedding plants, pot crops and weed hosts.
Symptoms of INSV on impatiens include dark black or purple lesions on the stems and leaf veins and dark
ringspots or blotches on leaves. Infected plants are stunted, and young leaves may be small and misshapen.
INSV causes bleached white spots and rings on leaves and stems of snapdragons. INSV is spread by western
flower thrips feeding. In recent years, viruses have been associated with new crops that are propagated
vegetatively through cuttings. Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), calibrachoa mottle virus (CbMV), tobacco
rattle virus (TRV), and cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) have been found in various bedding plants and pot
crops. TMV is a very stable virus with a wide host range, and any practices that move infected plant sap
(handling plants, taking cuttings, potting) can spread the virus easily throughout a crop.
Management Strategies: Inspect plants regularly for virus symptoms. Test symptomatic plants
for virus diseases to have a definitive diagnosis of specific virus problems. Samples may be sent to a
diagnostic laboratory or commercial virus-testing company, or may be tested in-house using commercially
available virus test kits. Maintain strict weed control inside the greenhouse as well as around the outside
walls. Destroy plants showing virus symptoms. Manage thrips to minimize the spread of INSV (refer to
Thrips section for more information). Place plants that are most susceptible to the virus in the center of the
greenhouse, away from doors, vents and sidewalls.
294
Table 13.13 Fungicides and Bactericides for Greenhouse Vegetable Production
Fungicide Target Diseases Labeled Plants Comments

(Trade name, Product
Source) Re-entry Interval
Basic Copper Sulfate Many diseases including Vegetables including Crops grown in the
(Cuprofix Disperss; United angular leaf spot, downy cucumbers, eggplant, greenhouse may be
Phosphorus, Inc.) mildew. Alternaria blight, peppers, tomatoes more sensitive to
48 hr. REI anthracnose, bacterial copper injury so the
blight, etc. user should determine
plant sensitivity.
Bacillus pumilus Early blight, late blight, Many vegetables OMRI approved.
(Sonata; AgraQuest) downy mildew, powdery including brassicas,
4 hr. REI mildew bulb vegetables,
cucurbits, fruiting
vegetables, and leafy
vegetables
Bacillus subtilis Suppression of soilborne Many including May be used in
(Companion, Growth and foliar diseases fruiting, leafy hydroponics, plug
Products LTD) including damping off, vegetables, cucurbits, production and soilless
4 hr, REI root rot and early blight cole crops and herbs production systems.
Most effective used
preventatively.
Chlorothalonil plus Late blight Tomatoes
Potassium Phosphite
(Catamaran; Luxembourg –
Pamol, Inc.) 12 hr. REI
Coniothyrium minitans Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Many vegetables OMRI approved.
(Contans; SipcamAdvan) Sclerotinia minor including leafy Contains a beneficial
4 hr. REI vegetables, brassicas, fungus. Do not allow
legumes, fruiting to stand overnight
vegetables, and bulb after mixing. Acts as a
vegetables preventative.
Copper Hydroxide Leaf spots, anthracnose See labels for specific See labels for specific
(Kocide 101, Kocide 2000, and bacterial spots crops including usage instructions.
Kocide 4.5LF, Kocide DF; cucumber, eggplant,
DuPont) pepper, and tomatoes
24 hr. REI
Copper Salts of fatty and Alternaria blight, downy Vegetables such as Determine if Camelot
rosin acids mildew, angular leaf broccoli, cabbage, can be used safely
(Camelot; Whitemire spot, powdery mildew, cucurbits, tomato, prior to use. Observe
Micro-Gen) scab, gray mold, bacterial pepper, and lettuce for 7 to 10 days for
12 hr. REI soft rot, bacterial spot, symptoms of injury.
Cercospora leaf spot, etc.
Cuprous Oxide Bacterial spot and speck, Eggplant, pepper, and See label for specific
(Nordox, Monterey Alternaria leaf spot, tomato usage instructions.
Chemical, Co.) anthracnose, early and
24 hr. REI late blight, etc.
295
Table 13.13 Fungicides and Bactericides for Greenhouse Vegetable Production (continued)

Cyazofamid Pythium damping off and Tomato greenhouse Drench transplant
(Ranman, FMC Basil downy mildew transplant production tray with fungicide at
Corporation) and basil planting or up until
12 hr. REI one week before
transplant. See label
for details.
Dicloran Sclerotinia and Sclerotium Many vegetables May cause leaf
(Botran 75-W, Gowan rots, pink rot, gray mold, including leaf bronzing on lettuce.
Company) leaf blight and neck rot lettuce, cucumbers, Use adequate volume
12 hr. REI rhubarb, tomatoes of water.
and greenhouse seed
potatoes or transplants.
Fenhexamid Botrytis Tomatoes, field tomato Protectant fungicide
(Decree, Arysta Life transplants grown in with some plant back
Science) greenhouse, cucumbers restrictions. See label
4 hr. REI and lettuce for details.
Horticultural oil Powdery mildew Cucurbits, melons, and Make application
(Ultra-Fine oil; Whitmire squash when disease is first
Micro-Gen) noticed. See label for
4 hr. REI information on plant
safety. Use lower
label rates in the
greenhouse.
Hydrogen Dioxide Anthracnose, downy Many, including cole Strong oxidizing
(Oxidate, Zerotol; BioSafe mildew, powdery mildew, crops, cucurbits, leafy agent. Contact,
Systems LLC) Pythium root rot vegetables, peppers, oxidizing sanitizer.
1 hr. REI and tomatoes (Active ingredient:
hydrogen peroxide)
Kaolin Powdery mildew Cucurbit vegetables Product forms a white
(Surround WP, Nova clay film on leaves and
Source Tessenderlo Group) fruit.
4 hr. REI
Mancozeb Leaf spot diseases, seed Tomatoes and others Broad-spectrum
(Dithane zm45, DF, Dow treatment for damping protectant fungicide.
AgroSciences LLC) off, seed rots and seedling
24 hr. REI blights
Mandipropamid Downy mildews, blue Brassicas, peppers, Registered for closed
(Micora, Syngenta) mold, and late blight, eggplants, leafy greenhouses with
4 hr. REI and suppression of vegetables, and permanent flooring
Phytophthora blight tomatoes. Basil on transplants for
transplants for resale. re-sale to consumers.
instructions.
296

Pentachloro-Nitrobenzene Root and stem rot, Vegetable bedding Flowable and 75WP:
PCNB damping off (Rhizoctonia plants-only container- Apply as a soil drench.
(Terraclor 75 WP, Terraclor solani, Pellicularia grown beans, broccoli, 15G: Used as growing
Flowable, Terraclor 15G; filamentosa) Brussel sprouts, media mix. See
Chemtura Corp.) cabbage, peppers, label for additional
12 hr. REI cauliflower, tomatoes information.
Penthiopyrad Many, including gummy Tomatoes, peppers and See label for specific
(Fontelis, DuPont) stem blight, Sclerotinia edible peel cucurbits usage instructions.
12 hr. REI stem rot, anthracnose,
leaf spots, powdery
mildew
Petroleumoil Powdery mildew Cucurbit vegetables Contact fungicide.
(Saf-T-Side spray oil, See lable about
Brandt Consolidated phytotoxicity issues.
12 hr. REI
Potassium Bicarbonate Powdery mildew and Many vegetables Works by contact.
(Armicarb 100, Helena others including cabbage, Potassium bicarbonate
Chemical Co.; Milstop, cucumber, eggplant, disrupts the potassium
BioWorks, Inc.; Kaligreen, broccoli, cauliflower, ion balance in the
Taogossi Co., Ltd) lettuce, peppers, fungus cell, causing
4 hr. REI tomatoes and squash cell walls to collapse.
Potassium salts of fatty Powdery mildew Greenhouse cucumber Contact fungicide. See
acids (M-Pede, Dow Agro label for details.
Sciences)
12 hr. REI
Propamocarb Pythium root rot and Tomatoes, leaf lettuce, See label for specific
Hydrochloride damping off cucurbits, and peppers usage instructions.
(Previcur Flex; Bayer Crop
Science)
12 hr. REI
Pyraclastrobin plus Botrytis grey mold Tomatoes and tomatoAlso labeled for
Boscalid transplants greenhouse use on
(Pageant Intrinsic, BASF tomato transplants
Corp) grown for the home
12 hr. REI consumer market
Pyrimethanil Early blight and gray Tomatoes Use in well-ventilated
(Scala, Bayer Crop Science) mold houses only and
12 hr. REI ventilate two hours
after application.
Streptomyces griseovirdis Fusarium, Alternaria, Greenhouse vegetables Contains a beneficial
strain K61 (Mycostop, Phomopsis, suppression including lettuce, bacterium. May need
Mycostop Mix, Vedera Oy of Botrytis, and root cucumbers, peppers, to repeat applications.
Finland) rots of Phytophthora, tomatoes and vegetable Use as a soil spray or
4 hr. REI Pythium, and Rhizoctonia transplants drench.
297

Streptomyces lydicus Damping off and Greenhouse vegetables May be applied to soil
(Actinovate, Natural root rot, pathogens and herbs or foliage through mist
Industries, Inc.) Pythium, Rhizoctonia, systems or sprayer.
1 hr. REI Phytophthora,
Verticillium; and foliar
diseases including downy
and powdery mildew and
Alternaria and Botrytis.
Streptomycin sulfate Bacterial spot Tomatoes and peppers Repeated applications
(Agri-mycin 17, Nufarm can result in resistant
Americans, Inc.) bacteria. Do not apply
12 hr. REI through any irrigation
system.
Sulfur Powdery mildew Crucifers, cucurbits, Crops grown in
(microthiol Disperss, United peppers and tomatoes greenhouses may
Phosphorus, Inc.) and other crops grown be more sensitive to
24 hr. REI in the greenhouse (see sulfur injury, so try the
label) lowest label rate first.
Do not use within two
weeks of an oil spray.
Trichoderma harzianum Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Greenhouse vegetables Contains a beneficial
(PlantShield, Rootshield, and Fusarium. When such as cucurbits, fungus. Avoid
Bioworks, Inc.) applied as a foliar spray, fruiting vegetables and applications of
0 hr. REI suppresses Botrytis and lettuce. fungicides at least one
powdery mildew. week before or after
application. Acts as a
preventative. Will not
cure diseased plants.
Trichoderma virens GL-21 Damping off and root rot, Food crop plants in Acts as a preventative
(formerly known as pathogens Pythium and greenhouse and will protect
Gliocladium virens) Rhizoctonia noninfected plants.
(SoilGard 12G, Certis USA Will not cure already
LLC) diseased plants. Allow
0 hr. REI treated soil to incubate
for one day prior
to planting for best
results. Do not use
other soil fungicides at
time of incorporation.
Triflumizole Powdery mildew Greenhouse grown
(Procure, Chemtura) cucurbits and
12 hr. REI transplants, Head and
leaf lettuce including
Butterhead varieties.
298
Chapter 14
Weed and Algae Control in Commercial Greenhouses
Stanton Gill, Extension Specialist
Gerald E. Brust, IPM Vegetable Specialist
Mark VanGessel, Extension Weed Specialist
Weed Control
Controlling weeds in the greenhouse is important for several reasons. First, weeds serve as a hiding place
for several insect and arthropod species, including whiteflies, thrips, aphids, mites, slugs, and snails. Second,
weeds can serve as reservoirs for impatiens necrotic spot virus (INSV), tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV),
and several other viruses. Third, weed seeds can end up in pots and containers.
Because most growers use sterile soil substrates, weeds are usually not a major problem. Weeds are a major
problem on greenhouse floor areas and areas just outside the greenhouse, especially near intake vents.
Growers need to check labels for herbicides, since several specifically limit the use when crops are growing
in the greenhouse and must be applied to empty growing space.
There are not many herbicides available that can be used safely and legally to control weeds in greenhouses.
Herbicides are commonly classified by their mechanism of action and use pattern. Preemergence herbicides
are applied before weeds emerge and generally provide residual control of weed seedlings for several weeks.
There are no preemergence herbicides currently labeled for use in greenhouses.
Cultivation and hand pulling are often the few available options. There are two important facts to remember
about mechanical cultivation. Hoeing and tilling will control small annual weeds fairly well. However,
successive flushes of germinating weeds, stimulated by the cultivation itself, need to be controlled on a
two- to three-week cycle. Once residual herbicides are applied and activated with water, they need to be in
contact with the germinating weed seedlings to work well. Mechanical cultivation will often destroy this
contact.
Hand pulling is often an important, if backbreaking, component of a weed management program. It should
be considered when no other cultural or herbicide options are available and when weeds are present that will
disperse their seed by wind to weed-free areas.
Never apply preemergence herbicides in heated or unheated covered houses or greenhouses. Several
herbicides that are otherwise safe can volatilize under these conditions and cause injury.
Scouting for Weeds in the Greenhouse

Scout the outside perimeter of the greenhouse and note if weeds are present near vents or doorways entering
the greenhouse. Examine this area during the spring and fall months before a crop is moved into the
greenhouse. The easiest nonchemical method to control weeds near the greenhouse is to put a weed barrier
fabric in place. Although weeds may germinate through the weed barrier, you can easily hand pull the weeds
from the barrier.
299
Make sure that substrate used for growing plants is stored in an area protected against weed seeds that may
be windblown or washed in by rainfall. Before placing a crop in a substrate, take a representative sample of
substrate and fill in a greenhouse flat. Water the substrate and place the flat in the greenhouse for at least a
week. If no weeds germinate, then you can probably assume that the substrate is free of weeds.
Inspect under the greenhouse benches. If weeds are present, hand pulling is the safest and most effective
way to eliminate them. Try to pull weeds when they are still growing vegetatively and before seeds mature;
this prevents weed seeds from blowing through the greenhouse. Sometimes bedding plants produce seeds
that escape and establish themselves under benches. The plants that result are considered weeds; eliminate
them because they can harbor insects, mites, and diseases. Scout under the greenhouse bench on a weekly or
bi-weekly basis and eliminate weeds while they’re still small.
Placing weed barrier cloth under the benches helps prevent weeds from getting established. Remove all
“pet” plants from the greenhouse. Like weeds, these plants can serve as a source of diseases, mites, and
insects that can spread to the new greenhouse plants.
Weed Control – Use Chemicals as a Last Resort

Greenhouse growers should be extremely cautious if using herbicides in the greenhouse. Greenhouse and air
circulation fans must be off during herbicide application. When applying herbicides, use large droplet, low
pressure type nozzles.
Table 14.1 Herbicides Labeled for Use in Controlling Weeds in Greenhouses

(Only for emerged weeds; i.e. postemergence activity)
Chemical Brand Name Re-entry Selectivity/ Notes on Use

Name (*restricted Interval Mode of
use product) (hours) Action
Clethodim Arrow 24 Selective Controls annual and perennial grasses only.
Envoy* postemergent; Does not control broadleaf weeds or sedges.
Envoy Plus* Contact Do not use in soil beds/benches. No residual
Select Max activity. Consult label for recommended spray
adjuvants.
NOTE: Envoy Plus is labeled for ornamentals
only. May cause significant injury to flowers
of greenhouse grown plants.
Select Max and Arrow are labeled for
numerous food crops.
Clove oil BurnOut II Not Non-selective; For ornamental plants only. Controls small
plus citric specified contact annual and perennial broadleaf weeds; poor
acid control of grassy weeds. Thorough coverage
is necessary. Rainfall within one hour of
application will reduce degree of control.
Older, hardier plants may require retreatment.
Avoid application to aluminum, tin, iron,
or items such as fencing or lawn furniture
in order to prevent staining, mottling, or
otherwise interfering with finished metal
surfaces.
300
Table 14.1 Herbicides Labeled for Use in Controlling Weeds in Greenhouses (continued)

D-limonene GreenMatch 4 Non-selective; OMRI-approved for vegetable and fruit crops.
citrus oil contact Controls small broadleaf weeds; poor control
extract of grassy weeds. Label does not require
adjuvant, but manufacturer recommends use
of an adjuvant.
Diquat Reward 24 Non-selective Good control of small annual and grassy
(dibromide) postemergent; weeds; large weeds will be injured but may
Contact not be killed. Highly toxic – do not use on
food crops. Use of a nonionic surfactant is
recommended. Do not allow contact of spray
or drift on desirable foliage.
Fenoxaprop Acclaim 24 Postemergent; For use on herbaceous perennials only.
Extra Contact Controls annual and perennial grassy
weeds. Does not control annual bluegrass,
broadleaf weeds, sedges, or most perennial
grasses. Apply to young (seedling to 3-tiller)
actively growing grasses. Flat fan nozzles are
recommended. May be tank mixed with other
pre- and postemergence herbicides. Thorough
spray coverage is essential. Growth inhibition
occurs within 48 hours; death within about
14 days. Addition of a surfactant is generally
not recommended. Do not use on Salvia,
Philodendron, or Pittosporum.
Fluazifop-P- Fusilade II* 12 Selective; Controls annual and most perennial grasses.
butyl postemergent; Does not control broadleaf weeds, sedges,
Systemic rushes, lilies, and other nongrasses. May
be applied over the top or as directed spray
in woody and herbaceous ornamentals in
containers. Mix with nonionic surfactant
(some ready-to-use formulations are
available). Thorough coverage is essential;
spray to cover but not to runoff. Do not tank
mix with other pesticides or fertilizers except
as instructed on the label. Growth inhibition
occurs within 48 hours; weeds are killed
within 2 weeks.
301
Table 14.1 Herbicides Labeled for Use in Controlling Weeds in Greenhouses (continued)

Glyphosate Glyphosate Variable, For use in empty greenhouses only (between
Pro II depending crop cycles). Controls broadleaf weeds and
on small grassy weeds by translocation, killing
Round-up product roots. Field horsetail is not well controlled.
Pro® See label for recommended spray adjuvants.
Do not apply if overhead irrigation will
Round-up Pro occur within 6 hours. Works in 7-10 days.
Concentrate ® No residual soil activity. Do not apply to
runoff. Turn off fans during application. Treat
Round-up Pro perennials when in flower and soil moisture
Dry ® level maintains active weed growth. Do not
use more than 10.6 quarts of product per acre
Touchdown* per year. Keep people and pets off treated
areas until dry to prevent transfer to desirable
foliage. Maximum application rates up to 2
gal/100 gal water for Roundup Pro and up to 5
qt/100 gal for Touchdown. Apply lower rates
to young weeds.
Glufosinate Finale 12 Nonselective For ornamental crops only; not for
ammonium postemergent; greenhouses with food-producing crops.
Systemic Controls broadleaf weeds and small grassy
weeds. Air circulation fans must be turned off
during application. Use low pressure nozzles
that produce larger droplets. Do not use in soil
beds/benches. Weed dieback symptoms often
noticed within 48 hours. Use of ammonium
sulfate may improve control.
Pelargonic Scythe 12 Nonselective Controls small broadleaf weeds; poor control
acid postemergent; of grassy weeds. Older annual and perennial
Contact weeds will only be suppressed with top kill.
Works best when air temperatures are >80 ˚F.
Use low pressure nozzles with larger droplets.
Apply in a ventilated area. Do not apply using
hose-end sprayers. Possible odor issues.
Sethoxydim Sethoxydim 12 Postemergent Foliar-applied; controls annual and perennial
G-Pro (1 EC) grasses in ornamentals, ground covers, and
bedding plants. Does not control annual/
perennial sedges, annual bluegrass, or
broadleaf weeds. Spray small, actively
growing grasses to wet but not to the point of
runoff. Thorough coverage is essential. Do not
apply when irrigation will occur within one
hour. Caution when using on azalea, potentilla,
Japanese privet, and red and white oak.
302
Algae Control
Algae are common in greenhouses with high moisture levels. They grow on walkways and under benches
and can form an impenetrable layer on the surface of pots. Eliminating puddles in the greenhouse will help
eliminate algae on the floor and under the bench. Control of algae can also help to reduce shore flies, fungus
gnats and moth flies. Manage algae by watering only as needed, avoiding excess puddling on the greenhouse
floor, and avoiding watering late in the day. Avoid overwatering to reduce algae growth on pot surfaces.
Surfaces with algae can be scrubbed with a stiff-bristle brush. Use chemicals as a last resort to control algae.
Table 14.2 Algae Control With Chemicals
Common Name Brand Name Formulation/REI Amount to use Registered Use

Bromochloro- Agribrom Soluble granule Initial application: Can be used on
dimethylimidazolidinedione 10 to 35 ppm cooling pads,
maintenance subirrigation
applications: 5 to mats, floors,
10 ppm and ebb and
flow benches
and injected
into irrigation
water. Treat
clean surfaces.
Not phytotoxic.
Caution when
using on lipstick
vine, ficus,
hibiscus, and
English ivy.
Clorine dioxide Selectrocide 12G Soluble granule To control: 5 ppm Injects chlorine
dioxide into
To inhibit, use irrigation lines.
0.25 ppm in Ultra low rates
continuous irrigate while
treatment. inhibiting algae;
higher rates is a
shock treatment
to clear lines.
Hydrogen dioxide Zero Tolerance Liquid 1:50 for surface Sanitizer for
0 applications tools, floors,
pots, benches,
greenhouse
structures, water-
ing systems, and
cooling pads.
Wet all surfaces
before treating.
Do not mix with
pesticides/fertil-
izers. Can use in
chemigation.
303
Table 14.2 Algae Control With Chemicals (continued)
Chemical Name Brand Name Re-entry Interval Selectivity/Mode Notes on Use

(*restricted use (hours) of
product) Action
Quaternary ammonium Green-Shield Liquid 1 teaspoon per Labeled for use
chloride salt Physan 20 12 gallon of water for on greenhouse
Triathlon greenhouse glass; glass and
1 tablespoon walkways.
per gallon for Shock treatment;
walkways. can be injected
into irrigation
lines. Surfaces
should remain
wet for at least
10 minutes.
Sodium carbonate GreenClean Granular Initial curative For ornamental
peroxyhydrate Pro Granular 1 application: 10 to crops only. Water
algicide 15 lb. per 1000 sf. activated. Apply
TerraCyte (34 Granular over thoroughly
G)* 4 For prevention/ watered
follow up (weekly soil surface.
or biweekly Thoroughly rinse
applications): granules off
5 lb. per 1000 sf foliage. Use may
increase soil pH
by 0.5 pH units
(makes the soil
more alkaline).
Incompatible
with metal-based
fungicides and
fertilizers. Do
not apply within
three days of
metal-based
applications.
304
Part 4
Cultural, and Water, and
Fertility Management
Chapter 15 Plant Growth Regulators for Floricultural Crops
Chapter 16 Water Supply, Irrigation, and Management
Chapter 17 Irrigation: Too Wet or Too Dry?
Chapter 18 Precision Irrigation for Nursery and Greenhouse Crops
Chapter 19 Fertility Management
Chapter 20 Fertilizer Injection or Fertigation
Chapter 21 Care and Calibration of Injector Pumps

Chapter 15
Plant Growth Regulators for Floricultural Crops
Joyce Latimer, Extension Specialist
Brian Whipker, Extension Specialist
Optimizing Results
Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are chemicals that are designed to affect plant growth and/or development.
They are applied for targeted purposes to elicit specific plant responses. Although there is much scientific
information on using PGRs in the greenhouse, it is not an exact science. Achieving the best results with
PGRs is a combination of art and science – science tempered with a lot of trial and error and a good
understanding of plant growth and development.
For best results, PGRs should be handled as production tools, like water and fertilizer. PGRs should be an
integrated part of your crop production cycle. They should not be used as crutches for poor management
of other cultural practices. However, PGRs should be used in conjunction with a number of non-chemical
control options to manipulate plant growth so well-proportioned, compact plants are produced.
Biological Control
Selecting shorter growing cultivars is often the first step available to growers for avoiding the occurrence of
overgrown plants. While this works well in theory, it may not be commercially practical. Customer demand
for specific color or growth form characteristics may limit your choices. However, response to PGRs
depends on species and cultivar selection. In general, slow growing or dwarf cultivars will require less PGR
than more vigorous cultivars. Some plant species or cultivars are responsive to specific PGRs but not all
PGRs. Research your crop, including its responsiveness to PGRs.
Environmental and Cultural Control

Knowing how the growing environment and cultural practices can affect plant growth will help in
managing a crop’s growth. There are a number of factors that can be manipulated in the greenhouse or
nursery to reduce plant growth: container size, timing of transplant or seeding, irrigation practices, nutrient
management, mechanical conditioning, light quality and quantity, pinching, and temperature. How these
factors are manipulated will affect whether chemical control is necessary and the amount of PGR required
for optimum growth control.
Container Size. Root restriction can be used to control plant growth by utilizing a small container or
by increasing the number of plants per pot. This method works especially well when other production
parameters such as ample light, i.e., wide spacing, and proper nutrition are provided. Plants grown in small
pots at close spacing will require more chemical growth regulation for adequate growth control than those
receiving ample light.
Timing. One of the most effective methods of controlling excessive plant growth is by crop timing. The
simple method of staggering the finish time of a crop at 2 to 3 week intervals is very effective with many
crops like bedding plants. This ensures that a new supply of plants will be available; thus avoiding the need
to hold a crop beyond its market window where it generally becomes “leggy.”
307
Irrigation Practices. A traditional method of controlling plant growth is to withhold water. Drought stress
can be used on a number of crops, including impatiens and tomatoes. Allow the plants to wilt slightly
between irrigations, but do not allow them to reach the permanent wilting point. Drought stress will lead
to shorter plants, but excessive stress or drought stress of sensitive crops may have the undesirable effects
of reduced plant quality and delayed flowering. Drought stress also may cause premature bolting of some
crops such as ornamental cabbage and kale (cole crops). Growers who tend to “run their plants dry” will
use less PGRs than growers who run their plants wet. The method of irrigation can affect the plant response
to PGRs. Plants grown on sub-irrigation trays or water collectors should be treated with lower rates of
soil-active PGRs since the overspray from the treatment will be available to the roots during subsequent
irrigation events.
Nutrient Management. Reducing or withholding fertilizer tends to slow overall plant growth. Limiting
the amount of nitrogen to 50 to 100 ppm N will help control growth of many crops like bedding plants. The
type of nitrogen supplied can also impact plant growth. Relying on nitrate-nitrogen instead of ammoniacal-
nitrogen or urea-nitrogen forms (which encourage lush growth) will also help. Phosphorus also promotes
plant growth. Plug producers commonly use low phosphorus fertilizers like 13-2-13 Cal-Mag® or 15-0-15
which does not contain phosphorus to help limit stem elongation. As with “dry” plants, nutrient-deficient
plants require less growth regulator for growth control than lush plants.
Mechanical Conditioning. Brushing plants is a very effective way of controlling plant height (30% to
50% reductions) of many vegetable transplants or herbs. Currently only one PGR (Sumagic, Valent USA)
is labeled for chemical growth control of fruiting vegetable transplants. Brushing involves the movement of
a PVC pipe, wooden dowel rod, or burlap “bags” over the top third of the plant. Research at the University
of Georgia suggests that the plants should be brushed daily for about 40 strokes to obtain the greatest
effect. The foliage should be dry to avoid damage to the leaves. This method is not effective on plants such
as cabbage or broccoli and should not be used if foliar diseases, or, in many cases, flowers, are present.
Evaluate the degree of growth regulation provided by brushing before adding a PGR treatment. Also, be
aware that the effects of brushing on plant growth dissipate within three to four days after you stop applying
the treatment. So, you may want to apply a low rate of a PGR to provide continued growth control during
the shipping, handling and retail phases.
Pinching. Pinching can be used to improve the shape of the plant, increase branching, and control excessive
stretch. However, the labor costs of pinching and the subsequent delay in plant development may not make
it an economically feasible option of controlling growth of many crops.
Light Quality and Quantity. Higher light quality tends to limit plant elongation, thus resulting in shorter
plants. Low light quality caused by late spacing or crowding of the crop or too many hanging baskets
overhead can lead to leggy plants and should be avoided. Photoperiod also can be used to control growth of
many plants. This practice is widely used with pot chrysanthemums by providing taller cultivars with only
one week of long days (LD) to limit vegetative growth when compared to shorter cultivars which receive
three weeks of LD to promote growth. Light quantity also affects plant growth. Higher light levels improve
plant growth and quality as well as branching. Spacing will often determine the need for, and amount of,
additional chemical control necessary for optimum height control under high light levels.
Temperatures. Temperature manipulation can be used very effectively to control plant growth. Lower
temperatures reduce plant growth. Remember to account for the effects of lower temperatures on the
developmental processes of the plant, i.e., lower temperatures may delay flowering so you may need to
adjust your crop schedules to hit your market window. Lower rates of PGRs are required for plants grown
under lower temperatures. Conversely, higher temperatures enhance plant growth and higher rates of PGRs
are necessary for adequate growth regulation. Some growers use differential day/night temperatures (DIF)
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to control growth. In the South and Mid-Atlantic regions, we are typically limited to a DIP in temperatures,
where we reduce the pre-dawn temperatures to 5 to 10◦ F below the night temperature setting and hold it for
up to 4 hours. This treatment reduces growth at the time of day that cell elongation is greatest and therefore
controls plant height. Obviously, do not use drop the temperature low enough to injure cold sensitive crops.
Optimizing plant growth control requires an understanding of the effects of environmental and cultural
conditions on plant growth. Experience and in-greenhouse trials will allow you to combine PGRs with a
number of non-chemical control options to manipulate plant growth to produce high quality, compact plants.
Choosing the Correct PGR

