FOC ASSIGNMENT

1. Aggregate from waste materials.

2. Popular Malaysian timbers.
3. Ready-mixed concrete.

ANSWER

1) Aggregate from waste materials.

Aggregate

Aggregate is a granular material, such as sand, gravel, crushed stone, crushed

hydraulic-cement concrete, or iron blast-furnace slag, used with a hydraulic cementing
medium to produce either concrete or mortar.

Use of waste materials as a replacement of aggregate in concrete mix

Following a normal growth in population, the amount and type of waste materials
have increased accordingly. Many of the non-decaying waste materials will remain in the
environment for hundreds, perhaps thousands of years. The non-decaying waste materials
cause a waste disposal crisis, thereby contributing to the environmental problems.
However, the environmental impact can be reduced by making more sustainable use of
this waste. This is known as the Waste Hierarchy. Its aim is to reduce, reuse, or recycle
waste, the latter being the preferred option of waste disposal.

Concrete :

 Far more concrete is produced than any other man-made material. Annual production
represents one ton for every person on the planet.
 It is incredibly versatile, and is used in almost all major construction projects.
 Aggregates are used in concrete for very specific purposes. Aggregates typically
make up about 60% to 75% of the volume of a concrete mixture, and as they are the
least expensive of the materials used in concrete, the economic impact is significant.
 80% of a buildings CO2 emissions are generated not by the production of the
materials used in its construction, but in the electric utilities of the building over its
life-cycle.
 Compared to other comparable building materials, concrete is less costly to produce
and remains extremely affordable.

Construction wastes :

 Construction waste consists of unwanted material produced directly or incidentally by

the construction or industries.
 It include the unwanted residue resulting from the alteration, construction, demolition
or repair of any buildings or other structures.
 These include roofing, concrete block, plaster, structural steel, plumbing fixtures,
electrical wiring, heating and ventilation equipment, windows and doors.
 Also like interior finishing materials such as woodwork and cabinets, plastic
containers, paving brick and stone, reinforced and non-reinforced concrete pavement,
and glass.
 Construction waste does not include materials identified as solid waste, infectious
waste or hazardous waste.

Use of waste in concrete :

 Research efforts has been done to match society’s need for safe and economic
disposal of waste materials.
 The use of waste materials saves natural resources and dumping spaces, and helps to
maintain a clean environment.
 The current concrete construction practice is thought unsustainable because, not only
it is consuming enormous quantities of stone, sand, and drinking water, but also two
billion tons a year of Portland cement, which releases green-house gases leading to
global warming.
 Experiments has been conducted for waste materials like- rubber tyre, e-waste,
coconut shell, blast furnace slag, waste plastic, demolished concrete constituents,
waste water etc.
 Construction waste recycle plants are now installed in various countries but they are
partly solution to the waste problems.

Waste used in the project

i. E-waste:
 Electronic waste, abbreviated as e-waste is a non-biodegradable waste.
 It consists of discarded old computers, TVs, refrigerators, radios – basically
any electrical or electronic appliance that has reached its end of life.
 The e waste in India for the year 2005 has been estimated to be 146180.00
tones.
 Traditional landfill or stockpile method is not an environmental friendly
solution and the disposal process is also very difficult to meet EPA
(Environmental Protection Agency) regulations.
ii. Rubber Tire waste
 Discarded vehicle tires constitute one important part of solid waste which had
historically been disposed of into landfills.
 Recycled waste-tire rubber have been used in different application. It has been
used as a fuel for cement kiln, as feedstock for making carbon black, and as
artificial reefs in marine environment.
 Rubber can used in the form of chipped or crumbed.

iii. Coconut Shell Waste

 It is an agricultural biodegradable waste found in most of tropical countries
especially in Asia.
 Coconut shells dumped improperly to the environment provide breeding
places for disease vectors such as rats and mosquitoes.
 It is a light-weight material which is becoming much popular nowadays
because of its easy handling and low dead loads.
Conclusion

1. It is identified that all wastes used here can be disposed by using them as
construction materials.
2. Cubes with 5% rubber tire replacement had given good strength with elongated
pieces. Therefore, lower concentrations are recommended.
3. Waste and recycling management plans should be developed in order to sustain
environmental, economic and social development of nation.
4. Coconut shell has high water absorption capacity. So, concrete mix design should
be done accordingly.
5. The specific gravity of all the waste materials are quite similar.
6. Vast potential of saving the natural beds of stones and boulders which are
currently used as main source of aggregates can be reduced significantly.
7. Light weight construction units can be made by using these wastes.
8. It also reduces the cost of construction when used in bulk.

