Received: 21 August 2017 Revised: 2 December 2017 Accepted article published: 9 December 2017 Published online in Wiley Online Library:
Abstract
Herbicide-resistant weeds have been observed since the early years of synthetic herbicide development in the 1950s and
1960s. Since that time there has been a consistent increase in the number of cases of herbicide resistance and the impact of
herbicide-resistant weeds. Although the nature of crop production varies widely around the world, herbicides have become a
primary tool for weed control in most areas. Dependence on herbicides continues to increase as global populations migrate
away from rural areas to cities and the agricultural labor force declines. This increased use of herbicides and the concurrent
selection pressure have resulted in a rise in cases of multiple resistance, leaving some farmers with few or no herbicide options
for certain weed infestations. Global population and economic forces drive many farmer choices regarding crop production and
weed control. The challenge is how to insert best management practices into the decision-making process while addressing
various economic and regulatory needs. This review endeavors to provide a current overview of herbicide resistance challenges
in the major crop production areas of the world and discusses some research initiatives designed to address portions of the
problem.
© 2017 Society of Chemical Industry
Keywords: Asia; Australia; Europe; Latin America; North America; South America
Figure 1. Top 10 wheat-producing states in India. The multiple herbicide-resistant Phalaris minor impacts nearly 4 × 106 ha in the encircled region.
serious threat of resistance to both ACCase and ALS inhibitors especially in rice and wheat production. In developed countries
across all key grasses, and farmers are once again shifting herbicide such as Japan and South Korea, labor for farm work has been
use to PSII inhibitors.21 limited for some time and hand-weeding is largely impractical.1
Maize production is spread across Asia, with even smaller Countries with developing economies have seen significant
countries such as Vietnam and Thailand planting over 1 × 106 ha migrations of people from rural to urban areas and are already
annually.7 However, maize production in many Asian countries experiencing labor shortages in agriculture.1,27 Herbicide selection
is predominated by smallholdings where a significant amount pressure will increase significantly and more weeds with multiple
of weed control is achieved by mechanical or hand-weeding. resistance are likely to arise. Because the evolution of HR weeds is
This may in part limit the number of resistant weeds reported in outpacing the development of new SOA, it is critical for farmers to
maize for these countries. China, however, has a large planted utilize a diversity of weed management tools to maintain sustain-
area of maize (38 × 106 ha).7 Because China does not grow able crop production. Non-chemical weed management practices
herbicide-tolerant maize at this point, herbicides such as ace- that do not involve high amounts of labor should be more
tochlor, s-metolachlor, atrazine, nicosulfuron and mesotrione are thoroughly researched and communicated. Many agronomic
the foundations of weed control. At present, there are no data practices like stale seedbed, early planting, higher wheat seeding
available on the extent of resistant weeds in Chinese maize, but rates, herbicide rotations and sequential herbicide applications are
recent estimates are that ∼ 15–20% of the maize area is infested currently being recommended for the management of problem
with PSII- or ALS-resistant weeds (Liu D, personal communication). species such as P. minor.31 In some areas, producers are undertak-
Palm oil production is concentrated mainly in Indonesia and ing efforts to diversify weed control programs. For example, in one
Malaysia, often on large commercial plantations where herbicide survey of palm oil producers in Indonesia, 72% of respondents
use is intense.7,26,27 Natural rubber plantations also are heavily indicated that they rotated herbicides to prevent resistance.26
concentrated in these countries and make extensive use of The low number of HR weeds reported in some Asian countries
herbicides.27 Consequently, resistance to several SOAs, including may be indicative of under-reporting due to limited resources for
glyphosate, paraquat, ALS, auxin, ACCase and glufosinate, have public institutions associated with weed science, which may in
been documented in species such as Eleusine indica, Hedyotis turn hamper research and education efforts. Private organizations,
verticillata, Clidemia hirta and Chromolaena odorata.28 In the case government scientists and extension services should capitalize
of glufosinate-resistant E. indica reported on a palm plantation, on recent advancements in communication technology to reach
the grower had indicated using up to 24 applications annually.29 growers with greater ease, and share relevant scientific informa-
Multiple-resistant E. indica has also been identified in these areas.30 tion and advice that will help farmers to manage HR. Given the
importance of maintaining high levels of food production in the
2.1 Herbicide resistance management most populous region of the world, international agencies may
Across Asia, changing demographics will continue to drive a want to consider increased emphasis on assisting these countries
greater dependence on herbicides and potentially greater HR, in resistance management efforts.