The choice of PGRs and their application rates will be affected by the vigor of the cultivars selected and
how your crop is grown. Especially with very vigorous plants, higher fertility and irrigation levels will
increase the amounts of growth regulator required to prevent excessive growth. Shading, lower light levels
or tight plant spacing, especially under higher growing temperatures, also will increase plant stretch and
reduce lateral branching. For the highest quality plants, the use of PGRs must be integrated into your
production plan.
PGRs are most effective when applied at the appropriate times to regulate plant growth or development. In
other words, growth retardants cannot “shrink” an overgrown plant. They must be applied before the plant
is overgrown to avoid plant stretch. When planning PGRs in your production schedule, consider what you
want to accomplish with the treatment.
– Do you want to regulate shoot growth of the plant, resulting in a sturdier, more compact plant
with improved color? If so, you probably want a growth retardant.
– Do you want to increase plant branching for enhanced cutting production, or for a more bushy
potted plant or hanging basket? If so, you probably want to use a branching agent or “chemical
pincher.”
– Do you want to enhance flower initiation or synchronize flowering? If so, you probably want to
use chlormequat chloride or gibberellic acid.
– Do you want to remove flowers from stock plants to increase the number of vegetative cuttings? If
so, you probably want to use an ethylene-generating compound.
Answering these questions will indicate which type of PGR you need to use to accomplish your goal and
the most appropriate timing of the application. Then you will need to select a specific PGR in that class,
determine the appropriate dosage and the appropriate application method to attain the desired response.
Regulating Shoot Growth. Most of the PGRs used in the greenhouse or nursery are used to regulate shoot
growth of containerized crops. These PGRs are referred to as “growth retardants.” Typical growth retardants
are daminozide (B-Nine or Dazide), chlormequat chloride (Cycocel or Citadel), ancymidol (A-Rest or
Abide), flurprimidol (Topflor), paclobutrazol (Bonzi, Piccolo, Piccolo 10 XC, Paczol, or Downsize) and
uniconazole (Sumagic or Concise). Now that most of the PGR chemistries are off patent, there are several
options available (Table 15.1). These PGRs control plant height by inhibiting the production of gibberellins,
the primary plant hormones responsible for cell elongation. Therefore, these growth retardant effects are
primarily seen in stem, petiole and flower stalk tissues. Lesser effects are seen in limiting leaf expansion,
resulting in thicker leaves with darker green color. Other benefits of using these PGRs in plant production
include improved plant appearance by maintaining plant size and shape in proportion with the pot, and
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increased shipping capacity with the smaller plants. Plant growth retardants also increase the tolerance of
plants to the stresses of shipping and handling as well as retail marketing, thereby improving shelf-life and
extending plant marketability.
Remember growth retardants do not reduce plant size. They limit the plant’s growth rate. You must apply the
growth retardant prior to the “stretch.” Look for recommendations on the PGR label for time of application.
These recommendations will be given in terms of plant development or plant size as opposed to production
time. For example, the uniconazole (Sumagic or Concise) labels specify that pansies should have attained
a minimum height of four inches prior to application. The paclobutrazol (Bonzi, Paczol, Piccolo or Piccolo
10 XC) labels state that bedding plant plugs should be treated at the one to two true leaf stage and bedding
plants (after transplanting) at two inches of new growth or when the plants reach marketable size.
Generally, growth retarding PGRs should be applied just prior to rapid shoot growth. This is generally
one to two weeks after transplanting a plug, after the roots are established and as the plant resumes active
growth; on pinched plants, it is after the new shoots are visible and starting to elongate. This is where the art
of plant growth regulation is most important. You must learn how your crop grows and when to intervene to
obtain the desired results. Remember to note details of crop development in your records of PGR treatments.
For example, due to the weather conditions, next year you may need to treat at seven days after transplanting
instead of at the ten days after transplanting that you used this year. You must gauge when rapid elongation
will likely occur and treat to counter it.
Many growers use multiple applications of growth retardants to better control plant growth. A single
application at a high rate early in the plant production cycle may be excessive if growing conditions are
not as good as expected. An early application at a lower rate provides more flexibility, but the tradeoff is
the additional labor involved with a second application if it becomes necessary. Some growers improve
crop uniformity by using multiple applications of lower rates to affect small corrections in plant growth. Be
aware that excessive rates of many of these PGRs can cause persistent growth reductions in the flat or even
in the landscape. It is always a good idea to evaluate the long-term effects of your treatments by growing
some out for yourself and talking with your customers. Be careful to avoid late applications, especially
of paclobutrazol or uniconazole as they may delay flower opening on bedding plants. However, low dose
drench applications of paclobutrazol have provided excellent control of poinsettia height very late in the
production cycle without causing the reduction in bract size accompanying late spray applications. Learn the
art of using PGRs for plant growth regulation.
Daminozide (B-Nine or Dazide; Re-entry Interval (REI) = 24 hr) was one of the first PGRs labeled for
use in the floriculture industry and is still widely used. In general, it is not phytotoxic and has a short-term
effect that seldom results in over-stunting of treated plants. The low activity of daminozide and its lack
of soil activity make it easier to get consistent, predictable responses than with the newer, more potent
PGR chemistries. Plants should be well-irrigated prior to treatment but foliage should be dry at the time
of treatment. Do not irrigate overhead for 18 to 24 hours after treatment. The low activity also means that
daminozide must be applied more frequently to maintain control over vigorous crops. Generally, foliar
sprays of 2500 to 5000 ppm are applied every 10 to 14 days as necessary. Daminozide is labeled for use
on containerized or bed-grown crops in the greenhouse, and on containerized plants grown outdoors
under nursery conditions. Frequency of application may need to be increased to weekly for more vigorous
cultivars grown outdoors.
Chlormequat Chloride (Cycocel or Citadel; REI = 12 hr) is another PGR with a long history in floriculture.
Note that the product use labels for these chlormequat chloride products vary in application limits. See
the label for your product for the specific rates and sites of application (Table 15.1). Chlormequat chloride
is generally applied as a foliar spray at 200 to 3000 ppm with a maximum of three to six applications per
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crop cycle depending on which product you use. Rates above 1500 ppm often cause chlorosis on young
treated leaves of floricultural crops. Chlormequat chloride also promotes earlier flowering and greater
flower numbers on Hibiscus and geranium (Pelargonium). Chlormequat chloride is also labeled for drench
applications at rates of 2000 to 4000 ppm when applied inside a greenhouse depending on the specific
product label (Table 15.1).
Only Cycocel is labeled for use on containerized plants in the outdoor nursery where it may be applied at
a maximum spray rate of 3000 ppm up to three times in any crop production cycle. This limit includes any
applications of Cycocel combined with daminozide. Drench applications of Cycocel are not permitted in
the outdoor nursery, even on containerized plants. Read the pesticide label for your product. It is the law for
application sites and rates. Chlormequat chloride is not labeled for application through the irrigation system.
A Daminozide/Chlormequat Chloride Tank Mix has more PGR activity than either daminozide or
chlormequat chloride alone and generally causes less phytotoxicity than chlormequat chloride applied by
itself. Both the daminozide and chlormequat chloride labels have approved tank mix instructions. This
combination provides activity that ranges from low (800 ppm daminozide plus 1000 ppm chlormequat
chloride) to very high (5000 ppm daminozide plus 1500 ppm chlormequat chloride). This tank mix has been
tested on a wide variety of perennials. For example, three-lobed coneflower (Rudbeckia triloba) was very
responsive to B-Nine applied twice at 5000 ppm, but not responsive to Cycocel at rates up to 4000 ppm.
However, a tank mix of 5000 ppm B-Nine with increasing rates of Cycocel resulted in height control similar
to the B-Nine treatments with a single application. Although the rate of daminozide is usually adjusted to
increase or decrease activity, changing the chlormequat chloride rate also affects activity. Single applications
of the tank mix are frequently more effective than multiple applications of daminozide alone. However,
multiple applications of the tank mix may be required for the more vigorous crops.
Ancymidol (A-Rest or Abide; REI = 12 hr) is a more active compound than daminozide or chlormequat
chloride. Ancymidol is active as a spray or a drench so application volume affects plant response. In
addition, ancymidol is labeled for chemigation, i.e., distribution through the irrigation system via flood,
sprinkler or drip systems. Follow all label directions. A-Rest is labeled for use as a spray or drench on
containerized plants in greenhouses, nurseries, shadehouses and interiorscapes. Abide is not labeled for
spray applications in shadehouses or nurseries but drench applications can be made indoors and outdoors.
Ancymidol is widely used for treatment of plants in the plug stage. Its relatively high activity and toning
ability produce excellent plugs. Many growers consider ancymidol to be the product of choice for pansy
production, both for plugs and finished plants. Rates vary with cultivar or series. For example, the Delta
series is more responsive to PGRs than the Sky/Skyline series.
Flurprimidol (Topflor; REI = 12 hr) is similar in chemistry to ancymidol but much more potent. Its
activity is similar to that of the triazoles. Many floricultural crops are responsive to flurprimidol. With spray
applications, Topflor rates are similar to those used with paclobutrazol. However, in substrate applications,
its activity is more similar to that of uniconazole. It is labeled for use as a spray, drench, or chemigation
on containerized ornamental plants grown in nurseries, greenhouses, and shadehouses. Topflor is only
recommended for a few bedding plant plugs and should never be used on the plugs of sensitive crops like
begonia, pansy, salvia or vinca. Topflor is very active on most bulb crops like tulips, Oriental lilies, callas,
caladiums, and hyacinths, where it is applied as a drench when the new growth is about one-inch tall. A
more recent formulation is Topflor G, a granular formulation that is applied to the substrate surface of
ornamentals grown in containers.
The triazole class of PGRs includes Paclobutrazol (Bonzi, Piccolo, Piccolo 10 XC, Paczol, or Downsize;
REI = 12 hr) and Uniconazole (Sumagic or Concise; REI = 12 hr). These compounds are much more active
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than most of the previous compounds. Uniconazole is more potent than paclobutrazol. As mentioned above,
the activity of flurprimidol (Topflor) is between these two triazoles depending on application method. These
PGRs are rapidly absorbed by plant stems and petioles or through the roots. Excess spray dripping off
treated plants acts as a drench to the substrate, increasing the activity of the treatment. For foliar sprays of
triazoles, uniform application of a consistent volume per unit area is critical to uniform and consistent crop
response. Both compounds (see Table 15.1) are labeled for application to the substrate surface as a substrate
spray prior to planting plugs in the filled containers. The PGR moves into the substrate with subsequent
irrigations and effectively behaves as a drench.
Take care with applications to sensitive plants. In some cases, excessive stunting can be persistent. Growth
of velvet sage (Salvia leucantha) was excessively reduced by 45 or 60 ppm Sumagic in the greenhouse.
Furthermore, 60 ppm Sumagic caused in a significant delay in landscape growth of the Salvia. These
compounds must be used carefully and appropriately. Especially when working with the triazoles,
thoroughly test your application methods and rates on a small number of plants before treating your entire
crop. Avoid late applications of the triazoles. They should be applied prior to flower initiation when possible.
Paclobutrazol has a broad label for ornamentals that includes use on greenhouse or outdoor-grown
containerized crops. See Table 15.1 for label restrictions for the different products. All of the paclobutrazol
products are labeled for application through the irrigation system, including ebb/flow or flooded floor
systems. Do not use paclobutrazol on annual vinca (periwinkle) as it causes spotting or on fibrous begonias
which exhibit severe stunting with exposure to paclobutrazol. To establish rates for plants not listed on the
product label, treat a small number of plants with 30 ppm as a foliar spray or 1 ppm as a drench. In many
cases, multiple treatments with lower rates have been more effective, with less chance of over-stunting, than
a single application at a higher rate.
The Piccolo 10 XC formulation is 10x more concentrated than the other formulations and is also a clear
formulation which tends to stay in solution more uniformly than the others. The higher concentration
combined with smaller packaging is preferred by many growers.
Uniconazole also has a broad label for ornamentals, but its use is limited to containerized plants grown in
greenhouses, overwintering structures, shadehouses, or lathhouses. It is not labeled for outdoor nursery use.
Uniconazole also is not labeled for application through any irrigation system. Uniconazole has been very
effective on a large number of floricultural crops. As with paclobutrazol, avoid using on fibrous begonias.
Since it is very potent, pay special attention to proper mixing, uniform application and proper volumes. Use
caution in the higher rates or on more sensitive species since uniconazole effects can be persistent in the
landscape.
NOTE: Ancymidol, flurprimidol, paclobutrazol and uniconazole are persistent on plastic surfaces and in
soil. Do not reuse flats, pots or soil from treated plants, especially for plug production of sensitive crops.
Enhancing Lateral Branching. Another group of PGRs used in floricultural crops are those that enhance
branching, including ethephon (Collate or Florel), BA (benzyladenine, Configure), dikegulac sodium
(Augeo), and methyl esters (Off-Shoot-O) (Table 15.2). These PGRs are frequently called “chemical
pinchers” because they generally inhibit the growth of the terminal shoots or enhance the growth of lateral
buds, thereby increasing the development of lateral branches. They can be used to replace mechanical
pinching of many crops like Vinca vine, Verbena, Lantana, and English ivy (Hedera).
Ethephon (Collate or Florel Brand Pistill (Florel); REI = 48 hr) is a compound that breaks down within
plant tissue after application to release ethylene, a natural plant hormone. As with ethylene, its effects can
vary depending upon the species and the stage of growth at time of application. Ethephon products have
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a broad use label for increasing lateral branching of floricultural crops. Ethephon is commonly used on
zonal and ivy geraniums and poinsettia to increase branching and also inhibits internode elongation of
many plants. In our studies, ethephon controlled runner elongation of clump verbena (Verbena ‘Homestead
Purple’) and increased inflorescence numbers of sage (Salvia ‘May Night’) and yarrow (Achillea
‘Coronation Gold’). You may need to consider combinations of PGRs. For example, if you apply ethephon
to enhance the branch development of ‘Wave’ petunias in a hanging basket, you may still need to follow up
with a treatment of a plant growth retardant to control the elongation of those new laterals.
Ethephon should be applied to actively growing plants prior to flower development. If flowers are present
at the time of application, they are likely to abort. Ethephon may delay flowering about one to two weeks,
particularly if applied close to the time of flower initiation. Ethephon should not be applied to plants that are
heat or drought stressed. Ethephon has typically been applied as a foliar spray and the pH of the water used
for the spray solution can be important. If the pH is too high, the ethephon will convert to ethylene before
it gets to the plant and activity will be reduced. The ethephon formulations contain sufficient acidifiers and
buffers to maintain a pH of 5.0 or lower when mixed with most greenhouse water supplies. In general, water
that has sufficient quality for irrigation of greenhouse crops (moderate pH and alkalinity) is suitable for
mixing ethephon. However, if you are acidifying your water prior to irrigation, use the acidified water for
mixing the ethephon as well. The solution should be applied within 4 hours of mixing.
More recent research has identified soil activity and growth control with drench applications of ethephon.
Collate, a 21.7% formulation of ethephon, is relatively new to the market and has a label amendment
pending for drench and liner soak applications to floriculture crops in the greenhouse.
Benzyladenine (6-BA, Configure; REI = 12 hr). Configure is a synthetic cytokinin (6-benzyladenine)

which is a plant hormone that stimulates lateral branching. It is a relatively inexpensive PGR and enhances
branching of a wide variety of floricultural crops. Configure stimulates, but does not cause, an increase in
branching. Therefore, timing of the application is critical to a good branching response. Again, read the label
for details of when to apply for optimum response. BA has a short period of activity and has no residual
in the plant. So, multiple applications are most effective with many crops. Furthermore, it is not well
translocated in the plant so thorough coverage is required.
Depending on the timing of the Configure application, BA increases branching of the phyllocades or, when
applied during floral initiation, increases the number of flower buds breaking on Christmas cactus. Configure
at 500 to 3000 ppm increased basal branching of Hosta and at lower rates, 300 to 600 ppm, increased
basal branching of Echinacea. Further screening trials with other annuals and herbaceous perennials have
identified a large number of crops with increased basal or lateral branching in response to Configure. We
have found a few incidences of phytotoxicity on herbaceous perennials with Configure application at 600
ppm, including asters and cosmos. In addition, pansy and exacum are very sensitive to spray applications
of Configure with long-lasting leaf yellowing even at low rates, 50 to 100 ppm. Much of our research has
focused on application of branching agents during liner production. Early application to liners – as soon
as rooting has occurred and plants are removed from mist – has been successful in increasing the number
of shoots and branches with many herbaceous perennials. So, we generally recommend two to three
applications at low to medium rates at 2-week intervals.
Although the primary objective with Configure is to increase branching, it has resulted in growth control in
some crops. However, if additional growth control is necessary, we have found that growth retardants may
be used immediately following the Configure treatment without reducing the branching response.
Dikegulac sodium (Augeo; REI = 4 hr) is a compound that interferes with terminal growth by interrupting
cell wall integrity in meristem areas. By primarily inhibiting terminals, apical dominance is reduced which
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enhances the production of lateral branches. This mode of action may cause a slight delay in the resumption
of plant growth and may result in some leaf yellowing. Take care not to overwater or over-fertilize during
this period. Augeo has a broad use label on greenhouse ornamentals as well as container-grown and
landscape ornamentals and trees and a very short REI.
Dikegulac sodium should be applied early in the production cycle to actively growing plants with at least
two nodes to provide sufficient lateral development. Early application allows for development of the branch
structure and for later leaf development to cover any remaining yellow leaves. In addition to creating a fuller
plant, enhancing the number of laterals in a pot generally results in a shorter overall height of the plant due
to the greater distribution of resources. Responses are very species-specific so test several rates under your
growing conditions. Generally rates about 400 ppm have been effective on herbaceous materials and higher
rates, 800 to 1600 ppm on woody ornamentals.
Enhancing Plant Flowering. Plant growth regulators can be used to enhance flowering. To improve
flowering, Florgib, ProGibb T&O or GA3 4%, which contain the growth promoter gibberellic acid
(GA3), can be used to substitute for all or part of the chilling requirement of some woody and herbaceous
ornamentals typically forced in the greenhouse, including azalea for florist crops and Aster for cut
flowers. These compounds also can improve flowering and/or bloom size of camellia and baby’s breath
(Gypsophila), promote earlier flowering and increased yield of statice (Limonium) and induce of flowering
of Spathiphyllum. Gibberellic acid also is used to promote growth and increase stem length of other cut
flowers like stock (Matthiola), Delphinium, and Sweet William (Dianthus). See product labels for specific
uses and recommended rates. Again, timing is critical since late applications, or excessive rates, may cause
excessive plant stretching resulting in weak, spindly stems. Chlormequat chloride (a plant growth retardant)
used to control stem height of hibiscus and geranium also improves early flowering of these crops.
Removal of Flowers. Flower removal is especially desirable for stock plants maintained for cuttings of
vegetatively propagated ornamentals, like Verbena or Lantana. Ethephon is the primary compound used
for flower removal. Once ethephon is absorbed by the plant it is converted to gaseous ethylene, a natural
plant hormone effective in many plant processes. Ethylene is the primary hormone responsible for flower
senescence and fruit ripening. It is the “postharvest” hormone. With proper rates and timing, it will remove
unwanted flowers from stock plants, cuttings, or plugs. Flower removal diverts more energy into vegetative
growth and increases the number of laterals available for cuttings on stock plants, promotes increased
branching of plugs and finished plants which increases fullness in the container. Since initiation and
development of flowers requires time, ethephon should not be used on most crops within six to eight weeks
of marketing.
Other PGR Uses. Another specific application of the gibberellin and cytokinin products (Fascination or
Fresco) is the reduction of lower leaf yellowing on Easter, Oriental, and LA hybrid lilies. See the label
for detailed instructions. These products also may be used to increase bract expansion in poinsettias.
Fascination, ProGibb T&O and GA3 4% are labeled to promote the growth of plants that have been over-
regulated by plant growth retardants. These PGRs are very potent growth promoters. Start with low rates, 1
to 3 ppm, and apply at 5 day intervals as necessary.
Read the Label!

Plant growth regulators are classified as pesticides. Therefore, they are subject to all of the same USDA
recordkeeping and Worker Protection Standard (WPS) rules as all of your other pesticides. Their use is
governed by the manufacturer’s label as with other pesticides. The label not only contains information on
restrictions, but also much information on how to use the product effectively. Before going to the time and
expense of applying PGRs to your crop, answer these questions:
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– Is the chemical labeled for the crop you wish to treat? Most of the PGR labels have undergone
revisions that apply to a broad range of similar crops not specifically listed on the label, with the user
taking responsibility for determining appropriate rates. This provides label permission to use the
compound on these crops without the manufacturer accepting the responsibility for the rate selection.
– Is the chemical labeled for the area you wish to treat? Many of the PGRs are only labeled for use
inside a greenhouse or other growing structure.
– Are there any potential side effects such as phytotoxicity? Note that you may need to look elsewhere
for this information for your specific crop.
– Are there label warnings regarding the PGR’s effect on plant flowering? For example, many
branching enhancers delay flowering. Ethephon products cause flower bud abscission prior to
enhancing branching, therefore, is not recommended within six to eight weeks of marketing. Side
effects are frequently affected by the timing of the application; e.g., late applications of growth
retardants may delay flowering.
Always follow the label for mixing and application instructions. Many of these products require a thorough
shaking before dispensing. For best results use only clean equipment that is dedicated to PGRs. Do not use
sprayers that may contain other pesticide residues. In general, PGR labels restrict the addition of wetting
agents and tank mixing with other pesticides or fertilizers. See the label for specific applications that
recommend additional adjuvants. Follow label directions exactly in mixing PGR solutions and apply them
on the same day as they are prepared. Store PGRs tightly sealed in their original containers in a cool, dry,
dark place.
Application Guidelines
Spray Applications. Plants to be treated with PGRs should be healthy, turgid and unstressed – never wilted.
The label will identify the target tissue for that PGR. For example, daminozide is only effective as a foliar
spray whereas paclobutrazol and uniconazole sprays must reach the stems. When making spray applications,
look at the growth and development of the plant to see that there is sufficient development to make the
treatment effective and to accomplish your goal. Generally, there should be sufficient foliage or stems to
absorb the PGR.
Uptake and effectiveness of a PGR also depend on selecting the application technique that will ensure
proper coverage of the target tissue. Daminozide is not soil active. A foliar spray application, wetting most
of the foliage, provides a uniform reduction in growth. Leaf surfaces should be dry for foliar applications
and the best uptake of PGRs from spray applications will occur under low stress, low drying conditions.
This is more critical for daminozide and ethephon than for some of the newer chemistries like the triazoles.
Overhead irrigation after treatment with daminozide or ethephon should be delayed for 18 to 24 hours to
avoid washing the material off of the leaves.
The triazoles, paclobutrazol and uniconazole, are absorbed primarily by stem tissue and then translocated
upwards in the plant. Therefore, consistent and complete coverage of the stems is necessary for uniform
effects. In other words, if the stem of one lateral receives an inadequate amount of spray, it will grow
faster than the others, resulting in a poorly shaped plant, most noticeable in potted crops like poinsettia or
chrysanthemum. Ancymidol and flurprimidol are taken up by both foliage and stems. In addition, all four
of these compounds are very “soil active” which means they may be adsorbed to particles in the substrate
and become available to the plant through root uptake. Therefore, drenching is a very effective application
method for these chemicals in crops where it is economically feasible (see How to Apply Drenches below).
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The label will provide a recommended application volume for sprays, especially for chemicals that are soil
active. All foliar applications of PGRs should be applied on an area basis, i.e., uniformly spray the area
where the plants are located with the recommended volume of solution. Do NOT spray individual plants
or spray to reach a subjective target like “spray to glistening.” Since every applicator will have a slightly
different definition of these goals, there will be no way of recommending appropriate rates or obtaining
predictable results. For soil active PGRs, dosage is dependant on both concentration of the solution and
the volume of that solution applied in the treated area. Therefore, to improve predictability, the label-
recommended spray application rates are generally set at 2 qt. finished spray per 100 sq. ft., which is
sufficient to cover the plant and permit a small amount of runoff onto the medium. It also is considered to
be a comfortable walking pace for applicators with hand-held sprayers. This is the same application volume
recommended for daminozide which is not soil-active.
With the soil active PGRs, precautions should be taken to avoid over-application with sprays. Spray
applications require more attention to detail because overspray material lands or drips onto the medium.
The overspray from a 2 qt. per 100 sq. ft. application is a part of the recommended dosage. However, if
your application volume exceeds that recommendation, then your application dosage also exceeds the
recommendation.
Recognizing that stem coverage is necessary for the triazoles, you may need to apply a higher than
recommended volume to large or dense plants to obtain adequate coverage. In fact, the paclobutrazol label
recommends a spray volume of 3 qt. per 100 sq. ft. for “larger plants with a well developed canopy.” Adjust
the concentration you apply accordingly. This suggests the importance of record-keeping (see below).
Always consider the rates presented in Table 15.3, on PGR product labels, or from any other resource, to be
a guideline to assist you in developing your own rates based on your growing conditions and application
methods.
The relationship of rate and volume can be exploited when treating multiple crops with different PGR needs.
With a single solution of PGR in the spray tank, you can apply the label recommended volume to attain your
basic application dosage or you can apply additional volume to crops that need additional growth regulation
to attain a higher dosage. Application volume is another tool that you can use to maximize your efforts and
reduce time mixing or reloading higher concentrations of PGR solutions.
Spray Equipment. To assure proper spray volumes, your compressed air sprayer should be equipped with
a pressure gauge and regulator and you should consistently use the same nozzle for all PGR applications.
Your sprayer should be calibrated by determining the output of the chemical with the selected nozzle at the
selected pressure within a specified time period. Using this information, you can apply a known amount
of material to a known area. Spray droplet size also affects response with smaller droplet sizes providing
better coverage, but only up to a point. Mist or fog type applicators do NOT provide adequate volume for
coverage of plant stems and the medium, and therefore, have not been effective when used with compounds
like paclobutrazol and uniconazole. PGR applicators should be trained to uniformly apply a given amount of
clear water in the greenhouse before they make PGR applications. Uniformity of the application is critical to
the uniformity of the crop response.
Applying Drenches. Although drench application has several advantages over sprays, traditional drenches
are seldom used on perennials due the higher application costs of handling individual pots. Drenches
generally have less negative effects on flowering or flower size, and tend to provide longer lasting growth
regulation than sprays. Drenches are easier to apply uniformly than sprays because the drench volume is
easily measured, and when applied to moist substrate, it is easy to obtain good distribution of the PGR in the
substrate. Therefore, the resulting growth regulation is frequently more uniform. The product label specifies
the recommended volumes for drench applications to different size pots or types of substrate. In general,
316
4 fl. oz. of drench solution is applied to a six-inch “azalea” pot, and that volume is adjusted up or down
with pot size to obtain a volume where about 10% of the solution runs out the bottom of the pot when the
substrate is moist.
Remember that the amount of active ingredient applied to plants depends on both the concentration (ppm) of
the solution and the volume applied. Read the label. Below is a general table of volume recommendations
for drench applications:
Pot diameter Drench volume Drench volume
(inches) (fl. oz. per pot) (ml per pot)
4” 2 60
5” 3 90
6” 4 120
8” 10 300
10” 25 750
12” 40 1200
Alternative methods of applying PGRs directly to the substrate have been developed and are described on
the label. For example, ancymidol, flurprimidol, and paclobutrazol are labeled for application through the
irrigation system (“chemigation”). These are generally labeled for flood (sub-irrigation), drip irrigation
and overhead sprinkler systems. Again, rates vary with the volumes used and method of application.
Paclobutrazol applied once by sub-irrigation requires 50% to 75% of the amount of paclobutrazol that is
applied in a typical drench application. Pressure compensated drippers are recommended for use with PGRs
to more accurately regulate the volume of solution applied to each pot. Read and exactly follow the label for
chemigation applications, especially with regard to safety of municipal water supplies.
Three other methods of providing a drench type application of soil-active PGRs on a more economical scale
are being used by growers. One is substrate surface application sprays. These are spray applications made
to the surface of the substrate of filled flats or pots. The treatment is applied at normal to high spray volumes
but since it is applied to the substrate surface it is activated by irrigation and is available to the plant in the
root zone. Both paclobutrazol and uniconazole are labeled for this method of application. Rates are lower
than used for sprays, but higher than used for drench applications. A second method is called “sprenches”
which is a high volume foliar spray that results in additional runoff into the substrate, providing a drench
effect. Rates are lower than for recommended for spray rates. A third technique is called “watering in” is a
type of chemigation where the PGR is injected into the irrigation water and applied at each irrigation at very
low rates of active ingredient. Only PGRs labeled for chemigation can be used for watering-in. All of these
application methods use the relationship between rate and volume to provide the desired control. Again, you
must develop techniques that fit your production methods and your growth management preferences.
Liner soaks or drenches are another specialized way to use soil active growth retardants. Although many
of the soil active PGRs have been tested, only Paczol and Piccolo (paclobutrazols) are labeled for this
application (Table 15.1). The root system of rooted liners or plugs is soaked in a solution of the PGR (or
they may be thoroughly drenched in the plug tray). Extensive work has been conducted at the University of
Florida on this application method:
Liners should be “dry” which is defined as the root ball being ready for irrigation, but not under
drought stress.
Time in the solution is not critical; 30 sec to 2 minutes is sufficient for saturation of the rootball.
Liners may be planted after 1 hour or held up to 10 days without loss of PGR effect.
There is no loss of effectiveness of the PGR soak solution during treatment.
317
Advantages of the liner soak include early control of very vigorous crops and flexibility of the treatment
with respect to not having to handle plants during the restricted entry interval (REI). The liner soak is
especially useful in combination plantings where the more vigorous plants can be treated prior to planting
without reducing the growth of the slower plants in the group. The liner soak rates should be selected to
provide early control of plant growth. Additional applications can be made as necessary for longer term
crops.
Be Aware of Bark. For many years, the adage in PGR drenches has been “Bark ties up soil-active PGRs.”
However, new research shows that this is not necessarily true. As long as the bark is properly aged before
the substrate is mixed, it has little effect on the availability of these soil active PGRs to the plant roots.
Again, you must identify PGRs and rates that work with your production system.
Growing Conditions. Look also for label recommendations on time of day or condition of the plant
for optimum treatment response. Generally, a healthy, unstressed plant growing under low evaporative
conditions, e.g., early in the morning or late in the afternoon, is most responsive to treatment. To maximize
uptake, the chemical must remain in contact with the leaf long enough to be absorbed. This time varies for
the different PGRs, but generally foliar uptake is enhanced with slower drying conditions which in turn
increases the effectiveness of the treatment. This is especially important with foliar uptake of PGRs like
daminozide, chlormequat chloride, BA or ethephon. Plants treated with daminozide or ethephon should
not be overhead irrigated for at least 18 to 24 hours after treatment, and plants treated with Augeo should
not be irrigated for 6 hours. However, plants treated with flurprimidol, paclobutrazol or uniconazole
may be overhead irrigated one hour after treatment. Read the label for any warnings on how irrigation or
environmental conditions will affect plant response to the PGR treatment.
Recordkeeping
Keeping notes on your application methods and the results of your PGR treatments will allow you to
improve the consistency of your own application methods and establish rates and volumes appropriate your
production system. Note the concentration and the volume applied, the stage of development of the crop
(number of leaves, approximate height, presence of flowers), and the environmental conditions under which
the PGR was applied. It is always recommended to keep a few untreated plants for comparison, especially if
you are new to using PGRs.
Summary
The degree of growth regulation caused by PGRs is impacted by all other phases of plant culture. Remember
that you have to fit PGRs into your own production program. Plan ahead to achieve the best results from
PGRs; do not use them as an afterthought when the plants are out of control. You cannot “shrink” an
overgrown plant!
The multitude of variations possible in application methods, cultivar and species grown, and growing
conditions make it impossible to recommend specific rates for all operations. Use the product labels and
Table 15.3 as a resource for the use of PGRs on a variety of crops. In the Mid-Atlantic and South, use the
lower of suggested effective rates for starting your own trials.
There are a couple of general rules for using rate recommendations from other sources:
1) Southern growers use higher rates and more frequent applications than Northern growers. Rates
for Virginia/Maryland tend be closer to the Southern rates.
2) Outdoor applications usually require higher rates or more frequent applications than for plants
grown under cover.
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Always consider any rate recommendation as a starting point for your own trials and keep records of your
successes and failures with PGRs. Whenever you treat your crop, hold back a few untreated plants so that
you can judge the effectiveness of your treatment. Remember that methods of application have significant
effects on results. Develop your own program, then test and refine it. Watch for PGR compounds new to the
floriculture market and for expanded labeling of current products as we develop more guidelines for their use
on perennials.
Recommended Resources
PGR MixMaster – your plant growth regulator solution calculator

For a ready resource on preparing PGR solutions, download the PGR MixMaster app for your mobile device:
http://extension.unh.edu/Grower-Tools/Mobile-App
This calculator was developed by floriculture specialists from North Carolina State University and the
University of New Hampshire. It allows you to enter your own PGR costs and calculate solutions based on
the rate desired and the amount of area to be treated. The calculator includes information on both spray and
drench applications. It not only gives you the amount of PGR to mix per gallon or liter of water, but also
provides the cost of the application based on the area or number of containers treated.
319
Table 15.1 Plant Growth Regulators Used To Reduce Plant Height
Common Name/Trade Application Comments Concerns
Name(s) Methods
Ancymidol Foliar spray Broad spectrum label. Very safe. Relatively expensive for
Very active on many bedding plants many crops, but used
A-Rest (SePRO Corp.) Bulb dip (except geraniums and impatiens); extensively on plugs.
commonly used on plugs. Maximum spray rate is
Abide (Fine Americas, Drench 132 ppm. Do not add
Inc.) A-Rest labeled for use as spray or wetting agent. Do not
Chemigation drench on containerized ornamentals reuse pots, trays or media
grown in nurseries, greenhouses, previously treated with
Injection shadehouses and interiorscapes. ancymidol.
Abide label prohibits spray Follow all label directions

applications in shadehouses or for all chemigation uses
nurseries. Drench applications can be (A-Rest not labeled for
made indoors or outdoors. chemigation in CA).
Chlormequat chloride Foliar spray Standard for geraniums, hibiscus, Causes discoloration
and poinsettias; enhances flowering of leaves especially
Cycocel (OHP) Drench of geranium and hibiscus. Label with rates above 1500
allows use on a broad spectrum of ppm; phytotoxicity
Citadel greenhouse crops. Activity is low; reduced in tank mix
(Fine Americas, Inc.) multiple applications generally with daminozide. Less
required. See label for maximum rates effective under high
and number of applications allowed temperature conditions.
for specific crops. Increased activity
when tank mixed with daminozide. Not labeled for
chemigation.
Only Cycocel is labeled for use on
containerized plants in shadehouses See label for AZ
and outdoor nurseries (max 3000 ppm restrictions
3 times in any crop cycle).
Daminozide Foliar spray Apply uniformly to foliage. No soil Safe. Few incidences
activity. Effective on a broad list of of phytotoxicity or
B-Nine 85WSG Cutting dip species, but low level activity and overstunting.
(OHP, Inc.) short residual; multiple applications
generally required. Increased activity Do not overhead irrigate
Dazide 85WSG (Fine when tank mixed with chlormequat within 24 hrs. after
Americas, Inc.) chloride. treatment.
B-Nine sprays are labeled for use on See label for AZ

ornamentals grown in commercial or restriction
research greenhouses, shadehouses
and nurseries. In production areas
not under cover, use is restricted to
containerized ornamentals.
Dazide sprays labeled for container-

grown greenhouse plants.
320
Table 15.1 Plant Growth Regulators Used To Reduce Plant Height (continued)
Name(s) Methods
Flurprimidol Spray Labeled for use as spray or drench Do not use on plugs of
on containerized ornamental plants begonia, pansy, salvia or
Topflor (SePRO Corp.) Drench grown in nurseries, greenhouses, and vinca. Do not use wetting
shadehouses (greenhouses only in agents or reuse pots,
Topflor G (SePRO Chemigation New York). trays or media previously
Corp.) treated with flurprimidol.
Subirriga- Topflor G is a granular formulation Follow all label directions
tion for topical application on ornamental for all chemigation
plants grown in containers uses (chemigation not
(greenhouse only in NY). permitted in NY or CA).
See ground and surface

water warnings on Topflor
G label before use.
Paclobutrazol Spray Labeled for use as spray or drench Spray volume critical
on containerized ornamental plants to establishing rates
Bonzi (Syngenta Crop Media spray grown in nurseries, greenhouses, due to drench effect of
Protection) (Paczol shadehouses and interiorscapes. runoff. Use higher rates
only) Apply uniformly to cover stems (not under high temperature
Piccolo (Fine Ameri- absorbed by leaves). Much more conditions. Late
cas, Inc.) Drench active than above PGRs; measure applications can reduce
accurately. Spray procedure and flowering. Phytotoxicity
Paczol (OHP, Inc.) Bulb dip uniformity greatly affects results. includes overstunting
Very soil active as a drench. and may cause black
Downsize (Greenleaf Liner dip Piccolo or Piccolo 10 XC sprays spots on annual vinca.
Chemical, LLC) (Piccolo are limited to enclosed areas Avoid drift onto non-
only) (greenhouses) to eliminate drift. target plants. Agitate
spray solution often for
Chemigation Piccolo 10 XC is a 10x concentrate uniform concentration.
(4% a.i.). , clear formulation which Do not reuse pots,
Subirriga- is reported to stay in solution more trays or substrate
tion uniformly for use on containerized previously treated with
ornamentals grown in greenhouses paclobutrazol.
and nurseries.
Follow all label directions
for all chemigation uses.
Downsize is labeled only for drench
applications on ornamental plants
grown indoors or outdoors, manually
or through chemigation.
321
Table 15.1 Plant Growth Regulators Used To Reduce Plant Height (continued)
Name(s) Methods
Uniconazole Spray Labeled for use as spray or drench Spray volume critical
on containerized ornamental plants to establishing rates
Sumagic (Nufarm Substrate grown in greenhouses, lathhouses, due to drench effect of
Americans, Inc./Valent spray and shadehouses. Spray procedure runoff. Use higher rates
USA Corp.) and uniformity greatly affects results. under high temperature
Drench Apply uniformly to cover stems (not conditions. Do not add
Concise (Fine Ameri- absorbed by leaves). Very soil active wetting agents. Late
cas, Inc.) Bulb dip as a drench. applications can reduce
Sumagic also is labeled for flowering.
Liner dip greenhouse grown fruiting vegetable
(unrooted transplants (see Supplemental Label). Phytotoxicity includes
mums) overstunting.
Avoid drift onto non-

target plants. High
leaching potential. Do
not apply to pots on
dirt floors. Do not reuse
pots, trays or substrate
previously treated with
uniconazole.
Not labeled for

chemigation.
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Table 15.2 Other Plant Growth Regulators Used In The Production of Floricultural Crops

Name(s) Methods
Ethephon Foliar spray Collate is 21.7% ethephon and The pH of spray solution
Florel is 4% ethephon. Labeled should be below 5.0. Active
Collate (Fine Americas, for greenhouse, nursery and field as a drench; Collate label
Inc.) Drench grown ornamentals. Promotes amendment pending. Use
(Collate lateral branching, thereby reducing within 4 hours of mixing;
Florel® Brand Pistill label stem elongation. Also aborts do not save diluted solution.
(Monterey Chemical pending) flowers; improves stock plant Results less predictable
Co.) branching and cutting yield. Use under high temperature
Liner soak early in crop cycle to increase conditions. Do not treat
(Collate branching and remove early plants under environmental
label flowers (6-8 wk before market). stress conditions.
pending) Reduces height and stem topple of
potted daffodils and hyacinths. Not labeled for chemigation.
Benzyladenine/ Foliar spray Growth promoter and labeled for Effective dose strongly
GA4+7 prevention of leaf yellowing and to affected by volume (soil
delay flower senescence of Easter, active). Thorough coverage
oriental, and Lilium longiflorum required. Avoid application
Fascination (Nufarm x asiatic (LA) hybrid lilies; to plants under conditions of
Americas, Inc./ Valent promotion of stem length, leaf and environmental stress. Start
USA) bract size in poinsettia; and growth with low rates (1 - 3 ppm) to
promotion to overcome growth overcome stunting, Repeat
Fresco (Fine Americas, retardant effects on containerized in 5 days if necessary.
Inc.) and field grown ornamentals. Fresco is labeled for
chemigation.
Gibberellic acid (GA3) Foliar Spray Growth promoter. Broad use label. Over application or
ProGibb T&O Labeled for: substitution of cold to incorrect timing can cause
(Nufarm Americas, Inc./ force flowering azaleas; to inhibit weak stems and excessive
Valent USA) flower buds on vegetative azaleas; stem elongation. Very potent
peduncle elongation of pompom growth promoter. Start with
Florgib 4L (Fine mums; earlier flowering and 1 ppm on most crops.
Americas, Inc.) increased yield of statice; induction Not labeled for chemigation.
GA3 4% (Greenleaf of flowering of spathiphyllum.
Chemical, LLC) ProGibb T&O and GA3 4% are
labeled for growth promotion to
overcome growth retardant effects
on containerized and field grown
ornamentals.
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Table 15.2 Other Plant Growth Regulators Used In The Production of Floricultural Crops
(continued)

Name(s) Methods
Dikegulac sodium Foliar spray Broad use label for non-food May significantly delay
crops grown in greenhouse, plant development,
Augeo (OHP, Inc.) lath or shadehouses, nursery especially at higher rates.
and field sites. Inhibits terminal Adjust water and fertilizer
growth, thereby promoting lateral according to growth. Do
development. Apply to actively not pinch or prune soon
growing plants with at least two after treatment. Causes leaf
nodes to provide sufficient lateral chlorosis which may be
development. persistent at high rates. Do
not add wetting agents. Use
the diluted solution the same
day it is mixed.
Not labeled for chemigation.