Limitation

1. Rubber Tire sample is quite flaky and elongated.

2. Mixing of concrete was done by hand mixing.
3. E-waste was generally containing the chips & plastics.
4. For smaller quantities of e-waste, cost is found to be more.
2) Popular Malaysian timbers

Timber or Lumber

Lumber or timber is wood that has been processed into beams and planks, a stage
in the process of wood production. Lumber may also refer to currently un-needed
furniture, as in Lumber room, or an awkward gait, ultimately derived from the look of
unfashionable and unwanted furniture. Lumber is mainly used for structural purposes but
has many other uses as well. It is classified more commonly as a softwood than as a
hardwood, because 80% of lumber comes from softwood.

Malaysia Timber

Malaysia is a country well known for its tropical timber forests and for its trading
and relationships with many European countries. It has 25.9 million hectares of land in
which 32.83 million hectares are covered with tropical rain forest and trees. They bathe in
sunshine and showers with rainfall throughout the year. It is covered by huge rain forest
and produces a huge of high quality of tropical timbers. These timbers are widely used in
residential and commercial properties. Timbers are cater for interior decking, joinery,
moldings and other wooden furniture products.

Timber Properties and Characteristics

 Strength - wood is physically strong, inflexible and generally has a high compressive
strength.
 Durability - wood has a very long lasting quality.
 Wood and water - wood is hygroscopic, which means it acts like a sponge, soaks up
water and swells up under wet conditions, but when the temperature rises and the air
is dry, wood releases the stored-up water.
 Wood and energy - wood is a relatively good heat insulator but a poor conductor of
electricity, wood is also effective in absorbing sound, produces a great deal of heat
 energy when dry wood burns and wood is good for making musical instruments when
it’s designed to transmit and amplify sounds.
 Environmentally friendly - wood is a natural material and is environmentally friendly
and trees naturally remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere

Reasons for Using Timber Products

 Environmental friendly and renewable as a natural resource

 Cost and energy efficient
 Versatility in design and applications
 Durability and strength as construction material
 Workability as a construction material

Malaysian Timber Classification

i. Heavy Hardwoods
 Balau/Selangan Batu - Shorea spp.
 Balau,Red/Selangan/Batu Merah - Shorea spp.
 Belian - Eusideroxylon zwageri
 Bitis - Madhuca utilis
 Chengal - Neobalanocarpus heimil
 Giam - Hopea spp.
 Kekatong - Cynometra spp.
 Karanji - Dialium spp.
 Malagangai - Eusideroxzlon malagangai
 Merbau - Intsis palembanica
 Penaga - Mesua ferrea
 Penyau - Upuna borneensis
 Resak - Vatica spp.
 Tembusu - Fagraea fragrans.
ii. Medium Hardwoods
 Alan batu - Shorea albida
 Bekak - Amoora spp.
 Derum - Cratoxylum spp.
 Entapuloh - Teijsmanniodendro spp.
 Geriting/Teruntum - Lumnitzera spp.
 Kandis - Garcinia spp.
 Kapur - Dryobalanops spp.
 Kasai - Pometia spp.
 Kayu Malam- Diospyros spp.
 Kelat - Eugenin spp.
 Keledang - Artocarpus spp.
 Kempas - Koompassia malaccensis

iii. Light Hardwoods

 Alan bunga - Shoriea albida
 Ara - Ficus spp.
 Bayur - Pterospermum spp.
 Berangan - Castanopsis spp.
 Bintangor - Calophyllum spp.
 Binuang - Octomeles sumatrana
 Machang - Mangifera spp.
 Mahang - Macaranga spp.
 Medang - Species of Lauraceae
 Meranti Bakau - Species of Annpnaceae
 Maranti,Dark red,Obar Suluk - Shorea spp.
 Mernti,light red/red Seraya - Shorea spp.
 Maranti,White/Melapi - Shorea spp.
 Maranti,Yellow/Yellow Seraya - Shorea spp.
 Merbulan - Blumeodendro spp.
 iv. Softwood
 Damar minyak - Agathis borneensis
 Podo - Podocarpus spp.
 Sempilor - Dacrydium spp./ phyllocladus spp.