Figure 3. Progression of ALS-resistance in different weed species across various prefectures of Japan. Source: http://jhrwg.ac.affrc.go.jp/JHRWG.html
Table 2. Herbicide resistance in annual ryegrass populations Table 3. Annual ryegrass plant densities in randomly surveyed
randomly collected across Australia’s cropping regions wheat fields across the Australian cropping region
Another key grass weed with widespread GR is Digitaria insularis, areas should be consider resistant to glyphosate and ALS herbi-
which is common across many areas of Brazil, Bolivia and Paraguay. cides when planning weed management strategies.80 A. palmeri
The first report of D. insularis resistant to glyphosate occurred resistant to glyphosate and ALS inhibitors was first detected in
in soybean fields of Paraná in 2008.97 GR D. insularis has spread Brazil in Mato Grosso state 2015, but has been contained so far
rapidly from western Paraná State to the central region of Brazil, through cooperative efforts between the Brazilian government
mainly in the grain-producing areas and possibly through har- and local farmer associations.107–110 A 2016 survey of HR weeds in
vester movement as well as independent selections. GR D. insularis Uruguay found 3500 ha affected by GR A. palmeri.83
populations are now found in all geographical regions of Brazil,
with an estimated infestation area of 8.2 × 106 ha.98,99 It is the most
5.1 Herbicide resistance management
important GR species in Paraguay, having spread to approximately
In South America, weed resistance is one of the most important
75% of the soybean-producing regions (Adegas F, personal com-
concerns for farmers, mostly due to new cases, increasing areas
munication). For most GR grasses, farmers have turned to ACCase
of infestation, populations with multiple resistance, and mixed
inhibitors and the overuse of this SOA is leading to the selection of
GR populations (grasses + broadleaves) in the same field. This
multiple resistant populations of these weeds in Brazil, Bolivia and
situation leads to increased complexity and higher costs for farm
Argentina.78,81,82
management. In Brazil, the area with weed resistance has been
Conyza spp. can cause >50% yield loss in soybean and are now
estimated at >20 × 106 ha, and the costs for weed resistance
the most troublesome GR broadleaf weeds in the region.82,95,100,101
management were close to US $3 billion (additional control and
The first reports of GR Conyza bonariensis and C. canadensis in
yield losses).78 In the 2016/2017 season, the costs of weed control
Brazilian soybean occurred in 2005 in Rio Grande do Sul and
in Brazil were US $40–120 ha−1 . For example, mixed infestations of
Paraná.102,103 Subsequently, in 2010, Conyza sumatrensis resis-
GR weeds can increase management costs by US $25–84 ha−1 .88
tant to glyphosate was also reported in Paraná.5 C. canaden-
The cost of weed control in Argentina during the 2016/2017
sis, C. bonariensis and C. sumatrensis infestations are now spread
season varied between US $100 and 131 ha−1 , 40% higher than
across all soybean-producing regions, with an infested area of
during the 2013/2014 season. For example, the cost to man-
10.6 × 106 ha.98 Argentina encountered the first reports of C. bonar-
age mix infestation of resistant grasses and A. hybridus was US
iensis populations suspected to be resistant to glyphosate dur-
$131 ha−1 .111 Additionally, South America’s growers are not highly
ing the 2008/09 season in the Pampa region and Entre Rios.
experienced in the use of alternative herbicides or non-chemical
Currently, C. sumatrensis, infests around 10 × 106 ha in Argentina
weed control practices. Therefore, resistance management to
and has become one of the key weeds due to increasingly
prevent or slow weed resistance evolution remains challenging.