Methyl esters of fatty Foliar spray Labeled for chemical pinching Ensure coverage of growing
acids of actively growing azalea, points.
cotoneaster, juniper, ligustrum,
Off-Shoot-O (Cochran Rhamnus, and Taxus. Do not spray more than
Corp.) once.
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Table 15.3 Growth Regulators for Floricultural Crops in Greenhouses
This table lists labeled rates of plant growth regulators (PGRs) for greenhouse crops, as well as
recommendations based on research at North Carolina State University and recommendations by suppliers.
Read the label for a complete listing of precautions. The degree of control can vary depending on a
number of factors, including plant type, cultivar, stage of development, fertilization program, growing
temperatures and crop spacing. When using a PGR for the first time, it is good to test the rate on a few
plants prior to spraying the entire crop. Keep accurate records and adjust rates for your location. General
recommendations: Plug culture and flat culture have different recommended rates. The rates in this table
include recommendations for both plug (lower rates) and flat culture (higher rates). Apply ALL foliar sprays
of plant growth regulators using 0.5 gallon per 100 square feet of bench area. See the dilution table (Table
15.4) for mixing instructions.
Trade Name Rate Precautions and Remarks

BEDDING PLANTS
To control plant height
Abide / 6 to 66 ppm spray (2.9 to 32 Plug culture and flat culture differ in recommended rates. The
A-Rest fl oz/gal) rates shown in this table include both plug (lower rates) and
flat culture (higher rates) recommendations. Apply ALL foliar
sprays of plant growth regulators using 0.5 gal per 100 sq ft
of bench area.
0.06. to 0.12 mg a.i. drench Drench volumes and mg a.i. vary with pot size.
for a 4-in. pot (apply 2 fl
oz/4-in. pot)
B-Nine/ 800 to 5,000 ppm Use the highest rate of Cycocel/ Citadel that doesn’t cause
Dazide daminozide + 1,000 to excessive leaf yellowing, and then adjust the B-Nine/Dazide
+ Cycocel / 1,500 ppm chlormequat rate up and down within the labeled range to attain the
Citadel chloride applied as a tank- desired level of height control.
mix spray
Bonzi/ 5 to 90 ppm spray. Use 30 Conduct trials on a small number of plants, adjusting the
Piccolo/ ppm spray as a base rate rates as needed for desired final plant height and duration of
Piccolo and adjust as needed. height control. Not recommended for use on fibrous begonia
10XC/ or vinca.
Paczol
Bonzi/ 0.118 mg a.i. drench for a Drench applications are recommended only for bedding
Piccolo/ 6-in. pot (apply 4 fl oz/6-in. plants in 6-in. or larger containers. Not recommended for use
Piccolo pot) on fibrous begonia or vinca.
10XC/
Paczol/
Downsize
Cycocel / 800 to 1,500 ppm spray Conduct trials on a small number of plants, adjusting the rates
Citadel as needed for desired final plant height and duration of height
control.
Concise/ 1 to 50 ppm spray Conduct trials on a small number of plants, adjusting the rates
Sumagic 0.1 to 2 ppm drench as needed for desired final plant height and duration of height
control. Apply spray as elongation begins (plant height about
2 to 4 in.).
325
Table 15.3 Growth Regulators for Floricultural Crops in Greenhouses (continued)

BEDDING PLANTS
To promote plant growth and overcome over- application of gibberellin- inhibiting PGRs
ProGibb 1 to 25 ppm spray Conduct trials on a small number of plants initially using 1
T&O ppm unless previous experience warrants higher use rates.
Following assessment of plant response, and if desired results
were not evident, reapplication or an increase in rate may be
warranted. Consult the label for additional precautions.
Fascination 1 to 25 ppm spray Conduct trials on a small number of plants initially using 1
ppm unless previous experience warrants higher use rates.
Following assessment of plant response, and if desired
results were not evident, reapplication or an increase in rate
may be warranted. The most common rates for use are 3 to
5 ppm. SEE LABEL FOR ADDITIONAL PRECAUTIONS
BEFORE USE.
To induce lateral or basal branching
Configure 50 to 500 ppm spray The supplemental label allows legal use on greenhouse grown
plants not specifically listed on the original label. See label
for trialing suggestions and precautions.
CHRYSANTHEMUM
Abide/ 25 to 50 ppm spray
A-Rest 0.25 to 0.5 mg a.i. drench Apply when plants are 2 to 6 in. in height (about 2 weeks
for a 6-in. pot (apply 4 fl after pinch). Drench rates and application volumes vary with
oz/6-in. pot) pot size.
B-Nine/ 1,000 ppm preplant foliar Rooted cuttings can be dipped in solution to thoroughly wet
Dazide dip leaves and stems and then potted. Allow foliage to dry before
watering in. For unrooted cuttings, dip stems in solution,
remove to flat, cover to prevent dehydration and hold
overnight under cool conditions. Stick the next day.
2,500 to 5,000 ppm spray Spray when new growth from pinch is 1 to 2 in. long. Some
varieties may require another application 3 weeks later.
Bonzi/ 50 to 200 ppm spray Applications should begin when axillary shoots are 2 to 3 in.
Piccolo/ long. Sprays can be applied earlier to vigorous cultivars if
Piccolo additional control is desired. Sequential applications of lower
10XC/ rates generally provide more uniformly shaped plant than
Paczol single-spray applications.
Bonzi/ 0.118 to 0.473 mg a.i. Drench volumes and mg a.i. vary with pot size. Begin when
Piccolo/ (1 to 4 ppm) drench for a the axillary shoots are to 2 to 3 in. long. Uniform application
Piccolo 6-in. pot (apply 4 fl oz/6-in. is required.
10XC/ pot)
Paczol /
Downsize
326

Concise 5 to 10 ppm dip treatment Apply when the lateral shoots are 1.5 to 2.0 in. tall (about
on cuttings 7 to 14 days after pinching). Test for cultivar sensitivity.
Multiple applications of the lower label rate may elicit a more
satisfactory response and/or increasing the spray volume
from 2 qts/100 sq. ft. to 3 qts/100 sq. ft. For Florida Only: use
a foliar spray concentration between 5 to 10 ppm For medium
to tall cultivars, increase the spray volume to 3 qts/100 sq. ft.
2.5 to 10 ppm spray Apply as a dip treatment on unrooted cuttings followed by a
foliar spray in the low rate range. On rooted cuttings, use a
solution of 2.5 ppm or less, followed by a foliar spray in the
low rate range.
Sumagic 2.5 to 10 ppm spray
Topflor 7.5 to 25 ppm spray Based on NC State Univ. trials. Adjust rates for other
locations. Use lower rates for less vigorous cultivars.
COLEUS
To control plant growth
B-Nine/ 2,500 to 4,000 ppm + 1,000 See General Recommendations. Scheduling the crop to avoid
Dazide + to 1,500 ppm chlormequat excessive stretch is an effective means of controlling growth.
Cycocel / chloride applied as a tank-
Citadel mix spray
Bonzi/ 5 to 30 ppm spray
Piccolo/
Piccolo
10XC/
Paczol
Piccolo/ 6 to 10 ppm liner root soak Irrigating liners within 24 hrs. prior to application results
Piccolo in a moderately dry substrate (the stage the plants would be
10XC watered, but not wilted). Soak for a minimum of 30 to 60
seconds. Transplant after 3 hours waiting period. Rate based
on Michigan State University trials.
Citadel / 800 to 1,500 ppm spray
Cycocel
Concise/ 10 to 20 ppm spray
Sumagic
GERANIUM
A-Rest
Bonzi/ 5 to 30 ppm spray Apply to zonal geraniums when new growth is 1.5 to 2
Piccolo/ in. long and to seed geraniums about 2 to 4 weeks after
Paczol transplanting.
Concise 3 to 8 ppm spray Use lower rates for less vigorous plants and higher rates
for more vigorously growing plants. Flower delay on some
cultivars can occur when using rates greater than 6 ppm.
327
Citadel/ 800 to 1,500 ppm spray Make first application 2 to 4 weeks after planting plugs or
Cycocel rooted cuttings (after stems have started elongating). Multiple
applications may be needed.
Sumagic 3 to 6 ppm spray for cutting
geraniums and 2 to 4 ppm
spray for seed geraniums
Topflor 15 to 25 ppm spray Apply to zonal geraniums when new growth is 1.5 to 2 in.
long.
To promote earlier flowering in seed geraniums
Citadel/ 1,500 ppm spray Make two applications at 35 and 42 days after seeding.
Cycocel Treated plants should flower earlier and be more compact and
more branched than untreated plants.
ProGibb 5 to 15 ppm spray Make a single foliar application when first flower bud set
T&O is noted. Spray the entire plant until runoff. See label for
precautions.
To increase flower number and size in cutting geraniums
ProGibb 1 to 5 ppm spray Make a single foliar application when first flower bud set
T&O is noted. Spray the entire plant until runoff. See label for
precautions.
To increase lateral branching
Augeo 1,562 ppm spray Labeled for ivy geraniums only.
Collate/ 300 to 500 ppm spray Labeled for zonal and ivy geraniums. Use the lower
Florel concentration for ivy geraniums. It will also provide some
growth retardant effect and delay flowering. Read the label
for restrictions on timing of applications.
LILY, EASTER
Abide/ 30 to 132 ppm spray. Use Apply when newly developing shoots are 2 to 3 in. long; a
A-Rest 50 ppm spray as a base rate second application when shoots average 6 in. long may be
and adjust as needed. needed.
0.25 to 0.5 mg a.i. (2 to 4 Single drench should be applied when shoots average 3 to 5
ppm) drench for a 6-in. pot in. long. Drench volumes and mg a.i. vary with pot size.
(apply 4 fl oz/6-in. pot)
Concise 3 to 15 ppm spray Apply when shoots average 3 in. tall. It’s best to make only
one foliar application per crop.
0.03 to 0.06 mg a.i. (0.23 to Apply when shoots average 3 in. tall. Use lower rates on
0.5 ppm) drench for a 6-in. cultivars such as ‘Nellie White’ and higher rates for ‘Ace’.
pot (apply 4 fl oz/6-in. pot) For Florida Only: use a solution concentration of between
0.05 to 0.12 mg a.i. (0.4 to 1.0 ppm) drench for a 6-in. pot
(apply 4 fl oz/6-in. pot).
328
Sumagic 3 to 15 ppm spray Apply when shoots average 3 in. tall.
0.03 to 0.06 mg a.i. (0.25 to Drench volumes and mg a.i. vary with pot size.
0.5 ppm) drench for a 6-in.
pot (apply 4 fl oz/6-in. pot)
To prevent leaf yellowing
Fascination/ 5 to 10 ppm spray Apply early season (7 to 10 days PRIOR to visible bud
Fresco stage) and mid-season (7 to 10 days AFTER visible bud
stage). Apply spray only to lower leaves to minimize stem
elongation. See label.
To prevent leaf yellowing and prolong flowering
Fascination/ 100 ppm spray Apply late season (when first bud reaches at least 3 in. in
Fresco length) and no more than 14 days prior to placement in a
cooler or shipping. Apply to foliar and flower buds. See label.
LILY, HYBRID
Bonzi/ 200 to 500 ppm spray Make first spray application when plants are 2 to 4 in. tall.
Piccolo/ 5 to 30 ppm bulb soak Soak bulbs in the solution for 15 min. prior to planting.
Piccolo
10XC/
Paczol
Bonzi/ 0.25 to 0.5 mg a.i. (4 to 30 Single drench should be applied when shoots average 3 to 5
Piccolo/ ppm) drench for a 6-in. pot in. long. Drench volumes and mg a.i. vary with pot size and
Piccolo (apply 4 fl oz/6-in. pot) cultivar.
10XC/
Paczol/
Downsize
Concise 2.5 to 20 ppm spray Conduct a trial to determine optimal rates for each cultivar
and adjust the rate as needed. Spray when shoots average 3
in. tall. If a second application is needed or a split application
is made, apply when shoots average 6 in. tall. Usually 2 foliar
spray applications at lower rate are more effective than 1
application at higher rate. Don’t apply after visible bud stage.
1 to 3 ppm drench Drench volume varies with pot size. Apply newly emerged
shoots when 1 to 2 in. tall.
1 to 10 ppm bulb soak Treatment soak time should range from 1 to 5 minutes and
will vary depending on bulb size, cultivar, and final desired
height. Lower rates may require longer soak times (5 to 10
minutes) than higher rates (1 minute).
Sumagic 3 to 15 ppm spray Apply when shoots average 3 in. tall.
Topflor 0.03 to 0.06 mg a.i. (0.25 to Drench volumes and mg a.i. vary with pot size.
0.25 to 0.5 mg a.i. (2.1 to Based on NC State University trials. Adjust rates for other
4.2 ppm) drench for a 6-in. locations.
pot
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Fascination/ 5 to 10 ppm spray Apply early season (7 to 10 days PRIOR to visible bud
Fresco stage) and mid-season (7 to 10 days AFTER visible bud
stage). Apply spray only to lower leaves to minimize stem
elongation. See label.
Fascination/ 100 ppm spray Apply late season (when first bud reaches at least 3 in. in
Fresco length) and no more than 14 days prior to placement in a
cooler or shipping. Apply to foliar and flower buds. See label.
LILY, ORIENTAL
Bonzi/ 100 to 200 ppm bulb soak Ten minute soaks provided excellent results in NC State
Piccolo/ University trials. Cultivar response varied.
Piccolo
10XC/
Paczol
Concise 2.5 to 10 ppm spray See Concise label comments for hybrid lilies.
1 to 10 ppm bulb soak See Concise label comments for hybrid lilies.
Concise/ 1 to 10 ppm bulb soak See Concise label comments for hybrid lilies. Ten minute
Sumagic preplant soaks of 5 ppm provided excellent results in NC
State University trials. Cultivar response varied.
Topflor 0.5 mg a.i. drench (4.2 Optimal rate base on NC State University trials. Adjust rate
ppm); (apply 4 fl oz/6-in. for plant vigor. Drench volumes and mg a.i. vary with pot
pot) size.
25 ppm bulb soak Ten minute preplant soaks provided excellent results in NC
State University trials. Cultivar response varied.
Fascination/ 100 ppm spray Apply early season (7 to 10 days PRIOR or AFTER visible
Fresco bud stage). Apply spray only to lower leaves to minimize
stem elongation. See label.
Fascination/ 100 ppm spray Apply late season (no more than 14 days prior to placement
Fresco in a cooler or shipping). Apply to foliar and flower buds. See
label.
LINER SOAKS
Piccolo/ 0.5 to 8 ppm preplant liner See label for detailed recommendations for chemical
Paczol soak application techniques, adjusting rates for northern or
southern locations, and the specific rates for achieving the
desired level of activity.
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NEW GUINEA IMPATIENS
Bonzi/ 0.25 to 15 ppm spray Apply 2 to 4 weeks after transplanting. Cultivars’ responses
Piccolo/ to PGRs varies greatly. Test a few plants to determine rate for
Piccolo optimal control.
10XC/ 0.25 to 2 ppm drench (0.03 Drench volumes vary with pot size. See label for
Paczol to 0.236 mg a.i.) recommendations. Cultivars’ response to PGRs varies greatly.
Test a few plants to determine rate for optimal control.
Collate/ 100 to 300 ppm spray To increase lateral branching and reduce premature flowering.
Florel Do not apply within 8 weeks of desired flower date.
Topflor 5 to 15 ppm spray Apply 2 to 4 weeks after transplanting. Cultivars’ responses
to PGRs varies greatly. Test a few plants to determine rate for
optimal control.
OSTEOSPERMUM
B-Nine/ 1,500 to 3,000 ppm + 1,000 Multiple sprays required. Stop applications after visible bud
Dazide + to 1,500 ppm applied as a to avoid flower delay and smaller flowers. Not effective in
Citadel / tank-mix spray NC State University trials.
Cycocel
Bonzi/ 27 to 54 ppm drench Drench volumes vary with pot size. See label for
Piccolo/ (8 to 16 mg a.i.) during recommended volumes. Rates based on NC State Univ.
Piccolo production trials.
10XC/ 2 to 3 ppm drench (0.236 to For holding plants.
Paczol 0.35 mg a.i.)
Citadel/ 750 to 1,500 ppm spray Two applications may be required. Two applications of 1,500
Cycocel ppm (with the first applied at the start and the second at the
end of the vernalization period) provided excellent results in
NC State University trials.
1,500 to 3,000 ppm drench Drench volumes vary with pot size. See label for
recommended volumes. 1,500 ppm worked well in NC State
University trials.
Concise/ 3 ppm spray Recommendation based on European trials on a cultivar with
Sumagic prostrate growth. Rates less than 24 ppm were not effective in
NC State University trials.
0.25 to 2 ppm drench (apply One application of 1 to 2 ppm (at start of vernalization) or
3 fl oz/5-in pot) two applications of 1 ppm (at start of vernalization) and 0.5
ppm (at end of the vernalizatioin period) provided excellent
results in NC State University trials for 5-inch production.
Piccolo / 4 to 8 ppm liner root soak Irrigation of liners that was done within 24 hours before
Piccolo application resulted in moderately dry substrate (stage plants
10XC are watered but not wilted). Soak for minimum of 30 to
60 seconds. Transplant after 3-hr waiting period. Based on
Michigan State University trials.
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Topflor 20 to 60 ppm spray
1 to 2 ppm drench (apply One application of 1 to 2 ppm (at the start of vernalization)
3 fl oz/5-in pot) or two applications of 1 ppm (at the start of vernalization)
and 0.5 ppm (at the end of the vernalizatioin period) to 5-inch
pots provided excellent results in NC State University trials.
PANSY
A-Rest
Bonzi/ 5 to 15 ppm spray Apply when plants are 2 in. in diameter. Use higher rates
Piccolo/ for higher temperatures and more vigorous cultivars. Late
Piccolo applications may delay flowering.
10XC/
Paczol
Concise/ 1 to 6 ppm spray Apply when plants are 3 to 4 in. tall. Use higher rates for
Sumagic higher temperatures and more vigorous cultivars. Late
applications may delay flowering.
Topflor 2.5 to 7.5 ppm spray Based on NC State University trials. Adjust rates for other
locations. Pansies are very responsive to Topflor, so start
trials with lower rates.
POINSETTIA
Abide/ 0.06 to 0.25 mg a.i. (0.5 to Drench volume and mg a.i. vary with pot size. Start with
A-Rest 2 ppm) drench for a 6-in. lower rates.
B-Nine/ 2,000 to 3,000 ppm spray Not effective in NC State University studies.
Dazide
B-Nine/ 800 to 2,500 ppm + 1,000 Use the higher rates of this tank-mix spray on stock plants
Dazide to 1,500 ppm applied as a and for finishing crops in very warm regions. Outside of very
+ Citadel / tank-mix spray warm areas, use the lower rates. Late applications can delay
Cycocel flowering and reduce bract size.
Bonzi/ 10 to 30 ppm spray Use higher rates of 15 to 45 ppm in southern Florida.
Piccolo/ Applications to slower-growing cultivars in cool climates
Piccolo should begin when axillary shoots are 2 to 3 in. long. For
10XC/ vigorous growing cultivars in warm climates, applications
Paczol should begin when axillary shoots are 1.5 to 3 in. long. See
label for other precautions.
Bonzi/ 0.237 to 0.473 mg a.i. (0.25 Drenches generally have less of an effect on bract size than
Piccolo/ to 3 ppm) drench for a 6-in. sprays. Drench volume and mg a.i. vary with pot size. Start
Piccolo pot (apply 4 fl oz/6-in. pot) with lower rates.
10XC/
Paczol/
Downsize
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Concise 2.5 to 10 ppm spray Apply when the lateral shoots are 1.5 to 2.5 in. tall (about
10 to 14 days after pinching). Test for cultivar sensitivity.
Multiple applications of the lower label rate may elicit a more
satisfactory response. Do not apply after the initiation of short
days. For Florida Only: use a foliar spray concentration
between 10 to 15 ppm and do not apply after October 25.
Citadel/ 800 to 1,500 ppm spray For natural season crops in N.C., do not apply after mid-
Cycocel October to November 1. Late applications can reduce bract
size and delay flowering.
3,000 to 4,000 ppm drench Drench volume varies with pot size. Consult the label for
recommended volumes.
Sumagic 2.5 to 10 ppm spray
Topflor 2.5 to 80 ppm spray Use lower rates for less vigorous cultivars.
See label for additional rate recommendations.
0.03 to 0.5 mg a.i. (0.25 to
pot
To promote plant growth
Fascination 3 ppm spray (0.02 fl oz/gal) Use an early-season application during vegetative growth
prior to the start of short days and flower initiation if
promoting vegetative growth. See label for additional
precautions before use.
Fascination/ 3 to 10 ppm spray Use a late-season application to promote bract expansion. See
Fresco label for additional precautions before use.
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Table 15.4 Dilution Table for the Amount of Formulated Product per Gallon of Solution
Cycocel (1.8%)
(0.055%) (mm)
Augeo (18.5%)
Dazide/B-Nine
Piccolo/Bonzi/
(0.38%) (mm)
Paczol (0.4%)
Abide/A-Rest
Piccolo 10XC
Florel (3.9%)
(2.0%) (mm)
(milliliters)
(4%) (mm)
(0.0264%)
Configure
(85%) (g)
Sumagic
Concise/
PPM AI
(21.7%)
Citadel/
Topflor
Collate
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
0.5 7 4 0.5 0.05 0.48
1.0 14 8 1.0 0.4 0.96
5.0 72 38 5.0 0.5 4.8
10 143 76 10 1.0 9.6
25 359 189 25 2.5 23.9
30 430 227 30 3.0 28.7
40 573 303 40 4.0 38.2
50 717 379 50 5.0 47.8 9.0 0.8 4.7
100 1433 758 100 10.0 95.5 18 1.6 9.5
200 6.5 200 20.0 191.0 36 3.1 19.0
400 13 72 7.3 6.2 38.0
500 16 90 9.1 7.8 47.5
800 26 144 14.7 12.5 80.0
1000 4.5 32 180 18.2 15.6 94.9
1250 5.6 40 22.8 19.5 118
1500 6.8 48 27.3 23.5 142
2000 9.0 64 36.4 31.2 190
2500 11.1 80 45.5 39.3 237
5000 22.3 91.0 79.4 475
When mixing PGRs, great care needs to be given to accurately measure and apply the chemical. Drench
applications vary by pot size and desired dose, so refer to the product label for exact mixing instructions. As
always the label contains the legal mixing information. For a ready resource on preparing PGR solutions,
download the PGR MixMaster app for your mobile device:
http://extension.unh.edu/Grower-Tools/Mobile-App
This calculator was developed by floriculture specialists from North Carolina State University and the
University of New Hampshire. It allows you to enter your own PGR costs and calculate solutions based on
the rate desired and the amount of area to be treated. The calculator includes information on both spray and
drench applications. It not only gives you the amount of PGR to mix per gallon or liter of water, but also
provides the cost of the application based on the area or number of containers treated.
Foliar sprays require an even application to obtain consistent results. For foliar sprays, measure out a known
amount of chemical, add it to a known volume of water and apply the spray to a known bench area. Most
sprays are applied at 1 gal. per 200 sq. ft. of bench area.
For drench applications, measure out a known amount of chemical, add it to a known volume of water, and
apply a known volume of the drench to each pot. The volume of drench applied increases with the pot size
(specifics are listed on each product label).
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Chapter 16
Water Supply, Irrigation, and Management
David S. Ross, Professor and Extension Agricultural Engineer
Introduction
Producing plants in a greenhouse requires an ample supply of good quality water. A well-designed and
maintained water delivery system makes the irrigation process very efficient. In the past, only individuals
skilled in watering greenhouse plants could be trusted to do the job properly, and today these employees
are hard to find. Automatic watering offers many advantages, including saving growers time that they can
then spend on managing the water control system rather than performing the actual application. New sensor
technology, wireless data transmission and real-time graphical display of data is going to improve water
management in coming years. The emphasis has shifted today to both controlling the application and to
catching and recycling the excess. Concerns now extend beyond the crop to the environment.
Water Supply: Quantity and Quality

A good well or municipal water supply is the first choice for a greenhouse water source. Clean water is
essential for the small mist units or trickle emitters now frequently used. Screen or disk filters of 100 to
150 mesh or smaller are used to remove any sand particles that are pumped with the water. If surface water
from a stream, creek, or pond is used, then a self-cleaning disk or screen filter is a good choice. However,
if the water contains a lot of fine material, organic matter, or slime bacteria, a self-cleaning sand filter is
recommended for removing the load of silt, algae, or other debris.
At minimum, a flow rate of 5 gallons per minute (gpm) is needed to use a hose for hand watering. The actual
water requirement depends on the size of the greenhouse operation and the type of irrigation system used.
It is important to know the amount of water available before planning the irrigation system. Then, a system
can be designed and divided into zones that match water demand to the available water supply. The system
must have the capacity to water the mature crop in the number of hours allowed for watering each day.
Water quality is very important for containerized plants that live in a small quantity of substrate. The plant
may be sensitive to certain elements, and the substrate offers little buffering capacity. Have the water
tested by a good irrigation water testing laboratory once or twice a year to ensure that good, quality water
is available. Chemical treatment may be required when chemical pollutants, such as iron, sodium, hard
water (dissolved calcium and magnesium), or bicarbonates, are present. Chlorine or an acid may need to
be injected to correct a problem that otherwise might result in a clogged emitter or nozzle. A water softener
may add harmful sodium while correcting another problem. Iron or bicarbonates may react with other
elements during the watering process, creating precipitants that cause discoloration and hinder the sale of
the crop. Water test results will enable a person to identify potential problems and recommend solutions
during the design of the system. Water quality problems may affect long-term crops more than short-term
crops because the exposure is longer. Water applied overhead onto the foliage may be more of a problem
than water applied to the substrate.
Water and Nutrient Management

Water management is the key to nutrient management! Because nutrients travel in water, nutrient
management is largely a matter of controlling the water applied to avoid leaching and runoff. Strategies for
applying water more frequently in small amounts or applying water at a slower application rate tend to allow
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the substrate to be wetted without excess leaching occurring. The goal is to reduce the leaching fraction to
15 percent or less. Also important is applying the correct quantity of nutrients onto the crop to ensure that
there are not excess nutrient salts to cause plant damage if leaching is reduced.
A well-designed, efficient irrigation system is the basis of a good water management program. It is clear
that the less runoff produced, the less of a problem runoff creates later. Trickle and subirrigation do an
excellent job of delivering water efficiently; overhead systems create large volumes of runoff and wet
foliage increases the potential for pest problems. However, trickle systems are more expensive and labor
intensive for many greenhouse crops. Water recovery and reuse (recycling) practices reduce the risk of
losing nutrients.
Applying liquid fertilizers by overhead irrigation creates the opportunity for nutrient loss. As little as 20 to
30 percent of the overhead-applied water falls into containers, depending on the spacing of the containers.
The rest of the water (as much as 70 to 80 percent) falls onto the floor and may contribute to runoff. Hand
watering or overhead sprinklers may result in a greater loss of water than application by microirrigation
(trickle or drip emitters and small spray devices), but both can have the same leaching result. Reducing
fertilizer and other chemical waste can save expenses both today and potentially in the future when
environmental clean-up regulations are bound to be stricter.
When you are setting up an irrigation schedule, use moisture sensors to monitor substrate moisture. Your
goal should be to maintain a container’s moisture level at close to capacity or between full and half capacity.
This level reduces the chances of the plant becoming water stressed and growth being slowed. Applying
the water at a low application rate, either by overhead sprinkler or by trickle irrigation, allows the substrate
to be wetted with less chance of leaching. Even some trickle emitters apply water too fast for the coarse
substrates that some mixes produce. Watering the substrate in a cyclic manner— small doses several times a
day—will enable you to maintain an even moisture level over the entire day.
Use a low-tension tensiometer, measuring moisture in the range of 0 to 40 centibars (0.4 bar or 40 percent of
one atmosphere pressure), for greenhouse substrates. A moisture tension of 5 to 10 centibars indicates a dry
substrate for many pine bark substrates. In a peat substrate, which holds more water than a substrate of pine
bark, a reading higher than 10 centibars indicates a dry condition. A zero reading is wet and a dry reading
depends on the water-holding capacity of the substrate. Most substrates hold very little water. A tensiometer
may be less than satisfactory in substrates that contain large chunks of pine bark or other coarse material.
The substrate must make good tight contact with the tensiometer and coarse materials do not.
Capacitance sensors will provide much better moisture data. The new technology (2009) will provide real
time display of moisture and other environmental data to the grower through capacitance sensors connected
to radio nodes that will send the data wirelessly to the grower’s office for graphical display on his/her
computer. The grower will be able to observe the data and make irrigation control decisions. Also, for local
control the radio node will be able to collect local sensor data, average it and send signals to solenoid valves
to open and close at defined moisture setpoints. Plant models will eventually allow the grower to plan ahead
to meet plant needs.
A Good Working System— Flow and Pressure

A good working irrigation system can make a great difference in the management of a growing crop. If
water application is nonuniform, part of the crop is receiving too much water in order that another part of
the crop receives an adequate amount of water. No matter how growers adjust a watering schedule, this is
a situation that hinders production of a good crop. Hand watering to make up the difference adds costs and
takes growers away from the jobs they should be doing.
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Pressure and pipe water velocity (flow rate) are two factors that can have a critical effect on the operation of
an irrigation system. If you are planning a new water distribution system or have one that has been modified,
either to a new system or an expansion of your system, note the following:
A pipeline is sized for the water flow rate and for the distance the pipe must carry the water. The reason is
that energy is lost in the form of pressure loss when water flows through a pipe. As water moves through
the pipe it rubs or drags against the walls of the pipe and loses some of the pressure energy that is moving it
along the pipe. The faster the water moves (higher velocity), the more friction is generated because turbulent
flow develops, which disturbs the flow even more. This loss is called friction loss. Because of friction and
other harmful effects of fast-moving water, engineers limit water velocity in pipes to 5 or 6 feet per second.
The flow of water in a pipe (gallons per minute) is the product of the cross-sectional area of the pipe times
the water velocity times 7.48 gallons per cubic foot. Area is in square feet. Velocity is in feet per minute or
per second. Typically, a mainline pipe is designed to have less than 1 foot of head (0.43 pounds per square
inch [psi]) loss per 100 feet of length. A friction loss chart is available for each type of pipe to aid in pipe
selection.
A pipe with low friction loss will have a more uniform pressure along its entire length. Laterals fed by this
pipe will each have about the same pressure. Each nozzle or emitter along each lateral will discharge about
the same amount of water if the pressure loss is low down the length of the pipe. The water applied will
be more uniform over the whole irrigation zone. Although pipelines with low friction loss may cost a little
more than the minimum-size pipe required, the result will be a better-watered crop; the overall quality of the
crop may generate enough of an increase in profit to pay for the increased cost of the piping.
Pipe flow capacities can be compared. The diameter squared can be used to estimate the ratio of water
carried by one pipe size versus another. Of course, nominal sizes (store labeled sizes) are easier to use than
actual inside diameters, so there will be errors. A 2-inch pipe will carry how much more water than a 1.5-
inch pipe? The diameters are 2 inches and 1.5 inches, respectively. Compare 2” x 2” to 3/2” x 3/2” or 4 to
9/4. The ratio is 16/4:9/4 or 16:9, which says the 2-inch pipe carries 16/9:1 times more or about 1.8 times
more water. Comparing flows with the same friction loss for Class 160 PVC (polyvinyl chloride) pipe, the
real ratio is about 14:9 or 1.6 times as much, using the actual chart information.
A pressure gauge is a very important tool that will tell a grower if the irrigation system is working properly.
If the water pressure stays at the initial design pressure, then water application should stay the same. If the
water pressure is low, there may be a break in the line or a nozzle missing. If the water pressure is too high,
a line or several nozzles are clogged or a valve is closed. A pressure gauge is more frequently placed at the
pump, but gauges on either side of a filter or on a mainline in the field is convenient for routine inspection.
Changes in pressure are signals that something is wrong or that a filter requires cleaning.
A water flow meter is another tool for monitoring the water flow. A continuous flow indicator shows the
actual flow rate of the water, either on a meter or by a weighted object that is moved up a clear tube by the
flowing water. An accumulating meter records the flow on a meter that shows total flow over a period of
time. Some meters will show both. A flow reading on the continuous indicator meter should be the same
gallons per minute each time. A variation may mean a problem exists.
Additional Important Components of an Irrigation System