With over 58 per cent of its land area under natural forest, Malaysia is home to over
2,650 species, many of which are of commercial importance. Malaysia's location in the tropics
means that its trees have 365 growing days in a year. This allows the trees ample time to grow
and develop without seasonal interruptions. Apart from its intrinsic beauty, wood is highly
versatile, has good insulation properties and is strong yet easy to use. Malaysia has an endless
selection of timbers from which to choose. Malaysian timbers have been utilised in various
applications, including interior designs. The multitude of colours available represents an artist’s
palette, enabling an endless expression of creativity.
3) Ready Mixed Concrete

Ready-mix concrete is concrete that is manufactured in a factory or batching

plant, according to a set recipe, and then delivered to a work site by truck mounted in–
transit mixers. This results in a precise mixture, allowing specialty concrete mixtures to
be developed and implemented on construction sites. The first ready-mix factory was
built in the 1930s, but the industry did not begin to expand significantly until the 1960s,
and it has continued to grow since then.

Ready-mix concrete is often preferred over on-site concrete mixing because of the
precision of the mixture and reduced work site confusion. Ready-mix concrete, or RMC
as it is popularly called, refers to concrete that is specifically manufactured for delivery to
the customer's construction site in a freshly mixed and plastic or unhardened state.
Concrete itself is a mixture of Portland cement, water and aggregates comprising sand
and gravel or crushed stone. Ready-mix concrete is bought and sold by volume - usually
expressed in cubic meters (cubic yards in the US).

Advantages of Ready Mixed Concrete:

i. Quality assured concrete:- Concrete is produced under controlled conditions using

consistent quality of raw material.
ii. High speed of construction- Speed of construction can be vary fast in case RMC
is used.
iii. Reduction in cement consumption by 10 – 15 % due to better handling and proper
mixing. Further reduction is possible if mineral admixtures or cementitious
materials are used.
iv. Versatility in uses and methods of placing: The mix design of the concrete can be
tailor made to suit the placing methods of the contractor.
v. Since ready mixed concrete (RMC) uses bulk cement instead of bagged cement,
dust pollution will be reduced and cement will be saved.
vi. Conservation of energy and resources because of saving of cement.
vii. Environment pollution is reduced due to less production of cement.
viii. With better durability of structure, their overall service life increase and there is
saving in life-cycle cost.
ix. Eliminating or minimizing human error and reduction in dependency on labour.
x. Timely deliveries in large as well as small pours.
xi. No need for space for storing the materials like coarse and fine aggregate, cement,
water and admixtures.
xii. No delay due to site based batching plant erection/ dismantling; no equipment
xiii. Reduced noise and air pollution; less consumption of petrol and diesel and less
time loss to business.

Disadvantages of ready-mix concrete:

i. The materials are batched at a central plant, and the mixing begins at that plant, so
the traveling time from the plant to the site is critical over longer distances. Some
sites are just too far away, however the use of admixtures like retarder can be
added.
ii. Furthermore, access roads and site access have to be able to carry the greater
weight of the ready-mix truck plus load. This problem can be overcome by
utilizing so-called 'mini mix' companies which use smaller 4m³ capacity mixers
able to reach more-restricted sites.
iii. Concrete's limited time span between mixing and curing means that ready-mix
should be placed within 210 minutes of batching at the plant. Modern admixtures
can modify that time span precisely, however, so the amount and type of
admixture added to the mix is very important.

Limitations of Ready Mix Concrete:

i. As the Ready Mixed Concrete is not available for placement immediately after
preparation of concrete mix, loss of workability occurs. In addition, there are
chances of setting of concrete if transit time involved is more. Therefore,
 generally admixture like plasticisers/ super plasticisers and retarders are used.
Addition of retarders may delay the setting time substantially which may cause
placement problems. In addition, it may also affect the strength of concrete.
Therefore, it is necessary that the admixtures i.e. plasticisers and super
plasticisers/ retarders used in Ready Mixed Concrete are properly tested for their
suitability with the concrete. In case loss of strength is observed, the characteristic
strength may have to be enhanced so that after loss of strength, required
characteristic strength is available.
ii. Because of large quantity of concrete available in short span, special placing and
form work arrangement are required to be made in advance.

Standard ready-mix concrete vs. site-mix concrete:

 A centralized concrete batching plant can serve a wide area. Site-mix trucks can
serve an even larger area including remote locations that standard trucks can not.
 The plants are located in areas zoned for industrial use, and yet the delivery trucks
can service residential districts or inner cities. Site-mix trucks have the same
capabilities.