high levels of GR and few effective alternative herbicide sites of
The implementation of comprehensive stewardship programs in
action.101 C. sumatrensis resistant to glyphosate was first observed
South America is critical to the long-term sustainability and viabil-
in Paraguay in 2008, and is now thought to cover ∼ 30% of the
ity of glyphosate-based weed control systems by reducing selec-
soybean-producing area (Adegas F, personal communication). A
tion pressure with the use of alterative herbicides. This includes
2016 survey of HR weeds in Uruguay found C. bonariensis to be
developing diversified weed control recommendations for each
the most serious weed problem in that country, with >1000 pro-
growing region, education programs targeting farm consultants
ducers and almost 600 000 ha affected.83 Once farmers across the
and farmers to communicate best management practices, and
region started to encounter GR Conyza spp. their first reaction was
commercial programs consistent with science-based weed man-
to increase applications of ALS herbicides to control it. Unfortu-
agement recommendations. In some cases, changes in national
nately, this has led to a growing problem with multiple resistance
export policies and land lease arrangements, as well as the expan-
to both glyphosate and ALS herbicides.5 Another Conyza con-
sion of public research will be necessary to support greater diver-
trol strategy has been application of a contact herbicide, such as
sification of cropping and improved resistance management.112
paraquat, shortly after the burndown application of combinations
For the future, a general analysis of forthcoming technologies
of glyphosate with 2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid). This
in soybeans shows that they are efficient and offer alternatives
‘double knockdown’ strategy has been largely successful for con-
for controlling broadleaves (2,4-D, dicamba, glufosinate), but not
trol of GR Conyza, but unfortunately reports of paraquat-resistant
grasses. Because no new herbicide SOA is likely to be introduced
Conyza are now starting to appear.5
soon, one can speculate that grasses resistant to glyphosate will
A new problem has been the recent appearance and spread
continue to be a primary problem for South American farmers.
of GR Amaranthus species, especially in Argentina. Amaranthus
hybridus is a native species found across the central and northern
regions of Argentina and it is a major weed of summer crops, such
as soybean, peanut, corn and sunflower. The presence of this weed 6 HERBICIDE RESISTANCE IN NORTH
can reduce soybean yield by between 9 and 40%.104 Populations of AMERICA
GR A. hybridus were reported in 2013 and 2015 with multiple resis- North America (including Canada, Mexico and the USA) produces a
tance to glyphosate and ALS inhibitors in south Cordoba and Santa significant portion of the world’s grains and oilseeds. This includes
Fe.82 Amaranthus palmeri populations resistant to glyphosate were 8% of all wheat, 34% of all soybean, and 36% of all maize.7
first detected in Argentina in 2013.105 The introduction of A. Production areas for these crops are largely in the USA and Canada,
palmeri into the south of Córdoba is probably associated with and the vast majority of North American HR cases are reported in
the importation of cereals, oilseeds or forages contaminated with these two countries.5
weed seeds, or from agricultural machinery brought from the The first case of HR reported in North America was Daucus carota
USA.105 Between 2013 and 2015, the presence of this weed was to the auxin SOA in 1957.5 However, very few additional reports
detected in much of the grain-growing area of Argentina.80,106 occurred until the first case of triazine resistance was recorded
Also, A. palmeri resistant to ALS was reported in 2014 in southwest 1970. Triazine resistance dominated reports over the next 17 years
of Cordoba and east of San Luis.82 A. palmeri populations in these until 1987 when the first instances of ALS-resistant species started
All these strategies resulted in increased costs for weed con- that could work on a large scale. Flaming of weeds has also been
trol. As additional herbicides have become necessary to control investigated163 although mainly for organic crop production and
GR weeds, overall herbicide costs have nearly doubled.146 In some other specialty crop situations. RNA interference has shown some
cases hand-weeding, costing $57 ha−1 on average, has become promise in early stage testing as a means to disrupt herbicide resis-
necessary.147 In cotton-growing areas where GR has become tance mechanisms in weeds, but still faces some significant tech-
widespread, estimates of overall weed control costs have doubled nical and regulatory challenges.164,165
or tripled, depending on specific geography.147,148 Often alterna-
tive herbicides or weed control measures can also add complexity.