In addition to the pressure gauge and flow meter mentioned earlier, several other components are worthy of
discussion. The types of valves used can have an impact on the system.
Gate valves open fully to allow water to pass with very little pressure loss or restriction of the flow. Turning
the valve stem moves a gate up and down through the flow path of the water. Gate valves are sometimes
337
used to regulate the flow of water when pressure must be reduced. By partially closing the valve the water
must move through a smaller opening and energy (pressure) is dissipated by the restriction. Extra energy is
consumed in pushing water through the restriction.
Ball valves open fully if you rotate an internal ball that has a hole through the center. When the hole is
aligned with the pipe, water flows through; when the hole in the ball is rotated one quarter turn, the solid
side of the ball blocks the flow. Both gate valves and ball valves work well; the gate valve opens more
slowly and may reduce the problem of someone turning a valve open too quickly. Avoid the use of globe
(common faucet) valves because the water must pass through a small opening in the valve that is restrictive
and much pressure is lost. All valves are subject to damage if water freezes in them.
Electric solenoid valves help to automate an irrigation system. The valves receive an electrical signal to
activate an electromagnet, which causes the valve to open or close. By attaching the solenoid valve to a time
clock or controller, you can set your irrigation system to function automatically at specific times and for
specific periods of time. A solenoid valve connected to a time clock or moisture setpoint controller is a good
management tool for freeing an operator’s time.
Air vents (vacuum breakers) are important at elevated points in irrigation systems; the vents allow air to
escape as the pipe is filling with water. The vent prevents the air from blocking the water passage through
the system at elevated points. Also, the air vent allows air to enter as the system drains so a vacuum does
not develop to pull dirty water in through emitters or other openings in contact with the substrate. The vent
closes as the water rises into the vent. A ball is used to seal the vent.
Backflow preventers prevent the contamination of the water supply. A hose bibb vacuum breaker or a
check valve prevents dirty or chemical-laden water from flowing back into the water supply. Backflow
preventers are important for protecting the drinking water supply from contamination.
Filters are a necessary component for drip and trickle irrigation systems. Screen filters are made with
screen material; screens of 100 to 150 mesh meet the requirements for passing the relatively clean water
needed by drip/trickle systems. Disc filters, which have grooved flat discs that stack together, have a larger
capacity for catching particles and are stronger against high water pressure than screen filters. Both of
these filters are improved by the addition of self-cleaning (backflush) capabilities. For heavy loads of fine
or organic materials, the sand or media filter has more capacity for trapping and holding debris in its bed
of sand. The sand or media filter is also available as a self-cleaning unit. Mesh numbers, which indicate
number of threads per inch, correspond to the size of openings. The higher the mesh (number), the greater
the number of threads and the smaller the openings (Fig. 19.1).
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes are lightweight, low-friction pipes that feature a low initial cost, ease of
installation, and resistance to corrosion. Main distribution lines can be buried or placed overhead. Schedule
80 PVC is a heavy-walled gray pipe that is stiff for unsupported overhead uses. Schedule 40 is heavier than
the Class 160 or Class 200 white PVC pipe. Light may penetrate the pipe— particularly the thinner-walled
pipe—to support algae growth. Over a long time, sunlight deteriorates unprotected PVC pipe; use paint or
opaque wrap to block the light and to protect the pipe.
Polyethylene (PE) pipe is the flexible, black pipe commonly used for underground supply lines and bench
systems. It features a low initial cost and is easy to install using insert (barbed) fittings; it is also lightweight
and resistant to inside corrosion. Its disadvantages are that it can be damaged by sharp objects, it cannot
be used for hot water, and it must be supported in overhead applications. Use nylon or brass fittings and
stainless steel clamps with it. The suggested pressure rating is 100 psi or greater.
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Figure 16.1 Irrigation Filters
Filters are necessary componenents for drip and trickle irrigation systems.
Types of Watering Systems

Greenhouses have a range of irrigation systems from simple hand watering by hose to complex computer-
operated systems, such as hydroponic or ebb and flood systems. The choice of a system may be based on
the crop, the container used, the type of house, economics, or other factors. Although complex systems are
costly and require lengthy set-up and management inputs, they will save on labor and can water large areas.
Plant production will likely be of better quality in a greenhouse using a computer-operated system; these
systems enable the grower to maintain good control. Simple systems are low in initial cost; however, they
can be expensive in terms of labor costs because hand watering requires an employee. Water quality must be
good for all systems that use small emitters or nozzles. Filtration is usually a must to avoid clogging of small
orifices.
Hand watering is both the least expensive initially and the most versatile of watering systems. It is a
popular system, particularly with vegetable and bedding-plant growers who keep many different crops in
one house. The operator has total control over the watering and uses his or her knowledge of the crop and
substrate to apply different amounts of water as needed. The quality of watering by hand may vary more
than the quality of watering by machine. With hand watering a great deal of water is wasted and all plants in
a given flat are not likely to be watered uniformly.
Hand watering is accomplished with hoses that are dragged along the floor. Different sizes of water breakers
(sprinklers) are used on the hose ends to distribute the water. Hang hoses from the ceiling on pulleys running
on a cable. This keeps the hose from dragging on the floor and carrying disease organisms from one end of a
house to the other.
Stationary sprinklers usually provide more uniformity than hand watering if the system is properly
designed—water coverage needs to overlap—and is properly maintained. These systems can be automated
339
and can irrigate an area much faster than hand watering systems, significantly reducing labor costs. Careful
design is essential for achieving even water pressures, high uniformity, and water-use efficiency, while at the
same time reducing system costs. Maintaining good water quality helps keep nozzles from wearing out.
A wide range of sprinklers are available, from spray stakes to impact/gear-driven sprinklers. In designing
a system, your goal must be maintaining uniform coverage over the width of the benches or beds, without
excessive waste. Uniform coverage requires overlapping of the sprinklers. It is difficult to work out sprinkler
placement for achieving uniform coverage.
Trickle emitters in individual containers offer both uniform coverage and highly efficient water usage.
Careful design and operation of a trickle system results in a system that can out-perform others besides
being very good for hanging baskets and widely spaced large containers. Less water is wasted and
nutrients can be delivered directly to the plant root zones. These systems are expensive and require more in
management skills and labor for installation and maintenance than overhead sprinklers do.
Misting or fog systems are used to maintain substrate moisture levels as well as the humidity around
germinating plants, young seedlings, and rooted cuttings in closed areas of a greenhouse. High-pressure fog
works well for humidity because the small droplets stay in the air longer and do not overwet the substrate. A
fog is used for evaporative cooling during ventilation in greenhouses. For propagation, use two time clocks:
one is a 24-hour clock that allows the mist system to function at certain time intervals during a 24-hour day;
the second is an interval timer that allows the mist or fog system to operate for a few seconds every few
minutes. The interval between mistings is adjusted according to weather conditions. Time controllers are
available to replace the individual timers.
Watering booms or carts are another alternative system that works well for single crops in a house. The
carts run on the floor or a guide rail and the booms usually hang from a ceiling-mounted track. Inverted
nozzles hang from an overhead boom or mobile apparatus. The movement is uniform over the top of the
plants and the boom or carts can be automated with timers. Nozzle height and spacing are critical to assuring
uniformity. These systems, which can be expensive and complex, require periodic maintenance.
Booms and carts can be further automated with solenoids and environmental sensors. A computer can move
the booms or carts to specific locations for watering select areas. If you vary the speed, the system can apply
varying amounts of water to different parts of the greenhouse to meet crop requirements.
Ebb and flood and hydroponic systems deliver water and nutrients to the roots of plants. Ebb and flood
systems require level floors or benches. Water is pumped onto the floor or bench to a depth that allows the
substrate to be wetted; then the water is drained away. Drainage allows the roots to receive air necessary for
healthy growth. The cyclic process is repeated as needed to maintain substrate moisture. Ebb and flood can
be used for a variety of container sizes, which makes it a flexible system. Hydroponic systems can be of the
ebb and flood design or other designs. Hydroponic systems may contain a substrate or consist of a closed
trough in which the roots hang into the flowing water. The hydroponic solution contains all the nutrients that
the plants receive. The nutrient solution is pumped over the roots at intervals timed for maintaining plant
moisture. All these hydroponic systems are expensive and require a large initial investment and advanced
management skills. They are “closed” systems that usually recycle the water they use, which results in water
conservation. Complete automation is possible with these systems.
The advantage of trickle and ebb and flood watering methods as well as hydroponic systems that are not ebb
and flood is that the water is applied to the substrate and not to the foliage where disease organisms might
be encouraged to develop. Water is conserved or can be recycled to reduce waste. Nutrients can be applied
without polluting the ground. Recycled water may require treatment to avoid the spread of disease.
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Water-Related Disease and Other Problems
Irrigation waters carrying fertilizers or other chemicals that are lost from the plant container may enter the
surface drainage or the groundwater and cause pollution. While pollution carries potential future costs, the
loss of fertilizer is a present cost of production. Reducing these losses can save expenses both today and
in the future. Recycling irrigation water is one solution; better management of irrigation application and
scheduling is another. The development of closed systems with recycling is worthy of consideration.
Disease transmission is a major concern associated with recycling. Many operations have little or no
trouble with disease transmission, which indicates that some irrigation system designs may be better
than others; outdoor retention facilities, for instance, may be hostile environments for disease organisms.
Pathogens, mostly water molds such as Phytopthora and Pythium, may be present. Treatment with chlorine,
bromine, or another disinfectant may be essential to controlling the spread of disease. If an active residual
of 1 or 2 ppm of chlorine remains after watering takes place, treatment should be complete, unless large
particles are present in which disease organisms can hide. Filtration is a part of successful treatment. Keep
plant foliage dry and avoid splashing water from the container onto the foliage. Cleaning the greenhouse and
internal water retention facilities between crops or at least annually is a good maintenance practice to avoid
the carry-over of any disease organisms.
Algae are single-celled microscopic plants that multiply quickly to form a slime layer that can dry as a crust.
Algae, which are not parasites as diseases are, do not attack plants. Like all plants, algae contain chlorophyll
and produce their own food when conditions are right. Blue-green varieties are common in greenhouses.
Algae cause many problems in the greenhouse environment, including:
• Clogging irrigation lines, misting systems, irrigation mats, and emitters

• Impairing the functioning of cooling pads
• Producing an impermeable layer on media surfaces that interferes with water penetration
• Harboring shore fly populations
• Making potted plants less desirable for customers
• Reducing levels of reflected or incoming light
• Causing slimy surfaces on walkways, which creates a safety hazard
• Creating a mess
• Competing with plants for nutrients
Like all plants, algae need light, water, nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and heat, all of which are
abundant in the greenhouse. Algae may be present in all waters, with the possible exception of deep well
water. Algae are present in the air as dust, sometimes at very high levels. For these reasons they are able to
appear quickly whenever conditions are right.
Culturally, manipulating the conditions that encourage the growth of algae can reduce their presence.
Painting translucent water pipes and fertilizer stock tanks black helps to keep light out. Cleaning the
fertilizer tank between irrigations and using controlled-release fertilizers help to slow the flow of nutrients.
Allowing surfaces to dry out between irrigations and sterilizing soils also help to reduce the number of
organisms present.
Chemical treatment with chlorine and other commercial products reduces the algae population. Sanitation
is important for gaining and maintaining control of algae or disease. Cleaning the greenhouse and any water
retention basins between crops or on an annual basis will help to control algae and diseases. Clean any
reused containers. Regular sanitation is a good management practice.
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Chapter 17
Irrigation: Too Wet or Too Dry?
Will Healy, Technical Services, Ball Horticultural Company
Introduction
Improper watering is the major cause of diseases and cultural problems that plague growers. Experts in
the field often notice that growers are keeping their crop too wet. Growers seldom allow the soil to dry
sufficiently after watering, which promotes good root development. At other times, however, growers let the
soil dry too much, which causes stunting. Although it is easy for experts to say “this crop is too wet or too
dry,” the question is, “How to train growers to keep crops wetter or drier?”
The solution is to train the grower to learn how to allow the soil to dry to a specific soil moisture level
before irrigating (Table 17.1). Instead of saying “drier today,” for instance, say, “keep at a level 3 today.”
Table 17.1 Five Soil Moisture Levels
Moisture Level State of Soil Soil Appearance

5 Wet. The soil is saturated. Water flows Dark, almost black. Glistens with free wa-
freely out of the soil. When soil is placed ter. Sticks together and feels mushy, like
in the palm of your hand and compressed you’re squeezing a water balloon.
slightly, water runs out.
4 Medium Wet. When soil is placed in the Dark brown. Sticks together after squeez-
palm of your hand and squeezed, water will ing.
readily drip out of your hand before your
fingers touch your palm.
3 Medium. When soil is placed in the palm Brown with light brown pieces. Crumbles
of your hand and squeezed till your fingers apart after squeezing.
touch your palm, water will drip but not run
out of your hand.
2 Medium Dry. When soil is placed in the Light brown with tan pieces. Crumbles
palm of your hand and squeezed, no free apart after squeezing but sticks together.
water or drips are present. The soil is
spongy and “squeaky” when compressed.
1 Dry. When soil is placed in the palm of Tan to white. Crumbles apart after squeez-
your hand and squeezed, water cannot be ing and will blow away; doesn’t stick
squeezed out of the soil. The soil is not together.
“squeaky.”
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When growers irrigate crops, the recommended method is to water thoroughly by irrigating to a level 5. This
answer, however, prompts the next set of questions: At what soil moisture level do growers irrigate again.
When the soil is at level 5 or 3, for instance? And how much should growers irrigate? Until the soil reaches
a level 4 or 5? Growers can get themselves into trouble if they maintain the same moisture level (e.g., level
4) throughout the entire production period. Be sure to determine the correct soil moisture levels to follow
during various stages of plug production (Table 17.2).
Table 17.2 Optimum Soil Moisture Levels During Plug Production

(Dry soil = 1; Medium dry soil = 2; Medium soil = 3; Medium wet soil = 4; Wet soil = 5)
Crop Stage A: Stage B: Stage C: Stage D:

Germination Cotyledon Root and Shoot Preparing for
unfolding Development Transplant
Impatiens 5 3 3 2
Pansy 4 4 3 3
Petunia 4 4 3 2
Verbena 2 3 3 3
Vinca 4 3 3 3
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Chapter 18
Precision Irrigation for Nursery and Greenhouse Crops
Andrew Ristvey, Extension Specialist, Water and Nutrient Management, and
John Lea-Cox, Extension Specialist, Nursery Research
Introduction
Water is arguably the most important variable that we can control in growing plants, especially in contained
environments like a pot or a tray, where roots have minimal space to explore, and where volumes are
limiting for water application and retention. If the plant shows water stress (i.e. wilting leaves), it is most
likely too late. Growth has been greatly reduced and plant health probably compromised. Simply running
irrigation at a set time of the day may not deliver water to the plant when it is actually needed, or most often
it results in over-watering which leaches nutrients and can contribute to increased disease. To maintain good
plant growth and optimize irrigation, so that water and nutrients are not wasted, irrigation managers need to
integrate a variety of environmental cues to determine irrigation timing and duration. This chapter will focus
on how you can improve your irrigation system efficiency firstly by using a simple audit technique, and then
secondly by making better decisions by using advanced irrigation tools (wireless sensor networks, WSN).
This chapter will summarize how WSN work, describe various sensors and their deployment, and illustrate
how an irrigation manager can get the most from the data they provide.
Irrigation scheduling is a challenge in intensive horticultural operations. For the most part, irrigation
scheduling is managed through grower intuition or experience (Bacci et al., 2008; Jones, 2008; Lea-Cox
et al., 2009, Lea-Cox, 2012). The large variety of plants, their specific needs and differences in container
sizes, crop age along with seasonal changes in water needs and a host of other issues make these irrigation
decisions more complicated than one may imagine (Lea-Cox, 2012). Timely water applications are
important to maintain plant growth and root health. Over-application can lead to nutrient loss through
leaching, root stress from saturated root zones with low oxygen, and water waste. Under-application results
in reduced plant growth, root stress and sometimes root death which can contribute to pathogen infestation.
Irrigation System Efficiency

Regardless if a WSN is being considered, the first step for any operation is to conduct an irrigation audit on
the current irrigation system to increase irrigation efficiency. Briefly, an efficient irrigation system is one that
applies the lowest volume of water to evenly irrigate crops in a way that is both cost- and energy-efficient.
Efficiency can be measured by how uniform the applied water is distributed across a growing bed or bench
(Distribution Uniformity). Efficiency can also be measured by the amount of water applied (Application
Efficiency). The two are not necessarily mutually exclusive; each has different implications. A detailed
explanation of how to do an irrigation system audit quickly and easily can be found online in The Green
Industry Knowledge Center for Water and Nutrient Management (Ross, 2008; see References for website).
Irrigation efficiency is not only affected by the irrigation system itself (Distribution Uniformity), but also
the decisions being made about irrigation timing, plant placement…etc. A well-performing irrigation system
can still be inefficient if the irrigation manager over irrigates and water passes through the root zone and
leaches out the bottom of the pot or tray. For instance, a micro-irrigation system applies water directly to the
plant pot via a drip stake or spray stake. If the emitters are delivering water equally to all plants, it would
be considered to have a high distribution uniformity. However, if too much water is applied, it would lower
345
the application efficiency of this normally efficient system. Apart from testing the irrigation system itself,
application efficiency can be simply verified by examining the Leaching Fraction (LF), or the fraction
of applied water that comes out the bottom of the pot. Detailed procedures for assessing LF are given in
Bilderback and Lorscheider (2007; see References for website).
An irrigation system audit provides an accurate examination of the whole system itself. Considerations like
appropriate line pressures throughout the system are important. Irrigation nozzles are designed for efficiency
at specific water pressures. Nozzle or emitter age and wear, along with foreign material build-up both
biological (algae) and chemical (calcium and iron) in the equipment will have a negative effect on overall
efficiency. Additional factors include overlapping irrigation coverage, pipe size and ability to supply enough
water while maintaining pressure all play a role in efficiency.
A Lower Quarter Distribution Uniformity test (LQDU) in any growing bed or bench under investigation can
quickly identify these problems. The LQDU test simply shows how much and where water is being applied
within the area being tested. The LQDU identifies how well distributed the irrigation water is being applied
by the system to the plants. Since irrigation timing is often adjusted to irrigate those areas of the production
beds which receive the least amount of water, distribution uniformity is important so that all plants receive
as equal amount of water as possible. In other words, good distribution uniformity means that plants are
receiving relatively equal amounts of water. In this way, under or over-irrigating is minimized, which is
important for several reasons. Over application leads to wasted water, nutrient leaching and over-saturated
root zones. Under-application leads to loss of plant growth and root stress. These tests are Best Management
Practices (BMPs) and alone, can be extremely beneficial, not only for environmental, but for economic
reasons. The procedures for a LQDU test can be found in Ross (2008; See References for website)
Even though an irrigation system is highly efficient, there can be a lot of guess work when deciding when
and how long to irrigate. Many irrigation managers have good methods for determining irrigation needs
of different species and container sizes throughout the day. However, in many cases, especially with large
nursery and greenhouse systems, a large amount of time is spent checking pots and plant conditions to
determine when irrigation is necessary. There are days when water is not needed or days where multiple
irrigations should be applied to plants. Different plants require different amounts of water and at different
times than others. Many decisions about how much water and where need to be made without enough
information. Determining when the plant needs water is the first step to increase application efficiency.
Irrigation Scheduling
Many different ways of scheduling irrigation other than time-based systems have been used with success
(Lea-Cox, 2012). These include load cells, which schedule irrigation based on water loss by weight (Raviv
et al, 2000), calculating water balance using rainfall and estimates of evapotranspiration (Allen et al., 1998),
plant physiological measurements including stomatal conductance and water status (Jones, 2004) and direct
soil moisture measurements with sensors (Topp, 1985; Smith & Mullins, 2001; Smajstrla & Harrison, 1998),
to name a few. This chapter focuses on the latter since these direct measurement tools have shown to be
more reliable and cost-effective for practical purposes (Jones, 2008).
Sensor Technologies
Moisture sensors, such as tensiometers, neutron probes, or gypsum blocks, have been used for irrigation
systems for decades. Most function well in certain growing systems, especially in-ground (soil) applications.
However, these technologies are not necessarily suited for soilless substrates or highly porous, organic
media. More recently, sensor technologies that automatically relay environmental and soil data to the grower
in real-time have been developed. These tools allow growers to accurately monitor and automatically
control irrigation events in soilless substrates and container production. The rest of this chapter will discuss
WSN deployment and how to use their information to improve upon the efficiency of your irrigation system.
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Figure 18.1 A schematic of a farm-scale WSN for precision irrigation scheduling
Adapted from Balendock et al., 2009 to illustrate networks deployed by our group (Lea-Cox et al., 2012)
Measuring Water in Soils or Substrates
The water content of soil or a substrate can be measured either by matric potential (the amount of force or
suction a needed to pull water from the soil or substrate particles) or by volumetric water content (VWC,
the percentage of water in a certain volume of soil). The former takes into account that not all water in
a soil or substrate is available to plants. In soils this is typically affected by particle size. Tensiometers
have been utilized to measure soil matric potential measurement for decades. However, since soilless
substrates are quite porous, tensiometers usually do not work well since they require good contact with
water between substrate particles. Since soilless substrates dry out rapidly, contact with the water is often
lost, and the tensiometer then needs to be reset. On the other hand, measuring volumetric water content by
time domain reflectometry (TDR) or capacitance sensors (both using electromagnetism to determine soil
water content) is very reliable. However, VWC does not take into account how much water is available to
plants (matric potential). Both TDR and capacitance rely on sensors that measure a relatively small volume
around them. Since both soils and soilless substrates can vary in porosity within a small spatial area, an
accurate representation of moisture measurement is important. Strategies for sensor placement are therefore
important, so more accurate estimations of water content can be achieved.
Wireless Sensor Networks

A WSN is system of radio transmitters/data loggers (called nodes), that are designed to collect and transmit
data from various sensor inputs. Additionally, newly-developed nodes, using sensor data, have the potential
347
to independently control irrigation events by powering a solenoid/valve. Figure 18.1 graphically explains
the WSN system that the University of Maryland and other partners have deployed in numerous commercial
nurseries and greenhouses around the U.S. (Lea-Cox et al., 2013). The nodes can wirelessly transmit the
sensor data to a base-station and computer with a software program that can integrate and graphically
display the sensor data. If the computer is connected to the internet, this software program also is configured
as a password-protected website for the farm, so the data is accessible from anywhere in the world. Cellular
(3G) nodes are also available for locations unable to access internet directly from a computer/basestation.
The 3G data is sent to a cloud server via cellular network (SIM card) in the node. The data is then
downloaded from this remote server. A software program with a graphic user interface (GUI) makes setup
and deployment relatively easy. Most importantly, data interpretation is user friendly, intuitive and allows
for quick decisions. These WSN can be used for either monitoring (where the manager makes the decision
to irrigate) or automated control using the sensor information (where the manager sets the threshold values
for triggering that event). Crop models which use a multitude of sensor data can also be incorporated for
more advanced decision-making, if required.
A distinct advantage of these WSNs is that they are both scalable (i.e. nodes and sensors can easily be added
to the network) and the nodes are also reconfigurable. This means that a nursery operation can start with a
small WSN system and gradually work up to larger systems when needed. A small WSN (minimal two or
three nodes with a base station) can be deployed and used for monitoring until a level of understanding and
comfort is reached by the user.
Sensor Placement
Sensor networks deliver reliable information to the irrigation manager in real time, so decisions can be
made quickly. However, choosing where to place sensors will depend upon the needs of the manager and
the plant species being grown. Sensor placement should be considered on two levels: (1) placement in the
production area (large scale) and (2) placement in the root zone (small scale). Both decisions are important
to understand and measure variability in irrigation system delivery and the water use of different species.
At the operational (large scale) level, the question to ask is where does the irrigation manager have the most
trouble? Things to consider include which plants are more sensitive to water, either needing more or less
than average plants or which locations within the nursery are most problematic for irrigating efficiently.
Remember that low irrigation system efficiency (high variability) leads to dry spots in the production area,
which then leads to over-watering of other areas to compensate.
In container (small scale) systems, where roots are contained in limited volumes, timing of irrigation
events is critical. Available water in the container can be used quickly (sometimes within hours) and must
be replenished. Cyclic irrigation, where irrigation times (duration) are reduced but irrigation frequency
is increased, is the best management technique to maintain adequate water in the container. However,
daily weather conditions determine plant water use, and timed irrigation events can either over-irrigate
or under-irrigate plants. Sensors provide water content information for those plants/production areas
which are chosen by the grower. If irrigation scheduling is based on sensor data, avoiding highly variable
environments will aid in more precise measurements. We have found if the sensor is placed in the middle
of the container (or first 6 inches of the root profile, in soils), this set-up captures much of the variability
associated with roots at the surface rapidly taking up water. We also see water running through the root
profile to lower depths (e.g. leaching in porous substrates). By adding an extra sensor at a lower depth
(say 12-18” in soil or larger pots), a grower can quickly gauge how long to irrigate, which typically is the
hardest decision to make. Most growers find that they can typically halve their irrigation events, saving
considerable water, but also increasing the flexibility for repeated, cyclic irrigations for those crops which
need it. In soils, depth is a key issue. Experience shows that knowledge as to where the majority of the root
systems are located is key to placing sensors, similar to container systems. In many cases this placement is
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approximately 8 to 12 inches below the soil. Knowing how water moves through the soil profile (which is
dependent upon soil particle size and structures like plow pans or a shallow water table) should factor into
sensor placement. While soil particles are typically small and make good contact with sensors, rocks near
sensors can cause anomalous data. Poor insertion that results in air around the sensor can also cause low
sensor readings. This problem is simply solved by careful installation and saturating the soil/substrate so that
particles settle around the sensor, thus ensuring good contact. Understanding the technology is important,
and asking for professional advice for sensor installations is wise.
Understanding Variability
When starting, taking an average of 3-4 sensors
inserted in similar container sizes at similar depths
is important to understand the variability of the
information you are getting. It also indicates how
accurate the information may be from the sensors. The
next point to make is understanding the difference
between precision and accuracy: Precise information
implies that data has low variability, but it does
not imply that the information is accurate. Figure
18.2 shows four scenarios of data collection and
interpretation, illustrated through a set of targets. Each
shows how data can be collected and interpreted as
though the bulls-eye was the unknown true value.
In the best of both worlds, both precise and accurate
data is most desirable. But it is not acceptable to have
imprecise data that averages to an inaccurate value.
Also, precise data may be inaccurate, but one can
correct this by adjusting a sensor position or by doing
a soil-specific calibration (which is quite easy to do).
However, one can see that it may be just as good to
have imprecise data, so long as the average of that
data equals the true value, and in this case, the water
content in the pot or soil. The only way one can really Figure 18.2. Different data collection scenarios
find this information is by initially sensing at least four Targets illustrate the different scenarios of data
plants and observing how the data converge or diverge collection and making inferences from data,
over time. Consulting a professional typically always considering precision and accuracy.
pays off in terms of time and getting the best data in
the shortest amount of time.
Interpreting and Decision Making

Once data start coming in from a newly deployed network, an equally important part of the WSN is how
the information is managed and quickly displayed in an easily understood format. The software is probably
the most important part of the system. The graphic user interface (GUI) is jargon for how the data is
incorporated into a database by a software program, which is then summarized and visually displayed on
your computer. In other words, the GUI downloads all the sensor data from all the nodes and converts them
into a graphical form, giving the user a visual way to see real-time data.
In Figure 18.3, potting substrate moisture content is displayed in a typical GUI in the form of a line graph
for Cornus florida trees in 15 gallon pots during 4 days between July 17th and the end of July 20, 2011. Four
lines go across the graph and show soil moisture as Volumetric Water Content (VWC). Each of the four lines
represents data coming from one moisture sensor placed in an individual pot. Note the peaks in the lines
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Figure 18.3. Typical container moisture dynamics before and after irrigation events in four Cornus
florida trees.
Data is graphically displayed using the most recent version of DataTrac v. 3.2 (Lea-Cox, 2012).
which show irrigation events and subsequent dry-downs (valleys). The irrigation manager typically applies
water to the pots three times a day in short duration and the average VWC for the pots are kept around 50%
by the irrgation manager. As the pot drains, the WVW decreases. Additional information about irrigation
volume applied is also being recorded and are shown as vertical lines at the bottom fo the graph. These
data come from flow meters attached to the WSN. Note that the sensors are not showing the same VWC for
each pot. The VWC difference between plants is most likely due to some plants being larger, having more
leaves, and using water faster than others. The sensor data from larger plants will be more dynamic (i.e. it
will move down more rapidly). However, differences in VWC readings can also be due to differences in
sensor placement, variability in the substrate including air pockets around the sensor, or lack of application
uniformity in the irrigation system, as previously noted. Using sensor-based information to decide the
timing (frequency) of irrigation events then becomes much easier, since one can determine a VWC “set-
point”, based on the average of the four plants. The rapid fall of the peaks in Figure 18.3 indicates that over-
watering occurred along with some leaching. During subsequent studies with sensor-controlled irrigation
(detailed in Belayneh et al., 2013), irrigation durations were reduced from 6 minutes to 3 minutes, greatly
reducing the potential leaching from each irrigation event, especially in the smaller container volumes.
Sensor-based irrigation resulted in water savings of between 40 and 70%, depending on season and species
(see Belayneh et al., 2013). Note that these savings were achieved when compared to irrigation scheduled
by very experienced irrigation managers.
Benefits
Sensor networks have been deployed and extensively tested in nursery and greenhouse operations for both
monitoring and automated irrigation control. WSN systems can be attached directly to solenoids and can
independently operate irrigation (Belayneh et al., 2013), saving both time and labor. Challenged with time-
350
based irrigation scheduling and the experience of the irrigation manager, these WSN systems are being
utilized for irrigation control and have consistently shown increased efficiency in water application and a
return on investment, sometimes in less than a growing season (Chappell et al., 2013; Belayneh et al., 2013).
Both environmental and economic benefits have been demonstrated (Lichtenburg et al., 2013; Majsztrik et
al., 2013), the scale of which may depend on your location.
Challenges
We have pointed out the major challenges that exist in deploying a WSN system. Variability in production
areas, type of production system (containers vs. field), and the variety of plant species need to be considered.
Most importantly, how these factors affect the information being gathered is vital to consider. For example,
in an above-ground container nursery operation, seasonal plant-water needs are based on daily weather,
irrigation uniformity, and container size. Correct sensor placement will integrate all the factors to give a
reliable estimate of daily plant water use. However, if sensors are not placed correctly, and the information
is highly variable, making decisions from that information is not going to be accurate. For instance, sensors
placed in containers under a poorly maintained irrigation system with low distribution uniformity will give
highly variable information; i.e. very wet and very dry readings together, making determinations for efficient
irrigation cycles difficult. Sensor systems do not compensate for poor irrigation system design, nor for poor
irrigation management. They only provide added valuable information when systems and management are
already as good as possible. Having a sensor in every container is not practical, nor economically feasible.
Smart implementation of WSN entails starting with a small network and sensing a couple of indicator
species or problem areas and learning from the information provided. In time, a WSN can be expanded to
additional areas, or exiting nodes and sensors can be moved to other species or areas where information is
needed.
Since many of these networks presently communicate through radio signals and line of sight is often
necessary between nodes and base station receiving antennas, topography (hills) and long distances (>1 mile
between base station and nodes) can attenuate signals. These systems are becoming more robust, and at the
very least, additional nodes can be positioned as signal repeaters to overcome obstacles. Additionally, as
previously mentioned, cellular (3G) nodes are available for these situations which transmit data directly to a
remote server for downloading into the software. In these cases, added cost should be expected.
Summary
A number of distinct advantages can be realized through the use of WSN systems. Sensor networks can
play an important role in providing real-time information to irrigation managers about the water status
of their crops; information that most growers take an enormous amount of time to evaluate every day.
With this information, irrigation managers can make much better and more timely decisions on when to
irrigate, increasing the efficiency of how water is utilized in nursery and greenhouse operations. Efficient
use of water can reduce economic costs in many ways. Plant water requirements can be satisfied without
guesswork, potentially increasing plant quality by improving growth and better management of diseases
caused by water stress (by both under and over application). Savings in time and labor may be reduced by
having information at the fingertips of the managers. Additionally, the environmental benefits associated
with reduced water use can be realized with reduced nutrient and agro-chemical use.

351
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Chapter 19
Andrew Ristvey, Extension Specialist, Nutrient and Water Management
Introduction
Since soilless substrates contain little to no native nutrients, fertilizers are applied to overcome deficiencies
and optimize growth. By far, the most important plant growth factor is water. Nutrients move with water
in the substrate and in the plant. Irrigation management is the primary concern and is the basis of nutrient
management. This chapter will discuss nutrients and plant fertility. Although specific recommendations for
nutrient solutions are not given, this chapter will assist in making the right choices for nutrient applications.
With nutrient management regulations and more importantly the price of fertilizer increasing, more
judicious applications of fertilizer are necessary.
Plant Nutrition Introduction

There are seventeen recognized elements that are considered essential for plant growth. Three of these are
non-mineral elements that are acquired from the air and water; Carbon (C), Oxygen, (O) and Hydrogen (H).
The others are considered mineral nutrients (Tables 19.1 and 19.2). There are some nutrients which will be
addressed in this chapter that are not considered essential either because they are not needed by all plants or
that they provide an extra function beyond growth and reproduction, e.g. pest or pathogen resistance. Arnon
and Stout (1939) listed three criteria for essential for plant growth:
1. Required for the completion of the life cycle of the plant.

2. Must not be replaceable by another element.
3. Must be directly involved in plant metabolism, that is, it must be required for a specific
physiological function.
An additional criteria should be added:

4. The element must be required by a substantial number of plant species.
These rules are general and new knowledge of plant nutrition

increases. In ideal circumstances, plant growth may be limited only
by the speed in which biological and genetic processes can take
place. However, in the natural environment plant growth is limited
by many factors including light, water, and temperature, which may
constrain growth before nutrition plays a role.
Justus von Liebeg, a nineteenth century German chemist

developed his Law of the Minimum principle, which states that
plant growth progresses to the limit imposed by the resource in
least relative supply. Liebig suggested that the yield potential of a
crop is like a barrel with staves of unequal length (Fig. 19.1). The
staves represent resources. The capacity of the barrel is limited
by the length of the shortest stave and can only be increased by Figure 19.1 Law of the Minimum
lengthening that stave. When that stave is lengthened, another stave Principle
becomes the limiting factor.
355
The truth is that plant nutrition is far more complicated. What does least relative supply suggest? In a plant,
one nutrient may be needed in far greater supply than another. A nutrient may be in greater supply than any
other nutrient, but is needed by the plant in such quantity, that the amount available is relatively insufficient
for growth.
Non Mineral Nutrients

Carbon serves as the main building block for all organic compounds and life itself. Carbon in the form
of carbon dioxide is reduced and converted to carbohydrates during the process of photosynthesis.
Carbohydrates serve as a the primary storage medium. The ability to synthesize amino acids, nucleic acids
and lipids from those carbohydrate reserves are processes found only in plants and some bacteria. Carbon is
the most abundant element in plants.
Oxygen serves as an important factor during the process called respiration, where carbohydrates and
other carbon containing compounds are broken down for energy. Oxygen is also a main constituent of
organic compounds. Oxygen is obtained from the atmosphere and from the break-down of water during
photosynthesis.
Hydrogen is used for carbohydrate production both as a primary constituent and cofactor for production.
Hydrogen is formed during photosynthesis where it is split from water. Hydrogen, oxygen and carbon are
considered non-mineral nutrients because they are derived from the atmosphere or water. They are needed
by plants in large quantities compared to other nutrients.
Mineral Nutrients
There are now fourteen
6 200
recognized essential mineral
nutrients. All nutrients are 5
150
elements. Nickel was most 4
recently added to the list. These 100
3
nutrients are derived either
from the soil or atmosphere 2 50
(as in nitrogen) and enter the 1
plant through the roots and 0
0
in some cases the leaves. The
mineral nutrients are classified
as either macronutrients or
micronutrients. Macronutrients
are further classified into
Figure 19.2 General Example of Concentration Ranges of Several
primary and secondary
Nutrients Found in Plant Leaves
nutrients. Macronutrients are Macronutrients are on the left and micronutrients are on the right. Note the link
required in far greater amounts between macro and micronutrients. A concentration of 0.02% is 200 ppm. Dark
than micronutrients. There is shaded portion of bars represents deficiency to just sufficient concentrations.
a range of concentrations of (Handrek and Black, 1994).
many of the essential nutrients
as they exist in plant leaves (Fig. 19.2). The dark shaded portion of the bars represents deficiency. For
example, on average, nitrogen is sufficient at 2%. Below 2% nitrogen becomes deficient and above 2%
where the bar is light-colored, concentration is in an acceptable range.
Macronutrients
Six essential nutrients are considered macronutrients. They are required by plants in relatively large
amounts at levels from 10 to 5,000 times greater than those of many micronutrients. Macronutrients are
356
divided into primary and secondary macronutrients. Primary macronutrients include nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potassium. These are nutrients which are typically limiting to plant growth and are applied to soil as
fertilizer. Secondary macronutrients are those that are typically found in soil at relative concentrations to
satisfy plant growth. However, these and other nutrients need to be applied with organic substrates.
Nitrogen is the most important of the nutrients applied and is the basis of fertility programs. Nitrogen has
two forms, nitrate and ammonium, that are important as a plant nutrient. Nitrogen is very reactive and
is affected by many factors including microorganisms. Additionally, the two forms of nitrogen can be
changed by biological processes to atmospheric nitrogen (denitrification) or become part of the biology
(immobilization) of the substrates inside the containers.
Micronutrients
Micronutrients or trace elements are those elements that are required by the plant in quantities from 10 to
5,000 times less than macronutrients. There are eight recognized essential micronutrients. Micronutrients are
mostly metals, except chlorine and boron (which is a metalloid), which are used for enzymatic processes.
Management of fertilizers is based on many other aspects of the nursery or greenhouse apart from what is
in the fertilizer bag. First, irrigation water quality will have an effect on the availability of nutrients in the
substrate, specifically, the alkalinity. As cited in the chapter on substrates chapter (page 230), alkalinity will
affect the substrate pH and in turn, nutrient availability. Nutrients are affected by pH in organics substrates
(Fig. 21.3). The thicker the black line, the more available a nutrient. Note that iron’s line is very thin at high
pH and decreases in thickness as pH increases. The pH for optimum nutrient availability is between 5.4 and
6.2 and most plants should be grown within this pH range. There are however some plants that require pH
greater or less than the suggested range.
Fertilizer Forms
Various nutrients are available in the form of fertilizers
(Tables 19.1 and 19.2). Regardless of source, the same
nutrient is assimilated by the plant. For instance,
organic nitrogen sources contain ammonium nitrogen.
The same ammonium is assimilated in a non-organic
mineralized source like ammonium sulfate. Non-organic or
conventional fertilizers come in a variety of forms.
The three numbers on a fertilizer bag indicate the

% ratio of nitrogen, phosphate and potash, or N,
P2O5 and K2O. The second and third numbers are
not specifically phosphorus (P) and potassium (K).
Phosphate is approximately 44% phosphorus and potash
is approximately 83% potassium. Keep this in mind when
calculating P and K rates.
The nitrogen form will also change the pH of the substrate.

The decision to use specific fertilizers should be based on
irrigation water quality, specifically, the alkalinity of the Figure 19.3 The Effects of pH on Nutrient
irrigation water. Availability in Soilless Organic Substrates
Nutrient availability is depicted with increasing pH
by the thickness of the back lines. The thicker the
The different types of commercially available fertilizers
line, the more available the nutrient is.
can change substrate pH based on their potential acidity or
357
basicity (Table 19.3). The example is not to be taken literally, but to provide an illustration of how acidifying
an ammonium based fertilizer can be. Potential acidity is the amount (lbs) of calcium carbonate to neutralize
one ton of the acid fertilizer. Simply, the higher the % of ammonium (NH4), the more calcium carbonate
would be needed to neutralize it. For example, if 100 lbs of 21-7-7 is used, it would need 85 lbs of calcium
carbonate to neutralize the acidity. Additionally Table 19.3 shows fertilizers with potential basicity, the use
of which is equivalent, by weight, to adding calcium carbonate. For example, if 100 lbs of 15-0-15 is used,
it would be equivalent to adding 21 lbs of calcium carbonate. Note that even though some of the fertilizers
with relatively high ammonium concentrations are neutral (see 20-0-20), they are a source of calcium.
With water alkalinity of less than 50 ppm, consider using fertilizers with potential basicity. With alkalinity
above 150 ppm, consider fertilizers with potential acidity. In any case, monitoring the substrate pH is
necessary.
Some believe that the nitrogen form will dictate the growth of the plant, specifically, internode length. New
research is showing that ammonium does not increase internode length and the use of nitrate fertilizers is
not the reason for compact plants, rather low phosphorus in nitrate fertilizers may be the reason for compact
growth. Do not use nitrate solely to control plant growth if high alkalinity water is present. Find ammonium
based fertilizers with very low phosphate contents such as 20-1-20.
Phosphorus was always associated with improving root growth, but research has proven that incorrect. It is
recommended that low phosphorus fertilizers with N/P2O5 ratios higher than 2 to 1 (e.g. 20-10-20) be used.
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Table 19.1 Formulas, Molecular Masses, and Compositions of Common Fertilizers Used for
Macronutrient Fertility
Adapted from Handrek and Black, 1994
Compound Formula Percent of Elements

(Sources of major nutrients)
Ammonium chloride NH4Cl N, 26
Ammounium nitrate NH4NO3 N, 35
Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4 N, 21.2; S,24.3
Calcium carbonate (limestone, CaCO3 Ca, 40.0
calcite)
Calcium chloride CaCl2.6H2O Ca, 18.3
Calcium hyrdoxide (slaked lime) Ca(OH)2 Ca, 54
Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2.4H2O Ca, 17.0; N, 11.9
Calcium sulfate (gypsum) CaSO4.2H2O Ca, 23.3; S, 18.6
Diammonium phosphate (NH4)2HPO4 N, 21.2; P, 23.5
Dicalcium phosphate CaHPO4.2H2O Ca, 23; P, 18
Di-potassium phosphate K2HPO4 K, 44.9; P, 17.8
Dolomite CaCO3.MgCO3 Ca, 21.7; Mg, 13.2
Magnesium carbonate (magnesite) MgCO3 Mg, 28.8
Magnesium nitrate Mg(NO3)2.6H2O Mg, 9.5; N, 10.9
Magnesium sulfate (epsom salts) MgSO4.7H2O Mg, 9.9; S, 13.0
Monoammonium phosphate NH4H2PO4 N, 11.8; P, 26
Monocalcium phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2.H2O Ca, 16; P, 24.6
Phosphoric acid H3PO4 P, 31
Potassium chloride KCl K, 52.4
Potassium dihydrogen phosphate KH2PO4 K, 28.7; P, 23.5
Potassium nitrate KNO3 K, 38.7; N, 13.8
Potassium sulfate K2SO4 K, 44.9; S, 18.4
Sodium nitrate NaNO3 N, 16.5
Superphosphate: single -- P, 9; S, 11; Ca, 21
triple -- P, 20; Ca, 23.6
Tetra-potassium pyrophosphate K4P2O7.3H2O K, 40.7; P, 16.1
Urea CO(NH2)2 N, 46.7
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Table 19.2 Formulas, Molecular Masses, and Compositions of Common Fertilizers Used for
Micronutrient (Trace Elements) Fertility
Adapted from Handrek and Black, 1994
Compound Formula Percent of Elements
(Sources of trace elements)
Ammonium molybdate (NH4)6Mo7O24.4H2O Mo, 53
Boric acid H3BO3 B, 17.5
Copper sulphate CuSO4.5H2O Cu, 25.4
Iron (ferrous) sulphate FeSO4.7H20 Fe, 20.1; S, 11.5
Manganese chloride MnCl2.4H2O Mn, 27.7
Manganese sulphate MnSO4.5H2O Mn, 22.8
Manganese sulphate MnSO4.H2O Mn, 32.4
Manganese sulphate MnSO4.4H2O Mn, 24.6
Sodium borate (borax) Na2B4O7.10H2O B, 11.3
Sodium molybdate Na2MoO4 Mo, 46.6
Sodium molybdate Na2MoO4.2H2O Mo, 39.6
Zinc sulphate ZnSO4.7H2O Zn, 22.7
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Table 19.3 Commercially available fertilizers that either acidify or increase substrate pH
based on potential acidity or basicity
Fertilizer NH4 Potential Acidity Potential Basicity Ca
(N-P2O5-K2O) (%) (lb calcium (lb calcium (%)
carbonate to carbonate
neutralize per 100 equivalent)
lb of fertilizer)
21-7-7 acid 90 85.0 - 0
24-9-9 50 41.1 - 0
20-2-20 69 40.0 - 0
20-18-18 73 36.5 - 0
24-7-15 58 30.6 - 0
20-18-20 69 30.5 - 0
20-20-20 69 29.2 - 0
20-9-20 42 25.5 - 0
20-20-20 69 23.7 - 0
16-17-17 44 22.0 - 0
20-10-20 40 21.1 - 0
21-5-20 40 20.9 - 0
20-10-20 38 19.6 - 0
20-8-70 39 19.0 - 0
15-15-15 52 13.0 - 0
17-17-17 51 10.9 - 0
15-16-17 47 10.8 - 0
15-16-17 30 8.2 - 0
20-5-30 56 7.6 - 0
17-5-24 31 6.2 - 0
20-5-30 54 5.9 - 0
17-4-28 31 5.2 - 0
20-5-30 54 5 - 0
15-11-29 43 4.5 - 0
15-5-25 28 3.8 - 0
15-10-30 39 3.8 - 0
Generally, increasing percent of ammonium increases potential acidity or the amount of calcium carbonate
needed to neutralize a ton of the fertilizer. Potential basicity is the amount of equivalent calcium carbonate
used per ton of fertilizer. Note that some fertilizers have a percent of ammonium yet have little potential
acidity because of the calcium content (Adapted from Nelson, 2002).
For instance, a 20-10-20 is suitable for optimum plant growth and recent research suggests that even lower
P rates can be used, especially to prevent stem stretch and for non-flowering foliage plants. Some growers
successfully utilize 20-5-20 with an N/P2O5 ratio higher than 20-10-20. Fertility can be changed based on
the plant’s growing cycle. Use very low P formulations during vegetative growth and change to higher P
formulations right before flower formation. Do not use superphosphate as an amendment as this and all
forms of soluble phosphorus leaches quickly from organic soilless substrates.
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Other than N-P-K
There are a variety of N-P-K formulations in fertilizers (Table 21.3). Commercial fertilizers may or may not
come with additional nutrients other than N, P and K. The “complete” fertilizer will have all of the essential
macro- and micronutrients nutrients needed for a plant’s life cycle. There are a variety of fertilizers that offer
different blends of nutrients other than N, P and K. These blends are formulated to give a variety of choices
depending on the plants grown and the quality of the irrigation water. For example, a Cal-Mag fertilizer has
above average concentrations of calcium and magnesium. In combination with high nitrate, the fertilizer
can have high potential basicity. With more ammonium, the same can have a relatively low potential
basicity. Some growers have needed to supplement these complete fertilizers with extra micronutrients,
like iron or boron, when fertilizing at low rates. It is possible that in this situation, substrate or irrigation
water chemistry negatively affects micronutrient availability. Supplements increase the concentration of
micronutrients to overcome inhibitive effects.
Additionally, the plants being grown may require specific nutrition (Fig. 18.2). For example, zonal
geraniums require a pH of between 6.3 and 6.5 for optimal growth. If alkalinity is low in the irrigation
water, a fertilizer with relatively high potential basicity, containing low ammonium and/or extra calcium and
magnesium can be utilized.
Water Soluble Fertilizers

Application of soluble fertilizers through irrigation is called “fertigation”. It is the most widely used
application method in greenhouses. Fertigation can be an efficient method for delivering nutrients to the
plant because the application rate and delivery can be adjusted based on plant needs. However, fertigation
can be very inefficient if care is not taken to apply irrigation directly to the plant or if injection equipment is
not calibrated. It is essential that careful attention is paid to irrigation management, injectors are calibrated
and leaching fraction is minimized to reduce nutrient runoff. The present best management practice
recommendation is no more than a 15% leaching fraction.
Stock Solutions
The most efficient method of applying soluble fertilizers is through an injection system using concentrates
or stock solutions. When mixing fertilizers from scratch, it will be necessary to have two or more injection
systems. Certain nutrients like calcium will bind with phosphorus and the resulting calcium phosphate will
become insoluble and unavailable for plant use. Fertilizer components containing calcium and magnesium
should be mixed separately from components containing phosphorus and sulfate.
Developing soluble mixtures may be less expensive but can be complicated from the standpoint of choosing
the correct types of fertilizers and the amounts to mix together. A knowledge of chemical formulas and
chemistry is needed. Use Tables 19.1 and 19.2 to assist with determining what fertilizers are available and
the amounts of each constituent nutrient contained. North Carolina State University has a downloadable
program (FERTCALC) to assist in calculating the right amount of fertilizer to add to the stock solutions.
The fertilizer rates are merely a suggested range and may differ between species and growth phase (Table
19.4.) For instance, poinsettias may require no fertilizer during propagation and gradual increases in
nitrogen rate from 100 ppm during the initial growth phase to between 200 and 300 ppm during the rapid
growth phase, back to 100 ppm as plants enter the flowering phase. Other nutrients, like calcium and
magnesium, are usually needed to supplement the fertilizer regime.
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Table 19.4 Suggested Rates for Fertilizing Different Crop Types (ppm N)
Plant Type Feed Program (ppm N) Feed Program (ppm N)

(Constant) (Twice Weekly)
Plugs 50 – 125 150– 250
Bedding Plants and Annuals 50 – 150 200 – 300
Woody Plants 75 – 150 200 – 400
Calculating Parts per Million

Recommendations for applications of liquid fertilizer, chemical growth regulating compounds, and root-
promoting compounds appear in parts per million (ppm). Accurate applications can be made only if the
grower has a working knowledge of how to make some basic calculations. Parts per million refers to the
concentration of a material for any specific unit of weight or volume (Table 19.5). For example, one purple
flower growing among 999,999 white flowers would represent .0001 percent of the flower colors or 1 part
per million. Growers use a rule of thumb (though it is not scientifically accurate) that 1 ounce of material in
100 gallons of water is equivalent to 75 ppm. Use this rule of thumb to calculate fertilizer applications.
Example: A grower wants to apply 200 ppm nitrogen to a salvia crop. The soluble fertilizer is 20-10-20.
How much 20-10-20 should be dissolved per 100 gallons of water?
Solution: 1 ounce per 100 gallons of water = 75 ppm 200 ppm divided by 75 ppm = 2.66 2.66 ounces
supplies 200 ppm The fertilizer is 20-10-20 = 20 nitrogen 5 ounces of 20-10-20 = 1 ounce N (20% of 5)
2.66 x 5 = 13.3 ounces of 20-10-20 in 100 gallons of water to give 200 ppm N to the crop
Mixing Fertilizers
To obtain a desired parts per million (ppm) at the water hose, use the following to mix the stock solution:
(proportioner ratio): 1 x (desired ppm) x 1.35 = ounces per gallon stock solution
(%) nitrogen 100
Example:
You have a 20% N fertilizer and a 1:100 injector
You desire 200 ppm at the water hose.
How many ounces of fertilizer do you add per gallon in the stock tank?
100 x 200 x 1.35 = 13.5 oz fertilzer per gallon water

20 100
To obtain an unknown ppm at the water hose when adding a known fixed amount of stock solution:
(%) nitrogen x (oz)/gal stock x 100 = ppm N at hose

(proportioner ration): 1 1.35
Example: You have a 15% N; a 1:100 injector; and someone has put 18 ounces of fertilizer per gallon in
your stock tank. What is the ppm N coming out of the hose?
15 x 18 x 100 = 200 ppm N at end of hose

100 1.35
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Tables 19.5 Injection Ratios and Nitrogen Concentration for Constant Feeding
Ratio 30% Formulaa 25% Formulab

100 ppm N 150 ppm N 200 ppm N 100 ppm N 150 ppm N 200 ppm N
1:300 13.5 20.2 27.0 16.5 24.7 33.0
1:200 9.0 13.5 18.0 11.0 16.5 22.0
1:150 6.7 10.1 13.5 8.2 12.3 16.5
1:128 5.7 8.6 11.5 7.0 10.5 14.0
1:100 4.5 6.7 9.0 5.5 8.2 11.0
1:50 2.2 3.3 4.5 2.7 4.1 5.5
1:30 1.3 2.0 2.7 1.6 2.4 3.3
1:24 1.0 1.6 2.1 1.3 1.9 2.6
1:15 0.67 1.0 1.3 0.82 1.2 1.6
Ratio 20% Formulac 15% Formulad

100 ppm N 150 ppm N 200 ppm N 100 ppm N 150 ppm N 200 ppm N
1:300 20.2 30.3 40.5 27.0 40.5 54.0
1:200 13.5 20.2 27.0 18.0 27.0 36.0
1:150 10.1 15.4 20.2 13.5 20.2 27.0
1:128 8.6 12.9 17.2 11.5 17.2 23.0
1:100 6.7 10.1 13.5 9.0 13.5 18.0
1:50 3.3 5.0 6.7 4.5 6.7 9.0
1:30 2.0 3.0 4.0 2.7 4.0 5.4
1:24 1.6 2.4 3.2 2.1 3.2 4.0
1:15 1.0 1.5 2.0 1.3 2.0 2.7
a
e.g., 30-10-10
b
e.g., 25-5-10, 25-10-10, 25-0-25
c
e.g., 20-20-20, 20-5-30, 21-7-7
d
e.g., 15-15-15, 15-30-15, 16-4-12
Controlled and Slow Release Fertilizers

Controlled release fertilizers (CRF) have become a popular method of fertilizing plants from the standpoint
of labor and efficiency. These fertilizers are coated with materials which make them “slow to release” and
regulate their release rates. In most cases, these fertilizers have improved plant fertility management because
nutrients are made slowly available to plant roots. The release of nutrients may not be in tune with plant
requirements. Popular controlled release fertilizers are coated with either plastics, resins or polymers that
permit water to enter the “prill” to dissolve nutrients and ready them for release. Release rates are dependent
upon the specific coating material and temperature. Since temperature is often uncontrollable at certain
times of the year, there is little that is “controlled” about the way nutrients are released. High temperatures
will increase the rate of release, regardless of the labeled release rates which are typically tested between
65 and 77 °F, depending on the manufacturer. They tend not to release when temperatures are cooler and,
in many cases, when the plants need the nutrients. They release when temperatures are very warm resulting
in salt loading in containers. These fertilizers are typically incorporated into the substrate or placed on
top of the substrate. Fertilizers tend to release quicker when incorporated because of consistently higher
temperatures within the container as opposed to when being on top of the substrate.
364
If fertilizer has been incorporated in the substrate, utilize the substrate as soon as possible. Do not allow
the substrate to sit in large piles where they may begin to compost. The heat generated within the pile will
quicken the release of the fertilizer in the prills. Salts will accumulate in the substrate and, upon use, may
burn plant roots. Before using a substrate that has been stored, check the electrical conductivity. If the
electrical conductivity is above 2.5, leach the substrate or irrigate the plants immediately upon potting.
Monitor the substrate electrical conductivity for the next few days.
In some cases nutrients from CRF’s may be released immediately because of broken prills, imperfect
coating, or from uncoated nutrients added for an initial quick release. The degree of this release can be
easily checked by placing some prills in water and taking electrical conductivity measurements two or three
times in a 24 hour period.
Some growers, especially those who grow plants in greenhouses, prefer to limit CRF use because
greenhouse temperatures can become very warm inside, promoting release of nutrients to quickly. Use of
CRF’s in greenhouses should be done with caution and constant monitoring of substrate salts is necessary.
Slow release is another form of nitrogen based fertilizers. These types of fertilizers are released by
hydrolysis (dissolved by water) or by microbial degradation. They include:
Sulfur Coated Urea– similar to CRF’s the thickness of the sulfur coating determines nutrient release by
water absorption.
Urea formaldehydes – release based on microbial degradation.
Isobutydine diurea (IBDU) – release based on hydrolysis which is affected by substrate moisture and pH.
These forms of fertilizers are urea or ammonium based and are not recommended to be used in greenhouse
culture because of the danger of ammonium toxicity. When utilizing these types of fertilizers, monitor
substrates and check plants for ammonium toxicity.
A new set of management skills are needed for these fertilizers. Substrate monitoring is essential for plant
health when utilizing these CRF fertilizers.
Advantages of using CRFs:

• Can minimize nutrient loss and runoff if manual watering is used
• Can minimize nutrient loss from leaching from graduate nutrient release rates
Disadvantages of using CRFs

• Release of nutrients are not constant because of fluctuations in temperature and moisture in the
substrate.
• Release of nutrients may not coincide with plant needs because of inconsistent nutrient release due
to the above factor.
Application Methods for Controlled Release Fertilizers

There are two methods (incorporation and top dressing) for controlled release fertilizer application. Each has
benefits and drawbacks (Table 21.7).
Incorporation
Controlled release fertilizers can be incorporated into the substrates, however a mixing device is needed to
assure uniformity of distribution. This method is considered a best management practice since fertilizer is
365
contained within the substrate and there is little chance for loss from spilling. There is, however, a danger
for quicker release rates because of consistently higher temperatures and moisture within the substrate. As
noted above, substrate temperatures within the container have been measured well above the labeled release
temperature for CRF’s, therefore there will be times when excessive nutrient release will occur beyond the
plant’s ability to assimilate. Nutrient salts will build up in the container. Therefore, monitoring is essential
for plant root health. Do not allow substrates with incorporated fertilizer to sit unused. Nutrient release will
occur and plant roots will be damaged by excessive salts.
Top Dress
Fertilizers are placed on the top of the surface of the container. This method is utilized when plants are
held an extra season and there is no intention of repotting. If using plug trays or similarly small sized
containers when top dressing, it will be difficult to obtain even distribution of fertilizer. Soluble fertilizers
applied through an irrigation system may be considered instead. When top dressing containers, use the
manufacturers recommended rates, usually based on container size. The rates are suggested in ounces or
grams and typically the manufacturer will suggest a volume that will be close for applying the recommended
weights. For instance, 1/4 cup will equal 61 grams. Note that a medium rate of CRF will be sufficient for
most crops.
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Table 19.6 Suggestions and Precautions for Controlled Release Fertilizer Use
Method Advantages When Precautions Management

Incorporate Considered When adding other Mixing machines Monitor substrate for EC
a Best amendments or may damage prills before planting. Do not put
Management before planting. making nutrient plants in substrate with an EC
Practice. salts immediately higher than 3. Substrate must
available. be irrigated to reduce EC to
Minimize labor below 3 before planting.
of applying Use piles of Monitor substrate for EC
fertilizer. substrate quickly before planting. Do not put
and do not let them plants in substrate with an EC
sit for more than a higher than 3. Substrate must
week or so. Prills be irrigated to reduce EC to
will release nutrient below 2 before planting.
salts within the pile.
Continue to monitor or test
Nitrogen may substrate in lab for N.
be depleted even
though you have Nutrients (especially N) may
high EC. have depleted. May need
additional fertilizer.
Incorporated prills Monitor substrate EC. Should
will tend to release be between 0.5 and 1 dS/m.
quicker especially If above 3 dS/m, you must
during hot periods. irrigate. Check EC again.
Leach if EC are still not
below 2 dS/m. Maintain high
moisture levels in substrate
after.
Minimize leaching by
continually monitoring
substrate.
Top Dress Can be applied If holding plants Take care to keep Prevent pots from knocking
as additional for another season container upright as over and losing prills on
nutrients if or overwintering. to not spill CRF. ground.
necessary.
If additional Apply rates Take care when hand watering
Can be applied nutrients are according to to prevent splashing prills out
at any time. needed in the manufacturer’s of container.
middle of a cycle. recommendations,
usually not more Monitor substrates
Not recommended than medium rate.
to top dress plug
trays and cell Do not broadcast
packs. Rely on prills, apply to each
soluble feed. individual container.
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Management of High Electrical Conductivities (ECs)
Leaching is the inevitable solution to high electrical conductivities in your substrate. If you have EC’s that
are above 2.5 dS/m early in the day, irrigation to container capacity will be necessary to dilute the salts.
Monitor after irrigation. If EC’s have not decreased, continue irrigation until you have water coming out the
bottom of the pot (leaching). Continue to monitor by taking pour through samples so not to over-leach.
EC is only a measurement of salts in solution and does not tell which salts are available. Use EC
measurements only as a guide, and do not rely on them to tell you how much nitrogen or phosphorus is
available. This recommendation is especially true if a substrate with incorporated fertilizer has been sitting
in a pile for a couple weeks or longer. The nitrogen could have been completely used by microorganisms as
they composted the substrate. A high EC reading may occur because of the other salts in the fertilizer which
without nitrogen, are useless to a plant.
Selection of Fertilizer
There are many factors to consider when selecting a fertilizer for a nursery or greenhouse. The cost is
actually less important than the quality, i.e. nitrogen source for acidifying, primary macronutrient balance,
and micronutrient content. Factors like plant selection and irrigation water quality will determine what
is used. In some operations a “one fits all” approach may work, and in others the plants grown will
require different formulations, even different fertilizers throughout the cycle of the crop. Some fertilizer
manufacturers will custom blend fertilizers and may offer a monitoring package to ensure that the product is
being utilized efficiently. Some slow release fertilizers offer blends of different release rates to compensate
for low temperatures common during spring. Manufacturers want your business so be demanding.
Use of Organic Fertilizers or Composts

The addition of organic fertilizers or composts to your substrate may interest organic producers. The most
critical issue about the use of organic fertilizers is the physical and chemical consistency of the product each
time. Soluble organic fertilizers injected through the irrigation system may clog emitters. Be aware that you
may need to flush and clean the irrigation system. Make sure the materials used are consistent in nutrients
supplied. Have your composts and organic fertilizers tested regularly at a certified laboratory. The amount
of nitrogen in organic fertilizers is usually low and the N/P2O5 ratio is also usually low which means more
phosphorus may be applied than necessary. Since these materials can contain nitrogen and phosphorus,
Maryland growers will need to keep track of their additions for nutrient management planning.
References
Arnon, D. J., and P.R. Stout. 1939. The essentiality of certain elements in minute quantity for plants with special
reference to copper. Plant Physiology. 14:371-375.
GroCalc Greenhouse Growers Software. 2003. FertCalc software download. http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/

floriculture/software/FERTCALC.htm. Accessed November 2009.
Handreck, K.A. and N.D. Black. 1994. Growing media for ornamental plants and turf. 3rd ed., University of New
South Whales Press. Randwick, Australia. 448p.
J. D. Lea-Cox, 2007. Fertilization Strategies. In: Green Industry Knowledge Center for Water and Nutrient
Management Learning Modules. J.D Lea-Cox, D.S. Ross and C. Zhao (eds.). University of Maryland, College Park,
Maryland. Published online at http://www.waternut.org/moodle/
Mills, H.A., J.B. Jones, Jr. 1996. Plant analysis handbook II: A practical sampling, preparation, analysis and
interpretation guide. MicroMacro Publishing Inc. Athens, GA. 422p.
Nelson, P.V. 2002. Greenhouse operation and management (6th ed.). Prentice Hall, NJ.
368
Chapter 20
Fertilizer Injection or Fertigation
Chuck Schuster, Extension Specialist
Andrew Ristvey, Extension Specialist
Introduction
Fertigation, the addition of fertilizers to irrigation water, has been a common practice for many years. In
many situations it is more practical to apply a liquid fertilizer through the irrigation system as the plant
requires nutrients than to try to apply it preplant in the substrate or as a sidedress later. With fertigation, the
application of liquid feed can be timed according to plants’ nutrient needs. Fertigation offers growers greater
control and flexibility than traditional fertilization.
Growers need to exercise caution, however, when practicing fertigation. Applications of liquid fertilizer are
more likely to increase the risk of nutrient runoff than applications of slow-release fertilizer. Runoff is one
consideration that must be taken into account. Check the risk of runoff into surface waters from your site.
Several terms used in fertigation need to be defined. The device that puts the fertilizer solution into the
irrigation water is commonly called the injector. However, a more descriptive term is proportioner. A
proportioner is a mechanical device that introduces concentrated fertilizer solution (stock solution) into the
irrigation pipeline. Stock solution is the concentrated mixture of fertilizer and water to be diluted by the
proportioner. The proportioner operates at a preset dilution ratio, which is defined as the volume ratio of
stock solution combined with water to produce a diluted solution, the irrigation water. A proportioner set at a
1:15 ratio will add 1 gallon of stock solution to 14 gallons of water to produce 15 gallons of irrigation water.
In this case, for example, irrigation water with 200 parts per million (ppm) of nitrogen (N) would consist of
a stock solution of 3,000 ppm of N.
When injecting fertilizer into an irrigation system, be careful not to contaminate the water supply. A check
valve must be located between the irrigation pump and the point of injection to prevent backflow of the
fertilizer solution into the water supply. To reduce the chances of leakage past the check valve, an air
vacuum breaker is installed on the pump side of the check valve. We recommend that you install a low-
pressure drain with the vacuum breaker. This is the simplest form of backflow preventer, but one that can
save accidental pollution of the water supply. More elaborate units are required to protect potable water.
Several types of proportioners (injectors) are available; all will place stock solution into irrigation water. All
the proportioners differ in the way they work and in their accuracy. A bladder tank–type unit represented by
a Gewa tank works in small batches. The stock solution is placed in the bladder or bag inside a tank. Part
of the irrigation water passing through a proportioner valve on the unit directs water into the tank around
the outside of the bladder, causing stock solution to be pushed through a valve into the irrigation water. The
process continues until the bladder collapses because it is empty. The bladder tank, which has been common
in greenhouses for many years, can be attached to a watering hose (Fig. 20.1.).
Another proportioner is the venturi device, a pressure differential system that creates a suction to pull the
stock solution into the irrigation line. The venturi functions by creating suction (negative pressure) inside;
the pressure is high on the input side and lower on the output side. The venturi device contains a
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Figure 20.1 Using Proportioners For Fertilizer Applications
The Gewa proportioner illustrates the bladder tank system. Water enters the tank to push the chemcial out
of hte bladder and into the irrgiation line. (Courtesy Gewa and Hermann A. Wirth, distributor)
370
small-diameter passage (restriction) that causes irrigation water to speed up and pass through the device
at high velocity. A small inlet opening into this restricted zone connects to a hose from the stock solution.
Water passing at high velocity through the restriction creates a vacuum at the small inlet and fertilizer
solution is drawn in. A valve may be placed on the stock solution hose to regulate its flow. This device
requires a considerable pressure drop across the venturi to make it work. Because much pressure energy
is lost in the venturi’s flow restriction, the pressure is much lower on the discharge side. The remaining
pressure must be high enough to operate the emitters or sprinklers of an irrigation system. Extra pressure
capacity is required from some source to make the venturi device function. Because this method is more
difficult to control than other methods, uniformity of the final solution may vary (Fig. 20.2.).
Adding the venturi injector into an existing irrigation system may cause problems with low pressure in
the irrigation system. As noted above, the pump must have extra pressure capacity to properly operate
the venturi device. Sometimes the venturi is installed on a pipe path parallel to the irrigation line. Clear
Figure 20.2 Venturi Injection

A venturi injection device works on a differential pressure principle. The venturi is mounted in parallel
bypass when water flow exceeds injector cpapacity. (Courtesy of Mazzei Injector Corptoation)
irrigation water can be used through the straight pathway or valves can be turned to direct the water into the
parallel bypass. Sometimes the venturi device is not large enough to handle all of the flow so water travels
along both paths. The valve on the irrigation line is partially closed to direct water onto the parallel bypass
path and to restrict the water flow to cause a pressure differential.
Another method for providing the extra pressure to operate a venturi device is to add a centrifugal booster
pump to the parallel bypass path to create the higher pressure needed for the pressure differential. This
additon allows the regular irrigation pump to be a more economical size. Pressure gauges are recommended
when using a venturi injector to achieve repeatable application situations.
Positive displacement proportioners use a piston or diaphragm pump to inject the fertilizer stock solution
into the irrigation line. Two types of these units are in common use. In small greenhouses, a water-powered
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pump is used. In larger systems, an electric motor or a gas or diesel engine may be used to operate the
pump. The advantage of the water-powered units is that the injector speeds up or slows down according to
the flow of irrigation water, which maintains uniformity. The water-driven piston is directly connected to the
fertilizer pump piston. Water drives one piston, which is linked to another piston (Fig. 20.3).
The small water-powered units are available in several sizes; units can be portable or permanently installed.
These units can be mounted to pass through all the irrigation water or installed in a parallel bypass loop to
operate on part of the irrigation flow. Irrigation systems with constant flow rates work best for consistent
results. The proportioner is selected by the irrigation flow rate; each size of proportioner is used for a range
of irrigation flow rates. Dilution ratios are usually easy to change.
Figure 20.3 Positive Displacement Proportioner