Residual herbicides bring a risk of carryover injury to succeeding 7 CONCLUSIONS
crops. The timing and precision of application of some herbicides is On a global basis, HR weeds continue to grow and ultimately
significantly more difficult than for glyphosate on GT crops. Farm- threaten crop production. How farmers in different countries
ers also have to spend more time understanding the weed species respond varies. Unfortunately, the responses still are largely
present in their fields in order to match the right herbicide. reactive rather than proactive. Farmers in Australia have become
Alternatives to herbicides are important in an overall weed adept at managing resistance through non-chemical means
management plan. These may include tillage, both pre-plant and mainly because they have lost so many SOAs. To date, reaction to
in-season. Narrow row spacings, increased crop density, cover GR in the Americas has focused on looking for alternative herbi-
crops, and other cultural practices can enhance crop competitive- cide options. A similar situation exists in Asia with ALS and ACCase
ness with weeds and put less selection pressure on herbicides.149 herbicides, but returning to hand-weeding is increasingly imprac-
Given that a large seed bank increases the odds of having resis- tical. Although cropping systems in Europe tend to be more
tant individuals in a field, programs that have a ‘zero tolerance’ diverse, farmers there are highly dependent on ALS inhibitors
for weed escapes are being examined.150 Tools supporting this which are used across many crops. Factors such as climate change
approach include post-harvest control of late-emerging weeds, may impact the basic ecology of weed populations,166 but more
controlling weeds along field edges, burial of weed seed through importantly will change cropping patterns in some areas and
deep plowing, and harvest weed seed control.149,150 Once again, interject greater uncertainty into planned weed control practices
however, these practices introduce more complexity and invest- via greater fluctuations in weather. Abnormally low rainfall may
ment of labor. reduce the effectiveness of soil-applied herbicides, while heavy
Changes in the structure of farms in the USA have compli- rainfall during some years will adversely impact the ability to
cated the implementation of herbicide resistance management. conduct tillage. Water shortages will complicate maintenance
US farms can be categorized into two main groups.151 One set of of water layers in rice to manage weeds. Increasingly affluent
farms is characterized by large size and income from the farm- populations in developing countries will eat more animal protein
ing operation is the primary focus of the operator. These farms and increase demand for feed grains,167 potentially decreasing
account for the majority of crop production. The other group of incentives to diversify crop rotations.
farms is characterized by smaller size and the farm operator often At a very basic level, HR is an evolutionary process driven by
has other sources of income. In the first case, farmers are driven intensive use of single SOAs in the absence of other weed control
to use practices that are quick and efficient to allow them to practices. In this sense, it seems that the solution to the problem is
manage large areas. This usually means a focus on a limited num- straightforward; farmers should diversify their weed control prac-
ber of crops, often only two or three, and therefore crop rotation tices. However, beyond this basic level the issues become more
is also limited. These farmers also tend to eschew herbicide resis- complicated. Although differences in cropping systems, farm size
tance management practices that take more time such as cleaning and degree of technology adoption vary by country, some basic
equipment between fields, inter-row tillage, selective removal of concepts tend to drive and influence the issue. The availability of
escaped weeds, and post-harvest weed control.152 Cover crops suf- labor for agricultural operations continues to decrease around the
fer a similar fate given the time and money required both to plant world as younger generations move to urban areas where living
them and to control them prior to planting the main crop of inter- standards tend to be higher than in rural areas. This has placed a
est. Farmers who run smaller, part-time operations are similarly heavier emphasis on mechanization and herbicides for weed con-
time-constrained because their off-farm employment consumes trol. The heavy dependence on herbicides increases selection pres-
a majority of their time. In all cases, farmers tend to believe that sure and subsequent resistance. In many areas, multiple resistance
the advent of new herbicides will ultimately solve their resistance is eliminating most herbicide options and may force farmers to
problems and are therefore less incentivized to adopt more diffi- adopt non-chemical options or switch to different crops. In some
cult resistance management practices.153 cases, regulatory pressures are reducing the availability of herbi-
Research into herbicide programs continues to examine ways cides and the number of SOAs available for a given crop, while
to combine various SOA in effective and economical ways. Addi- food chain pressure to meet secondary residue standards is forcing
tionally, some ongoing work is examining non-herbicidal means farmers to use less than optimum rates.168 This is putting increased
of supplementing weed control. This work is currently focused selection pressure on the SOAs that remain. Grains are global
on two areas, harvest weed seed control and cover crop suppres- commodities and global demand drives prices and consequently
sion of weeds.154–158 Mechanical weed control has been revived in farmer choice as to what crops to grow. Weed-control decisions
some areas. Deep plowing has been shown to reduce emergence are heavily influenced by economics and utilize systems that pro-
of small-seeded weed species such as Palmer amaranth.156,159 vide the greatest measurable, near-term economic return. In many
Inter-row cultivation in crops such as corn, cotton and soybeans is cases, proactive resistance management comes at a short-term
an effective means of removing many weed species, but is sparsely cost, even though it may enhance long-term profits.69
adopted due to labor concerns.160,161 Robotic removal of weeds The above issues heavily influence farmer adoption of resistance
has been posited as a possible tool for weed management,162 management practices and make some of these practices diffi-
but currently there are no such devices commercially available cult to implement. Continued education and incentives will be
needed to move farmers to more sustainable weed management sloughgrass (Beckmannia syzigachne). Weed Sci 63:781–787
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