Basic concept of a positivie displacement proportioner. A fixed amount of chemical is injected into a fixed
amount of water as each piston makes a cycle.
Caution - Do not assume that home stock solution recipes are correct. The size of the bag or the
composition of the fertilizer mix may have changed but not the recipe. Errors have been found in recipes
handed down from one generation to another, and the application rates have been different than expected. To
test the nutrient solution, take water samples toward the end of the injection period to ensure that all parts
of the system are carrying the nutrient-enriched irrigation water. Water moves at various speeds in different
parts of a pipeline system. The nutrient-laden water will take more time to reach the last lateral line off a
submain or manifold. If sampling takes place too early, you might end up sampling the water before the
nutrients have reached the end of the system.
Calibration of the proportioner enables you to verify if the amount of stock solution injected is correct
for the amount of irrigation water that passes through the system. The easiest way to calibrate the unit for
checking the dilution ratio is to place a measured amount of stock solution into a container at the input to
the injector. Find a large enough reservoir to catch and measure the output of irrigation water plus the added
stock solution for a short period, or use the before and after readings on the flow meter, if the irrigation
system has one and it is working well. The goal is to measure the water that passes through the irrigation
system while the stock solution is being pulled in by the injector. If the dilution ratio is 1:30, then 29 gallons
of irrigation water should pass the injector while 1 gallon of stock solution is pulled in or pumped into the
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irrigation line. Try to measure this carefully to confirm the accuracy of the proportioner. Make adjustments
as needed to correct the injector.
Electrical conductivity (EC) can be used to monitor an injector. For a given water supply and proportioner-
mixed irrigation-fertilizer solution, there is an EC reading. The fertilizer is made of salts and therefore will
have its own electrical conductivity when properly prepared. Mix carefully measured irrigation water and
stock solution in the correct ratio (in a small batch) and check its EC several times. Record the average
of these readings. Use the average reading as a guide when you test the irrigation water in the future. Be
careful to determine if the EC meters function well for the range of values to be measured. Some fertilizer
companies list testing guidelines, using EC readings, on the fertilizer bag. Remember that the clear irrigation
water likely has an initial EC value of its own that is part of an overall mixture reading. Precision of the EC
meter affects the accuracy of this method.
Check to see if chemicals are compatible before mixing. More than one injector may be needed if several
fertilizers are to be injected or if combining fertilizers at high concentration will cause precipitation. Have a
competent laboratory test samples of your fertilizer-enriched irrigation water to be sure the concentration of
nutrients is correct. Place the fertilizer injector before the filters in the irrigation system so that any chemical
precipitates formed by the injected chemicals are caught by the filters and do not cause emitter or nozzle
clogging.
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Chapter 21
Care and Calibration of Injector Pumps
Chuck Schuster, Extension Specialist
Introduction
This section will cover how to care for and maintain fertilizer injector pumps or proportioners and discuss
several methods of calibrating these pumps for effective and efficient application of nutrients and other
materials on your plants. Proper care and calibration will prevent under or over application of nutrients and
other treatments needed for appropriate plant growth.
Injectors or proportioners are pumps which automatically mix dissolved concentrated materials like
fertilizers or other chemicals into a solvent such as water. The material is injected into the water at a specific
rate or ratio. For instance, at an injection rate of 1:50 the injector will pump 1 part of concentrated material
into 49 parts water equaling a total of 50 parts of final solution. The concentration of the dissolved material
can be by manipulated by adjusting the injection ratio setting. Often concentrations are expressed on a
percentage basis or on a parts per million basis so it is important to know these units and some mathematical
procedures to be able to calculate the correct injection rate.
Parts of a Pump
It is important to know the various parts of your displacement injector system (Fig. 21.1). Irrigation water
flows from left to right. An external filter is necessary to filter any abrasive particles in the water before
entering your pump. A check valve is placed in-line between the filter and the pump. This is a one-way
valve. It only allows water to move in one direction (an arrow on the valve should point to the pump), and
prevents any fertilizer water from reversing direction back into your water source. Located on the lower
portion of the injector is the proportioner system which allows you to adjust the rate of your fertilizer
injection. Within the body is the piston which moves with water flow. An internal filter can be found on this
model. O-rings can be found throughout the injector.
Piston
Piston Internal
filter
Direction of flow
Check valve
O-ring Proportioner
External filter
Proportioner
Figure 21.1 Parts of an Injector System
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Routine Maintenance
A poorly operating injector can over or under apply
material which may waste material, money, or cause
damage to the plants. It is therefore important to make
sure that the injector is in good working order and is
calibrated to assure a reliable concentration. There are
several types of injector pumps and all have many
working parts. Parts must be inspected on a regular basis
(Table 21.1).
1.Filters, usually placed at the beginning of the hose

located in your concentrate container, should be inspected
for clogging daily. Many soluble fertilizers have some
insoluble ingredients which may plug the filter, slowing
or preventing concentrate from being injected properly
Figure 21.2 Concentrate Filter
(Fig. 21.2). Other filters seen on this model should be
Check filter daily. It should be free of foreight
cleaned as frequently. Input water quality should be
material to allow for the free flow of conentrate
considered when selecting the filtering system used
through the screen
on the fresh water line prior to entering the injector
pump. Frequent cleaning of filters can prevent flow rate
problems.
2. O-rings used to seal parts can tend to dry out and crack, creating leaks. The high salt or solvent
concentrations can deteriorate O-rings and other rubber seals. They should be checked on a monthly basis.
You can lubricate O-rings and seals with a silicon based lubricant but never use petroleum jelly (Vaseline)
because it tends to dissolve rubber. Abrasive materials in suspension may cause wear to pistons and seals
over time.
3. Stock tanks should be cleaned each time after being emptied to remove salts and insoluble materials that
can build up over time. This material may be small enough to fit through strainers and cause internal wear of
the injector.
Tables 21.1 Maintenance Schedule for Injector System
Daily Weekly Monthly Yearly

Check filters *
Check O-rings *
Calibrate * Or at least 2x per
year
Stock tank * Before refilling
Calibrating Injectors
There are two methods for calibrating injectors; the Dilution-Ratio Method or the Electrical Conductivity
Method. Each method is effective and relatively easy for ensuring that your injector is functioning properly
and giving you the correct injection rate.
The Dilution-Ratio Method:

This method is the simplest and can be performed with the least amount of materials. The method calculates
the fraction of injected liquid that flows into a known amount of clear water.
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The materials you will need are:
1) Five gallon bucket

2) A measuring container with incremental volume measurements
3) An EC meter (Fig. 21.2)
4) Calculator
To calibrate with the Dilution-Ratio Method
1. Place suction tube into measuring cup

2. Run injector to purge air bubbles
3. Fill measuring cup to capacity and note total volume
4. Turn on water to the rate used in fertilization
5. Start collecting output into five gallon bucket
6. Stop water flow when either…
a. the five gallon bucket is full, or
b. the measuring cup is empty
7. Determine the amount used from the measuring cup or the amount collected in the five gallon bucket
in gallons
Use the following formula to calculate injector ratio:
Injector Ratio = Gallons of Water Collected x 128 Ounces Per Gallon

Ounces of Water Used From Measuring Cup
Example: You have collected 5 gallons of water and use 10 ounces

from the measuring cup
5 gal x 128 oz = 64
10 oz
The ratio is 1:64 Figure 21.3 An EC meter

Electrical conductivity (EC)
calibration requires an EC meter.
The Electrical Conductivity (EC) Method:

With this method you will need an electrical conductivity meter. Each type of fertilizer has a specific
electrical conductivity based on the desired concentration you make. However, each type of fertilizer
will have a different EC for the same application rate. You cannot use the same EC value for two
different fertilizers even if you are mixing to the same concentration. For instance a 20-10-20 at 200 ppm
nitrogen will not have the same EC as a 15-7-12 at the same rate. Most soluble fertilizers will have a table
with dilution rates and corresponding EC for each rate. There are several accepted units for electrical
conductivity. The most common is the mho (pronounced mō). This unit is commonly found of bags of
soluble fertilizer as mmhos/cm (milli mho per centimeter which is one thousandth of a mho). However,
another unit is the Siemen (pronounced Sē-men). It is often used with these units; dS/m (deci Seimen per
meter) or mS/cm (milli Seimen per centimeter). There is no need to convert values between these units.
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The materials you will need are as follows:
1. Electrical conductivity meter

2. Standard solution for calibration of meter
3. Plastic measuring cup
To calibrate with the Electrical Conductivity Method
1. Run water for at least 5 minutes with fertilizer turned off

2. Collect sample of clear water in plastic measuring cup and measure electrical conductivity
3. Record measurement
4. Begin fertilizer injection and let run for at least 2 minutes
5. Measure conductivity of fertilizer solution
6. Subtract electrical conductivity reading for clear water from electrical conductivity reading for
fertilizer solution
7. Record this number
8. Using label from manufacturer, check calculated reading to provided value
9. Adjust injector or concentration in stock tank accordingly
10. Re-test solution
It is important to test the electrical conductivity of your clear water first because it has naturally occurring
electrical conductivity. This clear water electrical conductivity value is subtracted from the electrical
conductivity of the fertilizer solution to accurately define the electrical conductivity produced by the
fertilizer alone. Using the fertilizer label, check the calculated electrical conductivity reading against the
electrical conductivity value provided by the manufacturer. Adjust injector or concentration in stock tank
accordingly.
Once you have verified the injector ratio you can determine how much concentrated fertilizer (nitrogen in
this example) is needed in a stock tank to deliver a certain concentration of material at a specific injection
ratio with the following information:
1. The percent nitrogen in the fertilizer

2. Desired concentration of nitrogen in ppm (mg/l)
3. The size of the stock tank
4. Use a conversion factor of 75 which converts milligrams to ounces and liters to gallons
Use the following formula to calculate amount needed in stock tank:
ppm of N needed x injection ratio

% N in fertilizer x Conversion Factor (75)
200 ppm x 100 = 13.3 oz / gal

20 x 75
Care and calibration of your fertilizer injectors is important for your plants and your greenhouse or nursery.
In the long run, this management practice will save you time and money and give you piece of mind.
Remember to keep records of your results each time you calibrate and perform maintenance.
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Part 5
Greenhouse Structures and
Environment
Chapter 22 Greenhouse Selection and Placement
Chapter 23 Greenhouse Growing Environment: Temperature and

Humidity
Chapter 24 Greenhouse Systems Maintenance
Chapter 25 Greenhouse Substrates

Chapter 22
Greenhouse Selection and Placement
Introduction
A new or prospective greenhouse owner has important decisions to make when starting or expanding a
greenhouse production system. Whether you are going to run a large or small operation, some of your
most critical decisions will center on choosing a greenhouse that has high-quality glazing, an adequate
and efficient heating system, a winter and summer cooling system, good internal air circulation, uniformly
distributed and precisely supplied fertigation, and a computer or processor control system that maintains
recommended temperature levels.
The greenhouse structure may actually be the least costly item in the system; the environmental and
materials handling equipment usually costs more than the structure itself. Materials handling equipment
includes devices for mixing substrates, filling containers, and transplanting seedlings, plus the carts and
conveyors for moving flats and containers around the growing areas and other laborsaving devices. Having
all of these systems appropriately designed and installed significantly increases your chances for successful
plant production.
If you are expanding or planning to expand your operation, choose a well-designed gutter-connected
greenhouse and a head house. Using a gutter-connected greenhouse instead of a series of single units of
the same total area will save 15–25 percent in energy costs. A large greenhouse will enable you to achieve
labor and management efficiency. A well-designed and placed head house provides a work and storage area
to support the plant growing (input) and plant selling (output) functions of the operation. In the head house
the two functions must be separated; the flow of plants to the growing area must not interact poorly with the
flow of plants going to market.
The most significant expenses to keep under control are capital investment, energy, and labor. Maximizing
profits requires that you are realistic about costs and that you keep your costs under control. Expected
income must dictate the costs incurred. A high value crop produced several times a year will support a
large investment. Producing only a fall and spring crop, however, may limit the kind of facility that you
can afford. Although your production facility must provide a well-controlled environment, an energy-
saving cover (glazing), and labor-saving devices, your investment in the facility must take into account the
expected income from the crop. You also need to consider the real cost of paying hired associates.
Energy can quickly become the most significant cost factor for all operations— whether they are large,
small, efficient, inefficient or even a small hobby operation. Therefore, it is appropriate to emphasize energy
as a major target for cost control.
Unfortunately, beginning growers often ignore the real cost of labor and, even, the real cost of capital
investment. Plant-growing sometimes starts as a hobby or as an inadequately planned venture capital
activity. New growers sometimes purchase a greenhouse at a very low cost from a former grower or
envision labor consisting of low-paid family members.
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Free-standing or Gutter-connected
New growers may ask, “What style of greenhouse should I erect—freestanding or gutter-connected?” First,
however, how large an enterprise are you planning? What crops will you grow? How many square feet of
crops do you need for adequate income? Will your business be wholesale, retail, or both?
For a new grower who wants to operate a productive unit while gaining experience, a 3,000- to
4,000-square-foot freestanding Quonset greenhouse is a good choice. For growers planning to have more
than 20,000 square feet of greenhouse space, a gutter-connected structure is usually the best. If you are
planning a space in the range of 10,000 to 20,000 square feet, a gutter-connected greenhouse is still likely
the best choice.
The greatest advantage of having a gutter-connected greenhouse as a production unit is ease of management:
all crops and all laborers and the entire heating, cooling, and fertigation system is under one roof. When you
enter one greenhouse, the entire crop or production unit is before you. With a series of small greenhouses,
the manager must go into several greenhouses to check on watering, temperature, and the health and
appearance of the crop and to handle all the elements necessary to managing a crop or labor force.
Another advantage of a gutter-connected house is the ease of installing a retractable energy and shade
screen. One automatically controlled screen can be used for both summer shading and winter heat
conservation. While retractable screens can be added to a freestanding greenhouse, they are very costly and
difficult to install and maintain.
To evaluate the energy usage of a modest-sized operation, compare four freestanding 30-foot by 96-foot
double-polyethylene greenhouses to a similar gutter-connected greenhouse, 120 feet by 96 feet with
an 8-foot eave height. If the night set point is 60 °F and the heaters are designed for an outside lowest
temperature of 0 °F, the four freestanding greenhouses will use 13,017 gallons of oil per year. The gutter-
connected greenhouse will use 11,174 gallons, for a savings of 1,843 gallons. Adding an energy screen
to the gutter-connected greenhouse can further reduce the oil consumption to 8,940 gallons, an additional
savings of 2,235 gallons. Today, the recommended eave height is 12 feet; the additional height increases fuel
costs about 10 percent but greatly improves the functionality of the structure.
Gutter or Sidewall Height

Greenhouses have risen in height from 8 feet to as high as 16 feet in recent years for several reasons. The
added height offers valuable space for installing the following: at the top, a thermal blanket (heat curtain),
a black-out curtain, and/or movable shade curtain; in the middle, hanging baskets on movable conveyors;
and automatic boom watering systems underneath but above movable benches. Other combinations of
equipment might use the space in these houses and the added height allows future flexibility.
Another positive aspect of greenhouses with high ceilings is that heat rises. The heated air moves up above
the plants and workers’ space and is drawn away by the ventilation system. The added height increases air
volume for absorbing solar heat. The height adds only a little to the heating cost in winter, particularly for
gutter-connected houses. Height works particularly well for naturally ventilated houses; if your greenhouse
relies on natural ventilation, allow more vertical room for air movement. Historically, high houses and fan
ventilation combinations have not been effective. Exhaust fans are still located to draw the air across the top
of the crop.
Open-Roof Greenhouses
Problems of light reduction and ventilation have been solved by the adoption of a new style greenhouse
structure. The open-roof style is being adopted by growers who use their house for growing through the
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warm season of the year. The roof pivots at the gutter to open fully, so that the roof is positioned above the
gutter when fully open. As the sun moves across the sky for a house oriented north-south, there is a period
of time in midday when the crop receives full sunlight. At the same time there is no closed cover over
the crop to trap the heat energy. Natural ventilation occurs and the crop temperature is nearly the same as
ambient air outside the greenhouse. During summer storms or cold weather the greenhouse roof is in its
closed position.
Site Selection
Because sunlight in the winter is most critical, make sure the site is free of any obstructions that will cast
shadows on the greenhouse when the sun lies low in the sky during late December. Place the greenhouse
away from the obstruction at a distance of at least 2.5 times the height of the obstruction. A slightly south-
sloping site positions the greenhouse well for receiving winter sunlight. A wind barrier on the north and west
will lower the winter wind speed against the house and will help to reduce cold air infiltration.
The site should have good drainage; having a location for a water retention pond helps to ensure some
surface water management possibilities. Drainage is important for removing water from the roof and paved
areas after heavy rains.
Locate the site near electrical power, water, and telephone for utility hookup. A water source is very critical
to the business; assess your water source options in advance of purchase or building. It is very important
that you have the water tested to ensure water quality is good for the intended crops.
Make sure the location has good access to roads and markets. If your greenhouse will be a retail outlet,
accessibility for customers is very important. If wholesale production is planned, trucks need to have easy
access to the facility from major roadways.
Orientation—An Important Consideration

Greenhouse orientation is important in most areas because it affects factors such as direct beam light
transmission, light distribution, ventilation effectiveness, rain entry through vents, and vent effectiveness.
Orientation is generally more critical for gutter-connected structures than for Quonset houses that are fan
ventilated. Also, orientation for effective natural ventilation should have a higher priority than orientation
for maximum light or light uniformity.
Achieving light uniformity is generally more important than achieving maximum light. For a Quonset or
tunnel greenhouse, an east-west orientation offers a slight advantage for obtaining more light, but a north-
south orientation can do equally well in the Latitude of the mid-Atlantic region. Structural members cast
shadows and must be taken into account. Orienting a gutter-connected unit is much more critical because
you want to avoid the continuous shadows cast by the gutters. A north-south orientation is best for gutters
because the gutter shadows move as the sun moves from east to west. Row crops are best planted in north-
south rows, which keeps sunlight distributed uniformly on both sides of the foliage.
Building Permits
You may need to obtain building permits, which can take up to 6 months to acquire. Check what the
zoning requirements are for your location. Some structures may be considered temporary and will not
require permits. Others will be considered permanent and subject to the Code. Check the building code
requirements for your county. Find out if you need permits for such items as sewage systems, driveways,
and building on or near wetlands; find out how to obtain the permits. You may need to meet ADA (disability
access) requirements. Check with local government authorities before starting the project.
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Facility or Business Layout
Develop a business plan that covers the first 5 to 10 years of the operation. Plan a greenhouse range—
the greenhouse building, the head house, and any other support buildings—to show both the current
construction and the space to expand into at some future date. Depending on the type of business, plan such
activities as the flow of incoming supplies, the flow of plants through the production process, and the flow
of materials out to market; show the flow of these activities on a map of the site. If you will be operating a
retail business, show the flow of people and parking. If the business will be wholesale, show the separate
handling of incoming and outgoing materials. Design the flow of material through the greenhouse so that
planting activities do not interfere with gathering orders for sales. Initially, you may want to plan a central
head house or warehouse for seeding, transplanting, and repotting operations as well as shipping tasks. As
the business grows, you can plan a separate facility for gathering orders and shipping.
A goal of the business plan should be creating a facility that will enable the business to grow in an organized
manner. Avoid getting boxed in so that one operation must cross paths with another. Look ahead to
mechanization of operations. Allow space for expansion of supply storage.
Glazing
Double-glazing should generally be chosen over single-glazed sheets of plastic, fiberglass, or even glass,
in order to reduce your heating requirement by 40 to 50 percent. Plastic films made for greenhouse use by
reputable manufacturers are, by far, the most popular and time-tested plastic glazing in North America. The
value of both UV inhibitors and infrared (IR) absorbers is well documented.
Maximum light transmission is most important during the darkest days of winter. During the rest of the
time, high light may be detrimental to production if ventilation is not adequate for removing the high heat
load. While single sheets of glass have the highest transmission of light, at 92 to 93 percent, proper framing
around the glass reduces the light level to about 70 percent. With crop wires, overhead pipes, and a little
dirt, no more than 55 to 60 percent of outdoor light reaches the crop. You can achieve light levels of 55
to 60 percent at crop level by using double-cover polyethylene films or structured panels of acrylic and
polycarbonate if your framing is well designed.
Environmental Systems
Heating, cooling, air circulation, and automatic control systems are important. These topics are covered in
Chapter 23.
Automation and Computer Control

Personal computers are widely available and offer much more than just the ability to control the
environment. Computers also enable you to keep records of the environment used to produce a crop and
much more. It is important to be able to sense and control temperature within 1 degree Fahrenheit and to
have a controller that can make changes as appropriate for maximum crop growth.
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Chapter 23
Greenhouse Growing Environment:
Temperature and Humidity
Introduction
A uniform and controlled environment is essential for maximum crop production. Under certain conditions,
the environment can also be ideal for insects and diseases. The goal of a good growing environment is to
provide the ideal conditions for the crop, while avoiding conditions that are particularly favorable to insect
and disease growth. Energy efficiency is also important for maximizing plant growth at the lowest cost.
A plant’s environment in a greenhouse comprises many parameters. Temperature, humidity, light, air
movement, and carbon dioxide concentration are among the more important parameters (Albright, 1999).
This chapter discusses temperature and, to a limited extent, humidity control. Although growers are able to
reduce humidity in cold weather by ventilating and can wet floors to raise humidity, most growers do not
control humidity.
Fuels
Natural gas, propane, and fuel oil are commonly used fuels for heating greenhouses. In some areas,
hardwood chips or sawdust are readily available for combustion. A few landfills and methane generators
produce methane that is used for the cogeneration of heating energy and electricity. Some operations may
burn used oil, yellow grease (fat) or other alternative fuels. The choice of fuel is largely based on local
availability, price structure, and burner cost. Compare the cost per 1 million BTUs of each fuel. Consider the
combustion efficiency of the heating equipment and its compatibility with the heat distribution system that
will be used.
Heating
Heating the greenhouse uniformly is critical for even plant growth. Regardless of the type of heating system
used, the heat energy must be distributed throughout the greenhouse, particularly around the foliage of
the crop. During the heating season, the proper operation of the heating equipment and the continuous air
circulation equipment is important for growth management.
Heating Methods
Several different methods deliver heat energy to the plants. Forced hot air produced by small unit heaters
or by large furnaces is a popular way of distributing heat in small individual houses and in many gutter-
connected ranges. Larger operations use a central boiler system that utilizes two or three small- to medium-
sized boilers to provide hot water or steam in stages as required for maintaining the temperature. Pipes
placed along the perimeter or under gutters carry the steam or hot water to heat greenhouse air. A third
method places the heating in the root zone through hot water tubing or pipes.
A fourth method of heating uses propane gas–fired infrared burners; heat from the burning gas is radiated
down onto the foliage of the crop. The initial heating occurs at the top foliage but the foliage and other
objects warm the air indirectly. Infrared heating may leave the air around the containers and root zone cooler
than other methods that use air to carry the heat. Consider the crop when you select a heating system.
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Closed and pressurized or separated combustion furnaces (80–85 percent or more efficient) are becoming
more popular for new and replacement applications. Closed combustion uses outside air piped in for
combustion and a blower removes the cooler exhaust gases out a separate pipe. More heat is extracted from
the combustion gases via better heat exchangers, and the air (oxygen) for combustion comes from outside,
not from inside the greenhouse. Warm, moist, pesticide-laden greenhouse air does not pass through the
combustion side of the furnace’s heat exchanger. The heat exchanger is less likely to rust out; leaking heat
exchangers are responsible for combustion gases entering the greenhouse and causing crop damage.
Furnace Efficiency
Check the efficiency of the furnace before purchasing it. A furnace may be 80 percent efficient, which means
that 80 percent of the heat energy goes to heat the greenhouse and 20 percent is lost out the flue, carrying
the combustion gases away. The hot combustion air causes the draft that moves the combustion gas up the
chimney. Closed-combustion furnaces use fans to move the air and thus do not require a large temperature
difference. Efficiencies of 85–94 percent are available.
Avoid Air Pollution from Heaters— Vented and Unvented

Do not use unvented heaters because the combustion gases may contain enough impurities from the fuel
to cause the formation of toxic combustion products. Some crops, such as tomatoes, are very sensitive
to products of combustion. The damage on the plant foliage may lead one to believe insects, diseases, or
pesticides are responsible. Symptoms on tomato are curling, twisting, white spots (SO2), and stunting of new
growth.
Existing heaters may be causing crop damage from combustion gases leaking into the greenhouse. Today’s
tighter plastic houses require an outside source for makeup air to feed the combustion process. On a cold
winter night when the heater is running continuously, the oxygen can be depleted in the greenhouse in 2
or 3 hours. Provide fresh air to the heater through a pipe about the same size as the flue pipe. Run the pipe
from outside the greenhouse wall to near the combustion chamber. Outside, an elbow turned downward with
screening on the end of the pipe outside will keep out rain and animals.
For the regular common heating system, a good upward draft in the exhaust flue is required to pull air in
for combustion and to move fumes out of the house. Air currents flowing over a greenhouse roof affect the
functioning of the flue pipe. The chimney (flue) height must extend 3 feet above the ridgeline for a flue pipe
at the ridge. Flue pipes exiting from any other locations must be 2 feet above a 10-foot horizontal line drawn
to any part of the roof structure from the flue location. The flue pipe must initially be high enough to allow
a 10-foot horizontal line to reach to the roof from the top of the flue, to that you will then add on 2 feet. This
gives adequate clearance above the roof for positive draft without the pipe needing to be above the ridgeline.
A cap on the chimney will help to reduce downdrafts, a common cause of fumes inside the greenhouse.
All sections of the stovepipe must be tight to prevent leaks. Leaks of raw fuel can affect plants. Tomato
plants are good indicators of sulfur dioxide and ethylene, two combustion gases that harm plants. Leaks in
the heat exchanger may be the source of air pollutants. Using a bright light inserted into the inside of the
heat exchanger, inspect heat exchangers for rust and holes. Look inside for rust and look around the outside
for holes through which light can pass. Some dismantling may be required to do the inspection.
Sizing the Heating System

Physical factors affect the size of the heating system. These include the surface area of the greenhouse
through which heat is lost, the temperature differential between the desired inside air temperature and the
lowest outdoor air temperature, and the heat loss coefficient or rate of heat loss through the outside wall
and cover materials. An inside nighttime temperature difference of 60 °F is usually used for the temperature
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differential. The heat loss coefficient expresses the heat flow in BTUs per square foot-hour-°F. When
multiplied together for the coldest situation, the result is the number of BTUs per hour of energy needed
to maintain the desired temperature. This is the output heat requirement for a furnace for that house. Heat
moves throughout the greenhouse by conduction, convection, and radiation (Fig. 23.1).
To summarize, the basic equation for conductive heat transfer (output size of furnace) is surface area (square
feet) times temperature differential (degrees Fahrenheit) times heat loss coefficient (BTU per square foot-
hour-°F). The result of this equation is the BTU/hour of output heat required from the furnace for the coldest
night.
Solar Infrared
radiation radiation
Air
infiltration
Conduction
Figure 23.1 Greenhouse Heating

Modes of heat exchange between a greenhouse and its surroundings.
Example: For a 30-foot by 96-foot Quonset greenhouse with a ridge height of 13 feet, the outside surface
area is roughly 4,300 square feet. The greenhouse is covered with a double layer of film plastic. The
endwalls can be double film plastic or twin-wall polycarbonate or acrylic sheet. The heat loss coefficient, U,
equals 0.70. The temperature differential is 60 °F (70 °F inside, 10 °F outside). These are the components
for the conductive heat transfer equation, Q. A tight house is assumed so an air infiltration component will
be included by slightly over-sizing the heating system. The heat loss for this greenhouse is Q = 4,300 square
feet times 60°F times 0.70 = 180,600 BTUs per hour. This is the heat output required from the heater. At
80-percent efficiency, the heater or furnace will have a fuel input of 225,750 BTUs per hour (180,600 ÷
0.80). To allow for some infiltration air exchange, select a total heater capacity of 250,000 BTUs per hour.
Rather than having one large unit, two smaller units are desirable, which enables one heater to still provide
partial heat should one of the two heaters fail. Two heaters, each rated at 125,000 BTUs per hour, are fine.
At 80 percent efficiency, each puts out 100,000 BTUs per hour.
Energy Conservation
Energy can be conserved by using an air-inflated double polyethylene cover or by using one of the double-
layer rigid materials available, such as double-layer acrylic and polycarbonate rigid covers. The heat loss
coefficient reduces from U = 1.2 for a single-layer cover to U = 0.70 or less. This heat loss coefficient term
alone makes a major change in the heat loss. Reducing air infiltration and the loss of heated air will lower
costs.
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Continuous Air Circulation
Continuous movement of the air around the greenhouse during the heating season helps to mix the air and
maintain a uniform temperature. Under stagnant conditions the air stratifies, with warm air rising and cool
air settling to the bottom where the plants are located. Fans will break up this stratification. Air circulation
helps to eliminate cold air pockets where moisture might condense. Carbon dioxide is delivered to the
foliage if the air velocity is great enough to wash the surface air film away. If the air is dry, the free moisture
on the leaf is carried away, reducing the threat of disease development. Air circulation is an important IPM
tool for reducing environmentally induced problem areas where disease could develop.
Keep air circulating continuously during the heating season. When ventilation becomes the dominant
activity in warm weather, the air circulation system can be turned off for the warm season. The frequent air
exchange by ventilation dominates the air movement in the house. Two methods of air circulation are in
use—the fan jet system and the horizontal airflow fan (HAF) system
Fan Jet System

The older system, the fan jet uses a pressurizing fan to push air down a plastic tube with holes along its
length. The fans and the holes are sized to distribute air uniformly along the length of the house. The air
returns back to the end of the house along the floor. This system has been replaced by the horizontal airflow
(HAF) fan system because the fan jet uses more energy and requires the perforated tube to be replaced. The
older system is recommended for long, narrow houses of less than 20 feet wide.
Horizontal Airflow (HAF) Fan System

The horizontal airflow fan system is recommended for low-energy, efficient air distribution. Small, low-
horsepower circulating fans create and maintain a slow circular airflow in the house, providing uniform
temperature and good air circulation around the plants. The recommended total fan capacity is between 2
and 3 cfm (cubic feet per minute) per square foot of floor area. The larger amount is used in houses with
hanging baskets or other restrictions to air movement. In a typical 30-foot by 96-foot house the airflow
capacity is between 5,760 cfm and 8,640 cfm. Four HAF fans, each with a capacity of 1,500 to 2,000 cfm
will do the job in this size house.
HAF fans are installed 10 to 20 feet from the ends of an individual house in diagonally opposite corners.
Two additional fans are installed 40 to 50 feet in front of the first fan to continue the push on the air mass. In
gutter-connected houses two or three adjacent bays may be paired together so the air goes in one direction
in them and then reverses direction in adjacent bays. The goal is to reduce the number of interfaces between
opposing airflows. The basic idea is to get the air mass moving and to keep it moving (Fig. 23.2a and 23.2b.)
Ventilation and Cooling

Greenhouse ventilation may be required year-round to maintain the desired temperature, provide carbon
dioxide for crop production, and remove excess moisture. Ventilation systems are very important in
greenhouse management and may not be given enough attention by some growers.
There are different ventilation requirements for each season and the choice of fans and a control system
determine the grower’s ability to maintain desired environmental conditions year-round. Natural and
mechanical ventilation are two types of greenhouse ventilation systems. Natural ventilation depends on
differences in temperature and wind pressures to move air in and out of the house. Mechanical ventilation
is air movement driven by fans pulling air through the house from inlets on the opposite side of the
greenhouse. Heat may be reduced by using shading to block the solar radiation from the house. Shading
reduces both the heat load and the light received by plants. Evaporative cooling using a fan and pad system
and natural transpiration through plants are two more ways of reducing heat.
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Motorized inlet
louver Exhaust fan
Figure 23.2a HAF Fans

Two HAF fans for horizontal circulation in greenhouses up to 60 feet long.
Motorized inlet Exhaust fan

louver
Figure 23.2b HAF Fans

Two additional HAF fans are added in greenhouses more than 60 feet long.
Shading
Shading is an important issue in ventilation and house cooling. Shading can reduce the heat gain in the
structure and reduce the amount of ventilation required. Reduce the light to a level that is compatible with
the crop; this shade will help to reduce the temperature rise. Place shade fabric over the exterior of the house
or apply latex shade paint to the outside. Install moveable shade curtains inside the greenhouse and open and
close as needed.
Natural Ventilation
Natural ventilation occurs when temperature differences or favorable wind conditions are present to cause
adequate air movement. During cool weather the warm greenhouse air will rise and go out the roof vent
while cool air enters the side vents to replace the warm air. The large temperature differentials drive the air
movement. In the summer, temperature differentials are not as large; because the outside air is quite warm
initially, air movement is not as great. Wind direction and aerodynamic factors make a difference between
acceptable and unacceptable systems. Select your site carefully and orient the greenhouse to gain maximum
benefit.
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Roof vents
Side
Side
vent
vent
Figure 23.3 Natural Greenhouse Ventiliation

Natural ventiliation using ridge and sidewall vents, motorized for automatic control.
To achieve air movement, natural ventilation systems use side and ridge vents, automatic or roll-up sides,
or just ridge vents. Costs for natural ventilation may be lower than for mechanical ventilation, but success
depends largely on nature and greenhouse orientation; also, with natural ventilation temperature control is
limited. Some newer styles of houses are designed with roofs that open to any structural barriers that trap
heat energy inside.
Older ridge vent and sidewall vent systems should be staged with the ridge vent initially opening in
increments (variable vent opener) during cold weather which allows warm air to escape and cool air to enter.
If this is not adequate, then the sidewall vents should open in stages to allow cool air to enter while warm
air escapes through the roof vent. Two to four stages of vent opening are desirable (Fig. 23.3.). The new
open-roof greenhouses utilize natural ventilation and have the advantage of the roof opening completely; the
result is little restriction of air exchange and little structural shading of the crop.
Mechanical Ventilation
Mechanical ventilation uses exhaust fans and inlet louvers of specific sizes to achieve the correct ventilation
rates. This system can be automated using thermostats, controllers, and computers. The negative aspects
include higher initial costs and higher operating costs. The positive aspect is that you can increase your
control over the operation.
Ventilation systems used year-round are designed to provide at least one greenhouse volume air change per
minute. This means the ventilation system changes the entire volume of air in the greenhouse each minute
or more frequently. Calculate the volume by multiplying the floor area in square feet by the average height
of the structure. Ventilation guidelines (of the American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineering
(ASABE)) vary from 8 to 12 cfm per square foot of floor area, in which “8 to 12” relates to the average
height (in feet) of the building. Factors such as semi-permanent shading, thermal blankets for shading,
and no use of the house in hot weather must be taken into account. Houses not used in hot weather may be
adequately ventilated in cooler weather with a three-quarter volume change of air per minute. Some argue
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that hot weather and higher inside temperatures can come in early spring, which upsets production schedules
for those not prepared to move enough air.
Summer ventilation requires the maximum air movement to avoid excessive heating of the greenhouse.
Changing the air once a minute (one air volume per minute) keeps the air exiting the greenhouse to within
8 to 10 °F of the air entering the greenhouse. Ventilate small greenhouses (air volume less than 5,000 cubic
feet) at a rate of 1.5 air changes per minute for summer use (Fig. 23.4.)
Winter ventilation is needed on bright, sunny days to reduce the temperature and humidity of the air and to
exchange air for replenishing the carbon dioxide. As the outside air is much cooler than the inside air, a slow
rate of air exchange allows the incoming air to mix into the greenhouse air, achieving the desired result,
without losing a lot of heat energy. The objective is to have an exchange rate of 20 to 30 percent of the air
volume. In smaller greenhouses two-stage fans will allow several levels of ventilation.
Motorized inlet louvers Exhaust fans
Figure 23.4 Mechanical Greenhouse Ventilation

Mechanical ventilation uses exhaust fans and motorized inlet louvers to change the air about once a minute
remove solar heat gain in summer.
Staging Mechanical Ventilation

Staging ventilation is critical for good management. A minimum of two stages is desirable. A stage is the
percentage of the total fan capacity being used at one time. A two-speed fan has a low speed capacity of
about 70 percent of high speed. Staging scenarios are shown in the following options using two or three
fans:
Option 1. Two single-speed fans

Stage 1—50% fan capacity (one fan)
Stage 2—100% fan capacity (two fans)
Option 2. One single-speed fan and one two-speed fan

Stage 1—35% fan capacity (two-speed fan on low speed)
Stage 2—50% fan capacity (two-speed fan on high speed)
Stage 3—100% fan capacity (both fans on full speed)
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Option 3. Small fan near peak of house; two single-speed fans
Stage 1—20% fan capacity (small fan near peak of house)
Stage 2—40% fan capacity (one large single-speed fan)
Stage 3—80% fan capacity (two large single-speed fans)
Stage 4—100% fan capacity (all fans running)
Four stages of ventilation add a little cost to the system but allow more flexibility and better control. Note
in Option 1 above: any winter ventilation will cause a large air exchange because at least 50 percent of the
available capacity must be used. Cold air will enter quickly and the house will cool quickly from one end to
the other until the thermostat senses the cooling and turns off the fan. Thermostat placement and HAF fan
operation are critical to managing this scenario.
Option 2 includes one two-speed fan, which on low speed provides about 70 percent of the fan’s full speed
capacity. Cold air enters the greenhouse more slowly than in Option 1 and has time to mix with the inside
air; heated air is not drawn out of the house as quickly. Stage 2 has the same fan on high speed and Stage 3
has the addition of the second fan. This is an improvement because Stage 1 has a lower air-flow rate.
Option 3 places a small exhaust fan and louver in the peak of the house to remove a small amount of
warm air during winter ventilation. The slowly entering cold air has time to mix with the inside air. The
temperature change of the inside air occurs more slowly than in the other two options. Moist or hot air
can be removed without rapid disruption of the indoor environment. The larger two fans then come on in
Stages 2 and 3 to pull air across the house uniformly. In Stage 4 the small fan comes on again to provide 100
percent capacity.
Ventilation must respond to changing temperatures inside the house as the cloud cover changes. Moisture
control requires that cold air be brought into the house and warmed up so it can hold more water. It may
be raining outside but the cool air is actually drier than the warm inside air. Air moisture-holding capacity
increases greatly as the outside air is heated and water is absorbed for venting to the outside. Multiple
staging keeps temperature and moisture control manageable.
Inlet Louvers
The location and size of inlet louvers is also important for achieving success. During cold weather the air
entering the greenhouse is cooler and heavier than the inside air and will settle to the floor. Size inlets to
provide an air velocity of 700 feet per minute (fpm), which is 1.4 square feet per each 1,000 cfm of fan
capacity. The required inlet area (square feet) can be calculated by dividing the ventilation fan capacity
(cfm) by 700. At 700 fpm the outside air flows into the house to mix properly with the warm air.
Evaporative Cooling
Regular ventilation uses outdoor air at ambient temperature. On a hot day the air entering the greenhouse
from outside may already be warmer than the desired inside temperature. By the time the air exits the house
it is very warm. Two options for providing cooler air use evaporative cooling. Evaporation of water reduces
the temperature of incoming air by up to 20 °F on a day with low humidity. However, you need to consider
the local relative humidity over the season to learn the benefit or lack of benefit of evaporative cooling. In
Maryland, the benefit of evaporative cooling is low on humid days when the air temperatures are highest.
You can use high-pressure nozzles to fog the house, particularly near the inlet louvers, to provide moisture
for evaporation. Evaporative cooling occurs when the water in the fog takes heat out of the air to warm itself
and convert it into water vapor (gas). (Water takes 1,100 BTUs out of the air to evaporate 1 pound of water
that is at 80 °F.) Removing the heat from the air causes the cooling. The moisture added to the air raises the
humidity of the air. The solar heat load on the house reheats the air as it moves the length of the greenhouse.
Continuous air exchange generated by exhaust fans removes the warm, moist air and pulls more air through
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the house to keep the process going. Unless the relative humidity is high, several degrees Fahrenheit of
cooling can be achieved.
Evaporative cooling pads are sized to the maximum fan airflow to minimize the restriction to airflow. Water
trickles down onto the top of the pad and moves down through the pad material to wet the entire surface.
The evaporative cooling occurs at the surface of the pad. The exhaust fan pulls the air through the house.
Plants are evaporative coolers. A full greenhouse of large plants creates an excellent evaporative cooling
system as the plants transpire through the leaves. A combination of variable shade along with transpiration
from highly productive plants can be a very effective cooling system.
Winter Moisture Control

One use of ventilation is to dry the house in the evening to reduce the free moisture that may condense
on the foliage overnight as the plant surfaces cool. Moisture that forms on foliage supports disease
development. Botrytis is an ever-present disease in the greenhouse. A cool greenhouse (55–65 °F) at 98
percent humidity for 8 hours and relative humidities above 80 percent in the late afternoon are cause for
concern. Relative humidity is measured using both a wet bulb thermometer and a dry bulb thermometer.
A psychrometric chart allows you to read the relative humidity quickly and easily. This instrument
(psychrometer), which is not expensive, is a tool most greenhouse operators find useful. For a few more
dollars, models with fans blow air over the wetted wick of the wet bulb thermometer. The wet bulb
temperature is the temperature of the air after evaporative cooling has reached equilibrium. Air must pass
over the wick faster than 9 feet per second from a fan or by using a sling psychrometer whirled by hand to
create the evaporation.
In a house with dense foliage or when crop watering occurs late in the day, drying the house in the evening
may be necessary for removing free water. Water may be caused by plant transpiration or plant watering.
This drying process reduces excessive condensation on the inside cover of the greenhouse. When the air
cools down to the nighttime setting, the wet bulb temperature goes up along with the relative humidity. The
dew point is the temperature at which moisture starts to condense out of the air (100 percent humidity); at
the dew point the wet bulb temperature and the dry bulb temperature are the same.
Motorized
inlet louver
Figure 23.5a Winter Moisture Control

Cool air is mixed into warm air by HAF fans while warm, moist air is removed by a low flow rate exhaust
fan.
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Exhaust fan
HAF fans
Motor-
ized inlet
louver
Heat
HAF fans
Furnace unit
Figure 23.5b Greenhouse Air Exchange

After air exchange, cool air is heated to increase its moisture-holding capacity.
Follow these steps to perform the drying process: First, vent the house to remove at least part of the house’s
volume of moist air (Fig. 23.5a.). A small exhaust fan works best and removes the air in a few minutes.
Then, turn on the heating system to warm up the cold air that has replaced the air you removed (Fig. 23.5b).
At no time should the incoming air lower the house temperature too much. HAF fans are great for mixing
the air to maintain adequate and uniform temperatures. After a few minutes of circulating this heated air
around the greenhouse and through the foliage, vent some of this air from the house. The fresh air entering
the house will be warmed and drier than the air you removed.
Sensors and Controllers

Capillary coil thermostats have been used for many years as simple control devices for both heating and
cooling equipment. Low-cost thermostats have a differential of 3 to 5 °F from the set point. This means the
thermostat set for 70 °F (5 °F differential) may respond anywhere between 65 to 75 degrees. Because this
wide range does not offer good control, you must set a second thermostat at a temperature outside this range
to avoid a conflict between heating and cooling. Two thermostats (set at 65 °F and 70 °F) with a differential
of 3 to 5 degrees could actually function on the same temperature, causing both the heating and cooling
equipment to operate at the same time.
Figure 23.6 Control Sensors

Aspirated insulated box with control sensors.
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There is no reason to use the inaccurate sensors. An electronic thermostat with a small differential of plus
or minus 1 °F costs a little more, but it provides the necessary precision and control to maintain accurate
temperatures. The savings in energy cost alone may pay the cost difference in a short time.
Several thermostats are needed to handle the multiple stages of heating and ventilation. Coordinating all
the settings is a challenge, particularly if all the thermostats are not in the same location. Aspirated sensors
are important for accurate temperature measurement. Place thermostats in a box through which a small fan
draws greenhouse air. The box blocks the sensors from direct exposure to heating by the sun. The airflow
helps to ensure that the sensors are exposed to the same greenhouse air temperatures (Fig. 23.6.).
More accurate control is available using microprocessor-based controllers, which handle specific segments
of the environment. Thermistor and thermocouple temperature sensors are used for faster and more accurate
temperature measurements in aspirated boxes. A solid-state integrated circuit monitors environmental data
in the greenhouse and creates output signals. These signals activate equipment based on a set of internally
programmed instructions. The microprocessor, a simple, low-cost device that is reliable and accurate, works
well in the greenhouse environment.
Greenhouse controllers are available in many sizes and have advantages over older equipment. All
components are located in one waterproof enclosure, which lessens moisture and dust problems and reduces
maintenance. Installation time is decreased because all relays, switches, and controls are prewired. Sensors
are remote and can be mounted several hundred feet away from the control box. Fuel usage is reduced
because of more accurate sensing and control.
The simplest controller, such as the Wadsworth Step 50A™, is designed to provide heating and ventilation
integration for one greenhouse or zone. It has three cooling stages, a set point, and two heating stages. The
differential temperature between stages is adjustable, and the unit has day and night temperature settings.
A night lockout will disable one or more cooling stages. An adjustable time delay between stages prevents
rapid cycling of equipment. For a single house, most manufacturers have a basic controller like this one.
Increased capability, mainly in greater number of stages, is available in other controllers, including the
Wadsworth Step 500; the Growmate Series from Greenhouse Systems, Inc.; the Davis Engineering DIFtrol
24A; and Acme-Groton II from ACME Manufacturing.
The next step up from the basic controller are units that control temperature and other environmental factors
and equipment, such as irrigation systems and shade/heat retention curtains. Most of these controls are
connected to a computer for central programming and system reporting. Controllers come with switching
relays wired for each stage. The relays can be connected directly to low-power equipment, such as
motorized shutters, vent operators, and steam or solenoid valves. Equipment with motors that draw large
amounts of power when starting require motor starters or contactors that are activated by the relay. The
starter prevents electric arcing that would destroy the relay. Some manufacturers can supply prewired boxes
with power relays. These simplify installation.
There are a number of features to look for in good controllers: override switches for providing manual
control, accuracy of from half a degree to 1 °F, fixed or differential temperature steps between stages, day-
night settings, time delay between stages, temperature display, indicator lights to show which equipment is
on and which stage is activated, programmable night cooling lockout, aspirated sensor box, and vent control.
Controllers range in price from $600 to $1,400. This compares to $50 each for five or more thermostats that
might be necessary. Motor starters are $40 to $80, depending on size.
Better control of the greenhouse environment means higher-quality plants at less cost. Controllers are
designed to give the precision control that ordinary thermostats cannot provide.
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Chapter 24
Greenhouse Systems Maintenance
Chuck Schuster, Extension Educator, University of Maryland
Heating System Maintenance

The heating system is a very important part of a greenhouse system. Proper maintenance can help prevent
many of the common problems that may arise when we are busy doing other work. Prepare and maintain
the heating system for use before it is needed. Consider your fuel type, typically propane or fuel oil, and in
some cases products including yellow grease.
Fuel oil systems are used in many different settings. Fuel oil can be used in overhead mounted burners to
heat water in a boiler as an example. It is important to prepare the fuel oil systems by replacing the filter on
each unit at least annually. Quality of fuel can be evaluated when looking at the filter. If sludge is found in
the filter bowl, check the height of the draw line coming from the oil tank. It should not remove oil from the
extreme bottom of the tank. Water will settle in the bottom helping to form this sludge. Fuel additives can
help remove this water from the tank and burn it through the system. Protecting the tank from temperature
extremes can also be very useful. On the heating unit itself, locate and remove the spray nozzle. In some
cases a good cleaning can add life to the nozzle. If it appears the spray pattern is not even, replace the
nozzle. It is helpful to keep a spare of the proper flow rate and angle in the supply cabinet, this will prevent
long outages if something should occur during the peak need period. Adjust the igniter electrodes to the
manufactures specifications. This is different for different burners.
Propane systems require an annual check on the condition of regulators. Regulators can freeze during
extremely cold weather. One propane source indicates it is useful to protect from moisture with a cover. As
with oil burners, check the burn pattern and efficiency during operation.
Many heating units are located in individual greenhouses. This potentially leads to media and rust buildup
in the heat exchanger. Remove covers, cleaning the heat exchangers, removing as much foreign material as
possible, this will increase efficiency. Use caution not to damage the exchangers, do not attempt to scrape
rust free, use a brush or low pressure compressed air. Vacuum out as much debris as possible.
The chimney removes exhaust gases from the heater to the outside. No matter what the fuel source, evaluate
the condition of the chimney, and repair or replace as needed. Check chimney caps to determine that no
debris has gotten in the chimney to prevent free flow of the exhaust gases. Worn, damaged or extremely
rusty chimney pipes should be replaced. Failure of the chimney can lead to a carbon monoxide buildup
which can be harmful for the workers and plants in the greenhouse. A CO detector may be a useful addition
to the tool kit when plant growth seems to be lagging behind what is expected.
The thermostat is often the most overlooked part of the heating and ventilation system. These should be
protected from direct sunlight, and from irrigation water. Do not place them where they will be improperly
influenced by opening and closing of ventilation shutters, near doors, or other opening that allow outside air
to enter. Thermostats should be checked using a Maximum and Minimum Thermometer. Watching the high
and low temperatures in a structure and comparing them to the settings on the thermostat can help determine
if the thermostat is malfunctioning.
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Ventilation Fans Maintenance
Ventilation fans move air to prevent excess temperature buildup and potential disease issues. Turn power
off to the unit before doing any service. Check each unit to determine condition of the drive belt and replace
as necessary. Clean fan blades to remove any rust or dirt buildup, this will help preserve the bearings by
keeping the blades balanced. Tubes should be evaluated when the greenhouse is nearly empty for ease of
replacement. Check suspension supports because the more these plastic ventilation tubes are used, the more
they will fatigue and tear.
The inlet and exhaust louvers should be inspected to ensure proper closure when the fan is not
operating. Louvers that do not close fully will allow heated air to escape and waste fuel. Inlet louvers
are thermostatically controlled. These thermostats should be evaluated to determine open and closing
temperatures and may need to be adjusted for different crops. Thermostats should also be protected from
direct sunlight, irrigation moisture and not placed near vent opening or doors.
Overhead Ventilation Maintenance

Some greenhouses use overhead ventilation systems. These systems reduce fan noise and energy costs.
Overhead ventilation can be manually controlled or by a thermostat. Check seals on this system when in the
closed position. Review placement of thermostats as above.
Irrigation Systems Maintenance

A review of all irrigation system components is important. Each emitter should be tested for proper flow rate
and pattern. Filters should be removed and cleaned, replacing filters as necessary or recommended by the
manufacturer. Debris is not the only concern with filters and emitters, minerals in water may cause clogged
filters, emitter pattern distortion and poor flat or pot coverage. This build-up can clog filters, effect emitters,
and be problematic for fertilizer injectors. Visual evaluation is important. While crushed lines may not leak,
flow rate is reduced which may impact flow at emitters or nozzles. Water lines should be tested, repaired and
replaced as necessary.
Review and the pressure regulator making adjustments to meet the needs of all of the emitters. Place a
pressure gage on the end of the line to do a proper test. Controls should be tested and adjusted to maintain
proper moisture levels. Mist bench controls should be tested and adjusted as needed.
Fertilizer Injectors Maintenance

Fertilizer injectors should be serviced as recommended in the owner’s manual. Salts from soluble fertilizer
can cause wear to moving parts as can minerals from the fresh water supply. Disassemble and carefully
clean the injector. Reassemble using non silicon lubricants. The stock tank should be emptied and settled
material clean out. Suction strainer should be cleaned and checked to determine if the screen is still intact.
This prevents fertilizer that did not dissolve from being drawn into the injector and causing possible wear
to the injector or clogging of the emitter. Calibration should be done at this time. After determining the ratio
the operating injector ratio, check the output with actual fertilizer solution using an Electrical Conductivity
(EC) meter. Adjust the injector ratio or change the fertilizer solution to correct it to the desired EC.
Computer Controls
Many greenhouses utilize computers to control various functions including ventilation fans, heat, louvers,
mist benches and irrigation systems. These computers are often not located in the office or clean areas and
risk being damaged by moisture or foreign debris which can decrease cooling or cause electrical problems.
Check computer storage cabinet inlets and clean any restrictions so cooling air may enter. Inspect power
connections, back-up batteries, and all input connections. Check the routes of all sensor wires for damage
and proper shielding. If a phone backup is part of the system, check phone numbers and proper operation.
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Glazing/ Covering
Energy loss through damaged glazing is important to review. Replace all damaged glazing as necessary.
Check end walls for air leaks, repairing as needed. Carts can damage doors and seals, repair as needed.
Check seals on doors for a tight fit.
Evaluate light transmission through glazing. Glazing or coverings that are dirty or poor quality can
negatively affect plant growth and quality. When performing light transmission evaluation review the
following.
UV
Visible Light
Infrared Light
Red Light Spectrum
Blue Light Spectrum
If transmission rate is below recommended standards consider options to improve light availability.
To keep summer temperatures under control and reduce potential excess energy use, shade cloth can be
installed. These can be applied to the outside of the structure, secured to the frame near the ground to
prevent wind damage or installed inside the structure often on a motorized system. The shade cloth must be
evaluated for overall condition, and replaced if necessary. Proper use of shade cloth will decrease energy
usage from excess ventilation fan operation.
Benches
Clean and repair all benches before trying to fill the greenhouse. Remove asbestos benches where
applicable. Remove damaged wood and replace with appropriate materials. Determine weight of plant
material and moist media when considering sizing of supports for benches.
Overhead Plant Systems

Many greenhouses utilize over basket systems. Test motors and irrigation systems to these units prior to
putting plants below or on the rack. Grease bearings where applicable, check motor to drive system belts,
chains or gearboxes as outlined by the manufacturer.
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Chapter 25
Greenhouse Substrates
Andrew Ristvey, Extension Educator
Introduction
This chapter will discuss the physical and chemical properties of soilless substrates or “potting soils” and
will provide in-house tests to examine these properties for developing management strategies for better plant
growth. Other terms for soilless substrates are organic substrates, media, or medium.
Substrate Basics
There are several important aspects of choosing a substrate for a nursery or greenhouse. Substrates,
fertilizers, and irrigation water quality and quantity, are linked together and each has an effect on the other
and on plant growth (Fig. 25.1). The way a substrate holds air, water and nutrients is vital to the health of
the roots and consequently the growth if the plant. Changing one will affect the others. Choice of substrate
will have an effect on fertility and irrigation management. The information here will help a grower
understand substrates and develop management programs to suit the nursery or greenhouse operation.
Substrate
Plant
Irrigation Fertilizer
Figure 25.1 Substrate, Irrigation and Fertilizer Triangle

Each affects the other and the health of the plants.
Substrate Components
There are a variety of organic and inorganic substrate components presently utilized in the industry, and
each of which has its own physical and chemical properties. These components can be used individually
or mixed together to create substrates with different physical and chemical properties suited to the
requirements of a particular crop. Below is a list of typical components commonly found in most soilless
substrates.
Peat moss: There are several types of peat. Sphagnum is the most widely utilized as a main component in
commercial mixes, because of its stability and high water holding capacity. Sphagnum peat usually has a
low pH and often is amended with lime.
Pine bark: Pine bark is another popular component, used especially for increasing the pore size and
aeration in a substrate. Pine bark is relatively stable because it is made of lignin, a material not easily
degraded by microorganisms. There are different grades and sizes of pine bark that undergo various aging
processes. One should inquire about these factors before buying. Ideally, aged or composted pine bark fines
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of sizes no more than 3/8 inch are best. Bark should contain little to no cellulose (wood). Pine bark is known
to reduce the effectiveness of plant growth regulators if applied as a drench.
Coir: This is coconut fiber and has been studied extensively as an alternative to peat moss because of the
environmental issues surrounding peat extraction. Coir has a high water holding capacity and is easier to re-
wet than peat. Depending on its source, coir may have very high chloride content. Consider lab analysis to
determine chlorine contents before use.
Perlite: Perlite is a commonly used substrate component often used as an amendment to increase the pore
space in peat-based substrates. It is an inert volcanic silica that is expanded or “puffed” by exposure to high
temperatures. Because of the internal pores within the perlite, it can actually hold water, however, most
of that water is not available to plants. Perlite comes in different particle sizes from fine to course grade.
Typically, medium and course grades are mixed with peat moss to make bedding- plant or propagation
substrates.
Vermiculite: Like perlite, vermiculite is a mineral extracted from mines and heat expanded. Vermiculite has
desirable characteristics as an amendment for peat substrates as it optimally retains water and air.
Rockwool: Fibrous material manufactured by liquefying basalt rock, steel mill slag or other minerals, and
then spinning into fibers. It is very porous with a high water holding capacity with much of that water easily
available to plants. Rockwool is good for hydroponic or subsurface irrigated crops. Use only the basalt
rock-based material because it is the most inert and will not interact with nutrient solutions. Rockwool has
a relatively high pH so fertility levels must be monitored. Since it is only useful for a few growing cycles,
disposal can be a problem because of its bulky volume.
Peanut Hulls: Peanut hulls are becoming a popular component in substrate mixes. Peanut hulls are
approximately 37% lignin, and are slower to degrade than other materials with greater cellulose content.
Rice Hulls: Rice hulls are also available for use as a substrate component. Rice hulls increase porosity when
mixed with other components like pine bark or peat. However, some have experienced rice hulls settling and
forming layers which restrict water infiltration throughout the substrate.
Whole Tree: With the high demand for pine bark increasing and supplies dwindling, new substrates
are being developed. Whole-tree is a substrate made from all parts of the tree, including the bark, wood
and leaves. While research has shown that it can be safely used as a growing medium, it is primarily
cellulose and may need up to 30% or more nitrogen to overcome nitrogen drawdown from microorganism
competition.
Other Common Substrate Components and Amendments
Sand: Concrete grade sand is typically used to improve ballast (increase weight) to prevent blow-over when
using light weight mixes like peat. However, the extra weight may also increase shipping costs and increase
the workload on labor. Concrete grade sand is recommended because it has large particles and is washed
of silt or clay particles. Therefore drainage can be increased if used. Smaller sand particles may help to
increase water holding capacity.
Lime: Comprising of mostly calcium carbonate (calcitic) or calcium magnesium carbonate (dolomitic), this
material is used to buffer organic substrates and regulate pH. Dolomitic lime is most often used because
it provides both calcium and magnesium. There are different grades of lime. Pulverized lime has small
particles and is very reactive, quickly adjusting, buffering and raising pH in substrates, however it has little
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longevity when incorporated. Pelletized lime is pulverized lime with a dissolvable coating. Its longevity
is only slightly longer than pulverized lime. Granular lime has larger particle sizes than pulverized or
pelletized lime, and therefore less reactive but with greater longevity. Granular lime can be mixed with
pulverized lime to get the benefits of both quick reactivity and longevity for buffering. The addition of lime
should be based on water quality, specifically, the alkalinity of the irrigation water.
Gypsum: Used to add calcium and sulfur to substrates without increasing or decreasing pH. Typically found
in most commercial substrates along with dolomitic lime.
Other Nutrient Amendments

Also, the addition of other nutrient amendments can be made, including granular micronutrient amendments.
A variety of metal (nutrient) chelates, especially for iron, are used to improve nutrient availability. Chelates
differ in form and effectiveness. The pH level can have an effect on the availability of the chelated nutrient.
Iron sulfate was used in the past to manage the pH level. However, it can increase EC dramatically, and is
short lived in organic substrates, quickly leaching out with irrigation water.
One popular amendment called superphosphate is no longer recommended as an addition to soilless

substrates. Superphosphate leaches from soilless substrates very quickly. Phosphorus is a pollutant in
fresh water systems and is a very problematic nutrient. There are now better methods to apply phosphorus
contained in low phosphorus soluble fertilizers and slow or controlled release fertilizers.
Choosing a Substrate
Based on physical and chemical properties, choose a substrate that fits the growing system. Most
commercial substrates are developed for particular growing conditions and are labeled for specific uses. For
the most part, commercial brands can be relied upon to give consistent substrate properties based on plant
needs, however to be on the safe side, before planting, send a sample to a laboratory for analysis or at the
very least, check pH and EC of each lot purchased. See monitoring methods in sections 3.2 and 6.0 below.
Some substrates have preincorporated amendments that increase EC to over 2.5 dS/m, which can be initially
high if irrigation is not immediately applied after planting.
Physical Properties
What are the key factors that determine how a substrate holds air and water? These properties are Air-Filled
Porosity (AFP) and Water Holding Capacity (WHC). Air-Filled Porosity is the amount of air, by volume,
that a substrate holds after irrigation and after drainage. Water Holding Capacity is the amount of water, by
volume, that a substrate holds after irrigation and drainage.
There are many factors that determine AFP and WHC in organic substrates, but specifically the direct factor
is the porosity and pore size created by the components of the substrate. Pore size and the distribution of
pores in soilless substrates influences AFP and WHC. While particle size plays a direct role in soils, there is
less influence of particle size to AFP and WHC in soilless substrates. While it is true that large particles like
pine bark create large pores, the bark itself also has internal pore space that holds water. However this water
may not necessarily be available to plants. Of course, substrates with a lot of small particles will have a high
WHC. So, to some extent, particle size does play a role in AFP and WHC, but it is the composition of the
substrate itself that is the primary factor.
Capillary forces are the attraction of water to surfaces strong enough to overcome gravitational forces. The
smaller the pore space the stronger the capillary force, and the more water a substrate will hold, including
internal pores within large particles.
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Other Factors Affecting AFP and WHC of the Substrate
Age: Substrate degrade as they age which increases the amount of small particles and decreases pore
size. The aging process will typically increase WHC and decrease AFP. It is not recommended to reuse
a substrate for successive growing cycles. This avoids the need to adjust irrigation management among
pathogen problems carried on from the last use.
Container Geometry: Given the same substrate, smaller and squatter containers will hold more water than
larger taller containers on a percent volume basis.
Handling: Poor handling habits of substrates can reduce the pore size of the substrate. Smaller pores will
increase WHC and reduce AFP. For example, when placing plugs in pots, do not compress the substrate
around the plug and do not stack trays or pots on top of each other. This compresses the substrate and
reduces pore size and AFP. Allow irrigation water to naturally compress the substrate around the roots.
Field Test for AFP and WHC

An in-house field test can determine AFP and WHC of substrates in containers. This test uses water to
determine the percent volume of AFP and WHC by taking weight measurements. This test can be done
before plants are placed in containers or with a plant in the container to test how the substrate has changed
over the growing cycle. The latter method is especially helpful if plants have been in a container for over
one year. Note that one gram (a unit of mass) of water is equal to one cubic centimeter or one milliliter (a
unit of volume) and mass can be converted to volume with the metric system. If a metric measuring device
is not available, ounces can be converted to grams (One ounce equals twenty-eight grams).
What is needed:
1) A typical growing container; 2) A scale that can measure at least 15 pounds or 7 kilograms or a
beaker to measure water volume; and 3) A measuring device that utilizes the metric system of
measurement
Steps:
1. Find a common container, tape the holes and weigh it. Record the weight as W4.
2. Fill the container with water to the level of which it is typically filled with substrate and weigh it.
Record the weight as W3. Alternatively, directly measure the volume to which the container is filled.
3. Fill the container with substrate to the level of the water in the first measurement. The substrate
should not be completely dry, in fact, the next step will go quicker if the substrate is moist. Most
organic substrates repel water when completely dry.
4. Slowly add water to the container, saturating the substrate and allowing the water to evacuate the air.
Water should be visible at the top of the substrate. Weigh the container and record the weight as W1.
5. Remove the tape and allow the water to drain for an hour, letting the substrate come to container
capacity. Weigh the container making sure to keep the container level. Tipping the container will
allow more water to come out. Record the weight as W2. Alternatively, the water can be captured
and be directly measured as the volume that came out of the container.
6. % AFP = (W1 – W2) ÷ (W3 – W4) x 100
7. If the volumes have been recorded directly, the volume of water that came out of the container is
the AFP. Calculate % AFP by dividing the volume that drained from the total volume of the
container and multiplying by 100.
8. To test for WHC dry the same substrate in an oven for 48 hours at 180 °F. Weigh the substrate and
record as W5.
9. % WHC = (W2 – (W5 +W4) ÷ W3) x 100. Remember to do the math inside the ( ) first, then
subtract from W2, and then divide by W3. Multiply by 100.
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Recommendations
For this field test, substrates growing annuals and plugs in small containers, it is recommended that AFP
is around 15 to 20%. IF the AFP is any lower than that, then the roots should be monitored often. For
containers greater than 1 pint and substrates with pine bark, AFP’s should be between 20 and 35%. Some
nurseries choose to have AFP’s greater than 35% mainly when growing fine-rooted ericaceous species like
azalea. These highly porous substrates hold very little water and leach quickly. In this case, the irrigation
manager needs to water these plants often in short durations. The irrigation manager should manage
irrigation carefully as these highly porous substrates are prone to leaching and nutrient loss.
Chemical Properties
Organic substrates are not inert, although they are not as chemically reactive as soils. Since soilless
substrates are comprised mainly of organic components, they have more cation exchange capacity (CEC)
and less anion exchange capacity. Cations are positively charged ions and include most of the micronutrients
and many macronutrients. They include iron, magnesium, calcium, potassium etc.. The anions are negatively
charged ions and they include nutrients like sulfur in the form of sulfate, phosphorus in the form of
phosphate and nitrate. Anions are not held by organic substrates and are easily leached. The most important
nutrients for management are both anions; nitrate and phosphate which is why an irrigation manager must
know the water holding capacity of their substrate to prevent leaching. Another important factor that plays a
role in nutrient availability is pH. Both CEC and pH affect nutrient availability.
Substrate Cation Exchange Capacity

Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is the ability of the soil or soilless substrate to exchange cations. Since
many nutrients are cations, it is a direct relation to fertility. Buffering capacity is also associated with CEC
as this helps substrates to resist sudden changes in pH. The more aged or humified (biologically aged
organic matter) components in the substrate, the higher the CEC. Organic substrates, including those with
sphagnum peat or aged pine bark typically have good CEC.
Substrate pH
Nutrient availability depends on pH in soils and in soilless substrates. pH is the amount of hydrogen ions
(H+) in an aqueous solution (water) and ranges from 0 (most acidic) to 14 (most basic). The amount of
hydrogen ions are exponentially and inversely related to the pH value. There are 10 times more hydrogen
ions in a solution with a pH of 2 than in a solution with a pH of 3, a 100 times more than a solution of 4
and 1000 times more than a solution of 5. Since the hydrogen ion is positively charged, it interacts with
nutrients, making them more or less available for uptake by plants depending on the pH level. For instance,
low pH makes iron and manganese more available and high pH makes the same nutrients less available
(Table 25.1). In soilless substrates it is recommended that the pH be between 5.5 and 6.2 for optimal nutrient
availability, but the pH may need to be adjusted for a specific plant’s needs (Fig. 25.2).
Table 25.1 Effects of pH on Nutrient Availability in Soilless Substrates
Nutrient Very low pH Low pH Optimum pH High pH

Availability (less than 5.0) (5.0 - 5.5.) (5.5 - 6.4) (6.4+)
Soluble: available Manganese, iron, Maximum availability Molybdenum,
to plant roots copper, zinc, and boron of essential nutrients magnesium, calcium
Insoluble: not Magnesium, calcium Molybdenum, calcium, Phosphorus, iron,
available to plant magnesium, sulfur manganese, copper,
roots zinc, boron
Highly soluble: Manganese, iron,
toxic levels copper, zinc, boron
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Species pH Range
4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 7.0
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Crossandra
Eustoma
Astilbe
Calendula
Campanula
Crocus
Dianthus
Exacum
Freesia
Hyacinth
Narcissus
Pentas
Celosia
Dianthus
Gernaium
Marigold, Afr.
Rununculus
Amaryllis
calceolaria
Dracaena
Easter Lily
Ivy, English
Oxalis
Pepper, Orn.
Sunflower
African Violet
Christmas
cactus
Hibisucus
Kalanchoe
Aster, Garden
Begonia
Caladium
Clerodendrum
Echinacea
Primula
Rose
Chrysanthmum
Hydrangea
(Pink)
Impatiens, NG
General Crops
Bougainvillea
Poinsettia
Gerbera
Gloxinia
Streptocarpus
Pansy
Petunia
Salvia
Snapdragon
Vinca
Cyclamen
Orchids
Hydrangea
(blue)
Azalea
4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 7.0
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Figure 25.2 Suggested Substrate pH ranges for specific greenhouse crops in soilless substrate.
Source: Whipker, B.E., W. Fonteno, D. Baily, and T. Calvins. N.d. Recording, Interpreting, and Managing Substrate pH. In
PourThru Nutritional Monitoring Manual. North Carolina State University.
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Irrigation Water Quality: Effects on Substrates
Water alkalinity is the amount of carbonates and bicarbonates dissolved in the irrigation water. The higher
the alkalinity, the greater the buffering against change in pH as carbonates absorb hydrogen ions. However,
a water supply can have too much alkalinity (above 150 ppm) which can eventually increase the pH in a
substrate, leading to certain nutrient deficiencies like iron or manganese. The addition of an acid injection
system can alleviate problems with alkalinity. Be sure to have the irrigation water tested to determine
alkalinity. Check with an extension agent for help in determining what actions to take, whether it is acid
injection or through amending a substrate with lime.
Managing Substrate pH
There are several biological and cultural reasons that cause pH to increase or decrease apart from irrigation
water quality. Some plants like zonal geraniums, marigolds and tomato naturally acidify the substrate so
they require slightly higher pH substrates than other species. Other species like petunias, pansies and vinca
naturally increase substrate pH.
Nitrogen fertility plays a large role in substrate pH. The use of nitrate increases the pH of substrates and the
use of ammonium acidifies substrates. If there is a requirement for one of these in the fertility management,
especially for the use of nitrate, it is recommended that consistent substrate monitoring be part of the
management strategy.
Amending Substrates and Adjusting pH

Since pH plays an important role in nutrient availability, some modifications may need to be made to
substrates if they are being mixed at the nursery. Preincorporating (mixing before potting) amendments to
control pH, cation exchange capacity, or nutrition is commonplace for nurseries that have decided to make
their own mixes. After planting there are methods for managing substrate pH including use of specific
fertilizers.
Lowering pH
Organic substrates, especially sphagnum peat moss and pine bark are naturally acidic, so little needs to be
done pre-planting to maintain low pH. Some amendments have been used in that past including elemental
sulfur or iron sulfate. However, the most effective methods for keeping pH low are using acid fertilizers or
acid injection (typically with 35% sulfuric acid). Remember that, sulfuric acid is a very strong acid which
requires great care in handling.
Recommendations for sulfuric acid injection are based on the water test and the meq/L of alkalinity shown
on the test results. Eleven ounces of sulfuric acid (35%) per 1000 gallons of water are required mitigate each
meq/L of alkalinity. This procedure may need to be adjusted depending on the irrigation water’s pH.
For a quick remedy, an iron sulfate drench at 1.5 lbs per 100 gallons can be used but this dramatically
increases EC and can damage foliage if applied on leaves. Care must be taken and EC monitoring is
essential.
Increasing pH - Liming Substrates

The main reason to add lime is to buffer the substrate from rapid changes in pH. There are two main types
of lime, dolomitic with both magnesium and calcium carbonates and oxides. Calcitic lime only contains
calcium carbonate and oxide. Dolomitic lime is usually recommended because it contains both calcium and
magnesium in the correct proportions for plants. There are three types of liming materials. Pulverized lime is
powdered lime. It has a quick affect but does not last long in the substrate. Pelletized lime is pulverized lime
with a sticking agent that dissolved with water. Its longevity is only slightly longer than pulverized lime
alone. Granular lime has larger particles so it lasts much longer than pulverized lime. It is recommended
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that for crops that stay in the nursery for longer than 6 months, a mixture of pulverized and granular lime
be incorporated. So is there a magic formula or rate of lime for all substrates? The answer is no. Actually,
liming depends on something apart from the substrate. The most important factor the substrate manager
must consider is water quality and water alkalinity.
Liquid lime is most often used as a management tool for immediate increase pH in substrates that have
become too acidic during the growing cycle. It is mixture of lime and water. It is typically used at a rate of
between 1 and 4 quarts of lime to 100 gallons of water and applied directly to the surface of the substrate.
The higher the concentration of lime, the more effectively it raises the substrate pH. Residues on plant
tissue should be rinsed immediately after to prevent burn. Substrate pH should be monitored within 24 hours
after use and consecutively throughout the week after application. After 24 hours, if the pH range is above
7.0, irrigate plants to leach and continue to monitor.
Chemical Properties Monitoring

Monitoring pH and Electrical Conductivity (EC) in the nursery or greenhouse is a vital management strategy
for ensuring plant root health. Electrical conductivity is a measurement of soluble salts in the media and
can give an indication of the nutrient load in a container. However measuring EC is a management tool
for quickly detecting problems. It cannot give any specific information about which nutrients are in the
substrate or their concentration.
There are several methods for testing for pH and electrical conductivity including the Virginia Pour-
Through, Saturated Media Extract (SME), or a ratio of substrate and water as in a 1:1.5 dilution. The pour-
through is the easiest and least disruptive but may incur the most error. The SME will be most consistent but
will require samples of media from the root area of the plants. It is most important to choose one method
and continuously use it. With each of these methods, distilled water should be used. If distilled water is not
available then irrigation water will suffice, but the EC of that water should be subtracted from the final EC
result. High alkalinity water will skew pH results. The two tests most commonly used are the Virginia Pour-
Through and the SME, which are explained below. Some growers have hand held probes that can be stuck
directly into the substrate, although the substrate must be moist for consistent results.
Monitoring should be done on a frequent basis, but at least during times of low humidity and hot
temperatures, as soon as amendments are incorporated into substrates, or even over winter when warm
temperatures exist in the greenhouses or overwintering houses.
Maryland Pour Through

• This method should be performed after an irrigation event when the containers are at or near
saturation.
• Place a tray under the plant container to collect water.
• For a 6 inch diameter container, pour about 3 ounces (approx. 100 ml) of distilled water evenly
over the top of the substrate, or enough to collect about 2 ounces (approx. 60 ml) of leached water.
• Measure the EC and pH of the sample.
• For containers 1 pint and larger, tip the container 45 degrees and collect a sample of water from the
drain hole, instead of pouring water into the container. Be sure there is enough sample to cover the
probes electrodes.
• This process should be repeated on as many containers and in different places as possible to access
the population of containers and determine where plants need water or nutrients.
Saturated Media Extract (SME)

• Collect substrate from individual containers or collect any subsamples and combine. For smaller
containers such as plug trays, plants will need to be sacrificed in order to obtain substrate samples.
408
Grow extra trays for monitoring purposes and disperse them throughout the growing area to have
representative samples within the nursery or greenhouse.
• Collect about 1 pint (about 500 mls) of substrate.
• Add distilled water until substrate just becomes saturated with water just appearing at the top of
the substrate. Be consistent with the appearance and it will not matter to what level the water
saturates the substrate.
• Let the sample equilibrate for at least 30 minutes
• Carefully place probe in saturated media and measure EC and pH in sample.
Dilution
• This method is simpler in procedure than the SME.
• Take one part substrate, by volume and add 1.5 parts water.
• Allow to sit for an hour and test liquid portion.
Detailed documentation is the most important action next to monitoring. Keeping records provides a history
of cultural environment for use later if or when problems arise. With all these monitoring programs, develop
a habit of regular record keeping, and always have records easily available.
Table 25.2 Interpreting Electrical Conductivity Values From Different Methods
These EC recommendations are adapted from “On-site Testing of Growing Media and Irrigation Water”,
a British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture fact sheet revised in 1999. Values have been adjusted to meet
present fertility strategies. Values differ greatly within Indication levels, and merely serve as a guideline.
Experience is necessary with each of these methods.
1:5 1:1.5 SME Pour Through1 Indication

0 to 0.11 0 to 0.35 0 to 0.50 0 to 0.50 Low – nutrient levels may not be suf-
ficient for some plants. High-end of
range suitable for seedlings and salt
sensitive plants.
0.11 to 0.35 0.35 to 1.25 0.50 to 2.0 0.50 to 2.0 Normal – Standard root range for most
established plants. Lower-end of range
typical for normal fertility.
0.35 to 0.65 1.25 to 2.5 2.0 to 3.5 2.0 to 4.6 High – suitable for salt tolerant plants
but mid to high end of this range may
damage roots.
0.65 to 1.1 2.5 to 3.5 3.5 to 4.5 4.6 to 6.5 Very High – May result in salt injury,
reduced growth and root death. Dilution
or Leaching by irrigation necessary.
> 1.1 > 3.5 > 4.5 > 6.6 Extreme – Immediate leaching is re-
quired.
1
Due to the variability of the Pour Through technique results, growers should always compare their results
to the SME method to establish acceptable ranges.
409
Making Home-Made Substrate
Start by finding components like the ones listed at the beginning of this chapter that will give adequate
moisture retention, but are porous enough to permit the exchange of oxygen. The mix should have a low
initial electrical conductivity, and should have some ability to freely exchange nutrients with the plant roots.
The substrate should be stable, able to resist breaking down, and free of pathogens. Finally, a substrate
that is reliably consistent with these properties from batch to batch is important so continual adjustment of
management strategies, especially irrigation will not be necessary. Some typical recipes are as follows:
Germination and annual mixes should have a relatively high water holding capacity because the plants are
growing in small containers with limited volume like plug trays or cell-packs. Plant containers larger than
plug and cell packs may require substrate components with larger particle sizes like pine bark.
The following are typical substrates with a wide range of component ratios by volume, depending on the
plants being grown or the containers in which they are grown.
• Germination, Annual, and Bedding Mixes for plug trays and cell packs
0-20% Pine Bark, 40-80% Sphagnum Peat, 10-40% Perlite, with dolomitic lime and gypsum
• Perennial Mixes for containers 1 gallon or less in size:

25-60% Pine Bark, 40-60% Sphagnum Peat, 0-40% Perlite with dolomitic lime, and gypsum
• Woody Shrubs and Trees for containers of a gallon or more

70-100% Pine Bark, 0-30% Sphagnum Peat, 0 to 20% concrete grade sand, with dolomitic lime, and
gypsum.
Other components or amendments that may be considered for incorporation in the mix are nutrients in the
form of controlled release fertilizers or micronutrient charges. Substrates with pre-incorporated controlled
release fertilizers should be utilized quickly and should not sit for more than a week or two. Substrates
exposed to rain and sun, particularly with large piles, incorporated controlled release fertilizer may begin to
release fertilizer salts into the substrate. A very high electrical conductivity may result and this could kill
tender new roots after potting. Be sure to consistently monitor substrates with preincorporated fertilizers for
pH and EC, especially before potting.
Surfactants or wetting agents are often utilized in commercial substrates to aid in irrigation, especially if
substrates become dry. Consider using these materials to help get the substrates wet after potting, and to
assist irrigation during the crop cycle. They are available in liquid and granular form.
Monitoring Equipment, Care and Calibration

Hand held pH and EC sensors are available from a variety of manufacturers. These are necessary for
substrate monitoring.
Most good pH and EC probes need care and calibration. Many are made of glass membranes, which need to
remain moist and be contained in a special buffer solution. After purchasing a pH and EC probe, remember
to also purchase electrode buffer solution, and calibration solutions for both electrical conductivity and pH
(7.01 and 4.01). Different EC meters require different calibration solutions. Remember to inquire about
which calibration solutions to purchase for the EC probe as they come in several different strengths.
410
References
Bailey, D. and T. Bilderback. 1998. Alkalinity Control for Irrigation Water Used in Nurseries and
Greenhouses. HIL #558. http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/hil/hil-558.html.
Day, S.D., J.R. Harris, and S.B. Dickinson. 2008. Basic Overview of Soils and Substrates. In Green Industry
Knowledge Center for Water and Nutrient Management Learning Modules. Eds. Lea-Cox, J., D. Ross, and
A. Ristvey. College Park, Maryland.
Day, S.D., S.B. Dickinson , and J.R. Harris . 2008. Physical Properties of Substrates. In Green Industry
Dickinson, S.B., J.R. Harris, and S.D. Day. 2008. Substrate, Materials and Ecology. In Green Industry
Knowledge Center for Water and Nutrient Management Learning Modules. J.D Lea-Cox and D. Ross (Eds.)
University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland.
Dickinson, S.B., S.D. Day, and J.R. Harris. 2008. Chemical Properties of Substrates. In Green Industry
Handreck, K.A. and N.D. Black. 1994. Growing media for ornamental plants and turf. 3rd ed.
University of New South Whales Press. Randwick, Australia. 448p.
Wallach R. 2008. Physical Characteristics of Soilless Media. In Soilless Culture: Theory and Practice. Eds.
Raviv, M. and J Heinrich Lieth. Elvselvier, Boston. Pp 41-108
411
Part 6
Appendix
Appendix A Selected Resources
Appendix B Conversion Factors
Appendix C Images of Insects, Diseases, Weeds and Abiotic Problems

Appendix A
Selected Resources
Resources Available for Greenhouse Production

The following is a selection of resources for commercial horticulture production. Included here are books,
fact sheets, magazines, and websites applicable to greenhouse production and pest management. This list is
by no means complete. Land-grant university extension websites have publications’ sections with a wealth
of information about commercial horticulture. Internet searches can be an effective way to find additional
information.
Greenhouse IPM Publications
Herbaceous Perennials Production: A guide from propagation to marketing (NRAES-93)

http://palspublishing.cals.cornell.edu/
Integrated Pest Management for Bedding Plants: A Scouting & Pest Management Guide
Cornell University
http://www.nysipm.cornell.edu/publications/
New England Greenhouse Floriculture Guide: A Management Guide for Insects, Diseases, Weeds, and
Growth Regulators
http://www.umass.edu/umext/floriculture/pest_management/ne_pest_manage_guide.html
Guide to Insects and Related Pests of Floriculture Crops in New England

New England Vegetable Management Guide
UMass Extension Bookstore
http://umassextensionbookstore.com/catalog/
Rutgers Greenhouse Cost Accounting and Software

http://aesop.rutgers.edu/~farmmgmt/ghcasestudies/RMACostAcct.pdf
Websites
University of Maryland College of Agriculture and Natural Resources

http://agnr.umd.edu
IPMnet: Commercial Ornamental Horticulture, University of Maryland Extension

http://extension.umd.edu/ipm
Home and Garden Information Center, University of Maryland Extension

http://extension.umd.edu/hgic
California Department of Pesticide Regulation, Environmental Monitoring and Pest Management

Suppliers of Beneficial Organisms in North America (1997):
http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/pestmgt/ipminov/bensuppl.htm
415
Crop Data Management Systems (CDMS) - Pesticide labels online
http://cdms.net
Biological Control—A Guide to Natural Enemies in North America (Cornell University)

http://www.biocontrol.entomology.cornell.edu/index.php
Maryland Nursery, Landscape, and Greenhouse Growers Association

http://www.mnlga.org/
Maryland Department of Agriculture— Plant Industries and Pest Management

Links to pesticide regulation, plant protection, and weed control
http://mda.state.md.us/plants-pests/
NPIC Product Research Online (NPRO)

http://npic.orst.edu/NPRO/
University of California: Floriculture and Ornamental Nurseries - Biological Control

http://ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/r280390111.html
Disease Test Kits
Test kits for Pythium, Rhizoctonia and Phytophthora

Neogen Corporation
620 Lesher Place, Lansing, MI 48912
800-234-5333, http://neogen.com
INSV Test Kits
Agdia, Inc.
30380 County Road 6, Elkhart, Indiana, 46514
800-622-4342, http://agdia.com
Hydros, Inc. Envrionmental Diagostics - Disease test kits:

http://hydros.cc/
Substrate Testing Laboratories
University of Delaware Soil Testing Program, 302-831-1392, 152 Townsend Hall, 531 S. College Avenue,
Newark, DE, 19717-1303, http://ag.udel.edu/dstp/
Virginia Tech Soil Testing Laboratory, 540-231-6893, 145 Smyth Hall (0465), Blacksburg, VA 24061,
http://soiltest.vt.edu/
A&L Eastern Agricultural Laboratories, Inc., 804-743-9401, 7621 Whitepine Road, Richmond, VA 23237,
http://www.al-labs-eastern.com/
Pennsylvania Agricultural Analytic Services State University Laboratory

University Park, PA 16802
http://www.aasl.psu.edu/
416
JRPeters Laboratory Testing Services
6656 Grant Way, Allentown, PA 18106
866-522-5752, http://jrpeters.com/Lab-Services/Testing-Services.html
North Carolina State University Horticultural Substrates Laboratory

152 Kilgore Hall, Box 7609, Raleigh, NC 27695-7609
919-515-5368, http://ncsu.edu/project/hortsublab/
Disease Testing Laboratories:

A sample of any plant suspected to be infected with disease can be sent to a commercial laboratory. Viruses
can be detected via laboratory assays, such as Tomato spotted wilt virus and Impatiens necrotic spot virus,
both transmitted by thrips. These two viruses can cause disease in many plants, with symptoms that can be
mistaken for nutritional disorders, fungal diseases, or other problems. Other viruses that most often occur
in ornamentals are cucumber mosaic virus (transmitted by aphids), and tobacco and tomato ringspot viruses
(transmitted by nematodes), seeds or by propagating infected plants.
Agdia Testing Services: ELISA and PCR disease testing

30380 County Road 6
Elkhart, Indiana 46514
800-622-4342, http://agdia.com
Penn State Plant Disease Clinic

Sara May, Coordinator
220 Buckout Laboratory, University Park, PA 16802
814-865-2204, srm183@psu.edu, http://plantpath.psu.edu/facilities/plant-disease-clinic
University of Delaware Plant Diagnostic Clinic

Nancy Gregory, Diagnostician
151 Townsend Hall, Newark, DE 19716
302-831-1390, http://ag.udel.edu/extension/pdc/index.htm
University of Maryland Plant Diagnostic Lab

Karen Rane, Director
4112 Plant Sciences Building, College Park, MD 21742
301-405-1611, http://extension.umd.edu/plantdiagnosticlab
VPI Plant Disease Clinic

Mary Ann Hanson and Elizabeth Bush, Co-Directors
Department of Plant Pathology, Physiology, and Weed Science
106 Price Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0331
540-231-6758, http://ppws.vt.edu/extension/plant-disease-clinic/index.html
Sources for Pesticide Information, Biologicals

• Chemical & Pharmaceutical Press, Inc.’s Greenbook Pesticide labels (http://greenbook.net)
• Crop Data Management Systems, Inc. Pesticide labels (http://cdms.net)
• EXTOXNET – The EXtension TOXicology NETwork Pesticides: Toxicology, Technical Information
from UC Davis, Oregon State Univ., Michigan State, Cornell Univ., Univ. of Idaho,
http://extoxnet.orst.edu/
• Environmental Protection Agency’s Office of Pesticide Programs, http://www2.epa.gov/pesticides
417
Appendix B
Conversion Factors
Multiply By To Obtain Multiply By To Obtain

Acres 0.4047 Hectares Kilograms 1,000 Grams
Acres 43,560 Square feet Kilograms 2.2046 Pounds
Acres 4,840 Square yards Kilograms per meter 2
.2048 Pounds per foot2
Acres 0.001562 Square miles Kilograms per meter2 .001422 Pounds per inches2
Acres 4,047 Square meters Kilograms per meter 3
.001 Grams per centimeter3
Acres 0.4047 Hectares Kilograms per meter3 .06243 Pounds per foot3
Atmospheres 14.7 Pounds per inch2 Kilograms per meter3 .0003613 Pounds per inches3
Atmospheres 10,333 Kilograms per meter2 Kiloliters 1,000 Liters
Centimeters .03281 Feet Kilometers 100,000 Centimeters
Centimeters .3937 Inches Kilometers 3,281 Feet
Centimeters .01 Meters Kilometers 1,000 Meters
Centimeters 10 Millimeters Kilometers .6214 Miles
Centimeters 393.7 Mils Kilometers 1,093.6 Yards
Cubic centimeters .0000353 Cubic feet Kilowatt hours 3,415 BTUs
Cubic centimeters .016102 Cubic inches Kilowatt hours 1.341 Horsepower hours
Cubic centimeters .0001 Cubic meters Kilowatts 56.92 BTUs per minute
Cubic centimeters .000001308 Cubic yards Kilowatts 1.341 Horsepower
Cubic feet 28,316.84 Cubic centimeters Kilowatts 1,000 Watts
Cubic feet 1,728 Cubic inches Liters 1,000 Cubic centimeters
Cubic feet .02832 Cubic yards Liters .03531 Cubic feet
Cubic inches 16.387 Cubic centimeters Liters 62.02 Cubic inches
Cubic inches .00001639 Cubic meters Liters .001 Cubic meters
Cubic inches .00002143 Cubic yards Liters .001308 Cubic yards
Cubic yards 764,600 Cubic centimeters Liters .2642 Gallons
Cubic yards 27 Cubic feet Liters 1.057 Quarts (fluid)
Cubic yards .7646 Cubic meters Lux .0929 Foot-candles
Feet 30.48 Centimeters Meters 100 Centimeters
Feet 12 Inches Meters 3.2808 Feet
Feet .3048 Meters Meters 39.37 Inches
Feet .333 Yards Meters .001 Kilometers
Foot-candles 10.76 Lux Meters 1,000 Millimeters
Gallons 3.785 Liters Meters 1.0936 Yards
Gallons 128 Ounces (fluid) Milligrams .001 Grams
Gallons 8 Pints (fluid) Milligrams .000001 Kilograms
Gallons 4 Quarts (fluid) Milligrams per liter 1 Parts per million
Gallons per minute .134 Cubic feet per minute Milliliters 1 Cubic centimeters
Gallons per minute .002228 Cubic feet per second Milliliters .001 Liters
Gallons per minute .06308 Liters per second Millimeters .1 Centimeters
Grams .001 Kilograms Millimeters .03937 Inches
Grams 1,000 Milligrams Millimeters .001 Meters
Grams .002205 Pounds Ounces (fluid) 1.805 Cubic inches
Grams per liter .1336 Ounces per gallon Ounces (fluid) .0078125 Gallons
Grams per liter .0334 Ounces per quart Ounces (fluid) .02957 Liters
418
Multiply By To Obtain Multiply By To Obtain
Grams per liter 1,000 Parts per million Ounces (fluid) 29.57 Milliliters
Hectares 2.471 Acres Ounces (fluid) 2 Tablespoons (fluid)
Hectares 107,000 Square feet Ounces (fluid) 6 Teaspoons (fluid)
Inches 2.540 Centimeters Parts per million .001 Grams per liter
Inches .08333 Feet Parts per million 1 Milligrams per kilogram
Inches .0254 Meters Parts per million 1 Milligrams per liter
Inches .02778 Yards Parts per million .013 Ounces per 100 gallons
Parts per million .0083 Pounds per 1,000 gallons Quarts (fluid) .9463 Liters
Pints (fluid) 473.167 Cubic centimeters Quarts (fluid) 946.3 Milliliters
Pints (fluid) .0167 Cubic feet Quarts (fluid) 32 Ounces (fluid)
Pints (fluid) 28.875 Cubic inches Quarts (fluid) 2 Pints (fluid)
Pints (fluid) .125 Gallons Square centimeters .00107 Square feet
Pints (fluid) .4732 Liters Square centimeters .1550 Square inches
Pints (fluid) 16 Ounces (fluid) Square centimeters .0001 Square meters
Pints (fluid) .5 Quarts (fluid) Square centimeters 100 Square millimeters
Pounds 453.594 Grams Square feet .00002296 Acres
Pounds .453594 Kilograms Square feet 929 Square centimeters
Pounds 16 Ounces Square feet 144 Square inches
Pounds per cubic foot .01602 Grams per centimeter3 Square feet .0929 Square meters
Pounds per cubic foot 16.02 Kilograms per meter3 Square feet .111 Square yards
Pounds per cubic foot .0005787 Pounds per inch 3
Square inches 6.452 Square centimeters
Pounds per cubic inch 27,680 Kilograms per meter3 Square inches .006944 Square feet
Pounds per cubic inch 27.68 Pounds per centimeter 3
Square inches 645.163 Square millimeters
Pounds per cubic inch 1,728 Pounds per foot3 Square meters .000247 Acres
Pounds per foot 1.488 Kilograms per meter Square meters 10.764 Square feet
Pounds per inch 178.6 Grams per centimeter Square meters 1.196 Square yards
Pounds per square foot 4.882 Kilograms per meter2 Square millimeters .01 Square centimeters
Pounds per square foot .006994 Pounds per inch2 Square millimeters .00155 Square inches
Pounds per square inch .070307 Kilograms per centimeter2 Square millimeters .000001 Square meters
Pounds per square inch 703.1 Kilograms per meter2 Square yards .0002066 Acres
Pounds per square inch 144 Pounds per foot 2
Square yards 9 Square feet
Quarts (fluid) .0334 Cubic feet Square yards 1,296 Square inches
Quarts (fluid) 57.75 Cubic inches Square yards .8361 Square meters
Quarts (fluid) .25 Gallons
419
Appendix C
Images of Insects, Diseases, Abiotic Problems and Weeds
Insects:
Beneficial Insects and Organisms
Aphids
Caterpillars
Fungus Gnats
Shoreflies
Leafminers
Mites
Mealybug
Scale
Thrips
Whitefly
Diseases:
Foliar Diseases
Root Rots
Weeds:
Abiotic Problems:
420
Aphidius wasp with cabbage aphids Aphidius wasp ‘mummies’ (parasitized aphids)
Photo: Suzanne Klick Photo: Suzanne Klick
Lady bird beetle larva on cabbage Adult lady bird beetle, Hippodamia convergens
Lacewing, Chrysoperla sp., larva Lacewing, Chrysoperla sp., adult

421
Syrphid fly larva Syrphid fly adult
Aphidoletes (fly midges) feeding on aphids Minute pirate bug nymph

Photo: Suzanne Klick Photo: Stanton Gill
Sachet containing predators of thrips Whitefly infected with Beauveria bassiana

422
Distorted foliage from aphids feeding on zinnia Honeydew and aphid cast skins on snapdragon
Sooty mold from aphids on celosia Root aphids on aster roots

Photo: Suzanne Klick Photo: Shannon Wadkins
Cabbage aphid with characteristic waxy coating Close-up of green peach aphid (peach color form)
423
Petunia damaged by European pepper moth larva Webbing caused by European pepper moth larva
Photo: Suzanne Klick Photo: David Clement
Wilting caused by European pepper moth larva Girdling of poinsettia by European pepper moth
European pepper moth larva European pepper moth caught in pheromone trap
424
Imported cabbageworm, Pieris rapae, larvae Imported cabbageworm, Pieris rapae, adult
Imported cabbageworm pupa Cabbage looper larva

Corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea, larva Cross-striped cabbageworm, Evergestis rimosalis

425
Variegated fritillary, Euptoieta claudia, larva Variegated fritillary, Euptoieta claudia, butterfly
Yellowstriped armyworm on mum Heavy infestation of fungus gnats on yellow cards

Fungus gnat larva feeding on pansy at base of stem Fungus gnat damage on poinsettia cutting
426
Shorefly adult Leafminer damage on gerbera
Leafminer damage on cabbage Blotch leafminer damage on mum

Photo: Shannon Wadkins Photo: Suzanne Klick
Blotch leafminer larva found in mum leaf mine Broad mite damage on sweet potato vine
427
Heavy webbing on mum from spider mites Stippling damage on calla lily from spider mites
Twospotted spider mites and eggs Mealybugs in cryptic areas of New Guinea impatiens
Mealybug on heliconia Longtailed mealybug on palm

428
Brown soft scale Cactus scale on Opuntia dillenii
Hemispherical scale on palm Fern scale on staghorn fern

Slug damage on dahlia Slug on bottom of pot

429
Streaking from thrips feeding on gerbera daisy Western flower thrips in gloxinia flower
Female western flower thrips Echinothrips damage on New Guinea impatiens

Photo: Stanton Gill Photo: Suzanne Klick
Echinothrips Cuban laurel thrips

430
Whitefly infestation on sunflower Greenhouse whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum
Greenhouse whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum Greenhouse whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum

Pupal stage of Bemesia tabaci whitefly Bemesia tabaci whitefly on poinsettia leaf
431
Alternaria on zinnia Stunting/mottling from Angelonia flower break virus
Bacterial leaf spot on zinnia Bacterial blight on gerbera foliage

Botrytis on geranium flower Botrytis on geranium foliage

432
Geranium leaf infected with Botrytis Botrytis elliptica leaf spot on lily
Black root rot, Thielaviopsis sp., on petunia Black root rot, Thielaviopsis sp., infecting petunia
Photo: Stanton Gill Photo: Suzanne Klick
Downy mildew infecting basil Downy mildew spores on underside of basil leaf
Photo: David Clement Photo: David Clement
433
Downy mildew causing poor growth on coleus Downy mildew on upperside of coleus foliage
Downy mildew on underside of coleus foliage Japanese anemone infested with foliar nematodes
Impatiens necrotic spot virus (INSV) on orchid New Guinea impatiens infected with INSV
Photo: Suzanne Klick Photo: Karen Rane
434
Garden impatiens infected with INSV New Guinea impatiens infected with Myrothecium
Photo: Suzanne Klick Photo: Ethel Dutky
Uneven stem growth from poinsettia scab infection Poinsettia scab infection on poinsettia leaves
Photo: Stanton Gill Photo: Stanton Gill
Heavy powdery mildew infection on sedum foliage White powdery mildew spores on gerbera leaves
435
Powdery mildew on zinnia foliage Pseudomonas sp. infection on celosia
Pseudomonas sp. infection on tomato Wilting poinsettia plant due to Pythium root rot
Close-up of poinsettia roots infected with Pythium Pythium root rot on salvia plugs
436
Vinca stem damaged by Rhizoctonia Webbing at base of lisianthus caused by Rhizoctonia
Chrysanthemum white rust on topside of foliage Chrysanthemum white rust on bottom of foliage
Photo: Karen Rane Photo: Karen Rane
Rust spores on the underside of a snapdragon leaf Yellowing/spotting caused by rust on snapdragon
Photo: Suzanne Klick Photo: David Clement
437
Tobacco mosaic virus symptoms on petunia Tobacco mosaic virus symptoms on calibrachoa
Photo: Karen Rane Photo: Karen Rane
White mold infecting plants in hanging basket Pepper foliage infected with Xanthomonas
Cold damage on Aglaonema foliage Cold damage on petunia in hanging basket

Photo: Shannon Wadkins Photo: Shannon Wadkins
438
Oedema on primrose foliage Oedema on geranium leaves
Iron chlorosis on pansy Spray damage on poinsettia foliage

Iron/manganese toxicity on geranium due to low pH Bird’s nest fungus in pot

439
Moss growing in pot Spurge that germinated in pot of begonias
Groundsel under benches harboring aphids Groundsel that has gone to seed
Weeds, with insect damage, under bench Oxalis, a common greenhouse weed, in flower
440

Total Crop Management For Greenhouse Production

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Bulletin 363 Revised 2016

Total Crop Management

Total Crop Management

Integrated Pest Management for Commercial Horticulture

Stanton A. Gill, Extension Specialist Debby Smith-Fiola,

Karen Rane, Plant Pathologist Andrew Ristvey, Extension Specialist

Chuck Schuster, Extension Educator Joyce Latimer, Extension Specialist

Brian Whipker, Extension Specialist Kate Everts, Vegetable Plant Pathologist

Will Healy, Research and Technical Services Manager

Printed in 2016 by University of Maryland Extension, College of Agriculture and Natural

Electronic copies of this manual are available on-line

To purchase paper copies of this manual contact 301-596-9413

Part 2: Insect and Mite Management

Part 5: Greenhouse Structures and Environment

Table 1.1 Pest Problems And Indicator Plants 7

Figure 3.1 Evaporative Cooling Pad 25

Chapter 2 Integrated Pest Management: Monitoring Crops for Key

Chapter 3 Screening Out Insect Pests

Chapter 4 Disinfecting a Greenhouse: Keeping Diseases and Insects in

Chapter 5 Pesticide Application Equipment: Selection and Calibration

Some equipment suggestions include:

• Hand lens (preferably 16x)

Pest Problem Indicator Plants

Setting Thresholds and Timing Actions in the Greenhouse

IPM Decision Making

Is the population increasing, decreasing, or remaining the same?

Plant Species Number of Plants or Planting Date Expected Harvest

Fertility Information Form:

Application Applicator Plants or Areas Fertilizer Applicaton Comments

Insect Control Information Form:

Date Greenhouse Product Applicator Application Evaluation Evaluation

Weed Control Information Form:

Electroconductivity (EC) and pH Levels Form:

Plant Species EC Levels pH Levels Reasons For Testing

Location Plant Rating Comments

Location Card Whitefly Thrips Count Fungus Gnat Shorefly Winged

Insect and Mite Activity Form: Whole Plant Counts

Location Plant Numbers Pest Number Average Increase Plant

Disease Activity Form:

Key to Levels of Fertilization:

Plant Major Pests; Insects, Major Diseases Cultural Comments

Carnation Fungal leaf spots pH: 6.2–6.8

Cyclamen Fungus gnats, thrips, Tospovirus, Rhizoctonia root pH: 5.1–5.8

Key to Levels of Fertilization:

Plant Major Pests; Insects, Major Diseases Cultural Comments

Plant Major Pests; Insects, Major Diseases Cultural Comments

Plant Major Pests; Insects, Major Diseases Cultural Comments

Pest Best Monitoring Identification Features Potential Biological

Pest Best Monitoring Identification Features Potential Biological

Pest Best Monitoring Identification Features Potential Biological

Greenhouse Static Pressure Considerations

Internal air X X Evaporative

0.02 + 0.01 + 0.04 = 0.07 inch w.g.

Static pressure, inches water

Free open area

Free open area

Figure 3.4 Air Movement With Screening

Sizing the Screening

Retrofitting a Greenhouse with Screening

Roof Ventilation and Screening

Alcohol (70% isopropyl)

Chlorine Bleach (sodium hypochlorite)

Quaternary Ammonium Chloride Salt