Structure of cell and tissue

SCBM 214 Report

1

THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

• The cardiovascular system includes the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels. It carries blood
and lymph to and from various tissues of the body.
• The cardiovascular system consists of pulmonary circulation (conveys arterial blood from the heart
to the lungs and returns venous blood back to the heart) and systemic circulation (conveys arterial
blood from the heart to all other tissues and returns venous blood back to the heart). (Figure 1.1)

Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2

HEART
◗ The heart is a four-chamber muscular pump (two atria and two ventricles). It contains cardiac muscle
(for contraction to propel blood), fibrous skeleton(for attachment of valves and separation of atrial and
ventricular musculature), a conducting system (for initiation and propagation of rhythmic contractions),
and coronary vasculature (coronary arteries and cardiac veins).(Figure 1.2)

◗ The wall of the heart is composed of three layers: epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium.

◗ Epicardium (visceral layer of serous pericardium) is the outer layer of the heart and consists of
mesothelium with underlying connective and adipose tissue. It contains coronary vasculature.

◗ Myocardium is the middle layer and consists of cardiac muscle.

◗ Endocardium is the inner layer and consists of endothelium, subendothelial connective tissue,
and a subendocardial layer containing cells of the conducting system of the heart.

◗ Contraction of the heart is initiated and synchronized by the conducting system,which consists of
modified cardiac myocytes forming the sinoatrial (or sinu-atrial) (SA) node, atrioventricular (AV) node,
AV bundle (of His), and Purkinje fi bers.

◗ The heart rate is regulated by the sympathetic nerves (increase rate) and parasympathetic nerves
(decrease rate) as well as by circulating hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) and other
substances (Ca2+, thyroid hormones, caffeine, etc.).

WANCHALERM YENJAI, SCBM 5905560

 Structure of cell and tissue
SCBM 214 Report
9

STOMACH
◗ The stomach has three histologic regions: cardia surrounding the esophageal orifice, pyloric near the
gastroduodenal junction, and fundic (anatomically occupied by fundus and body).
◗ Mucosa of the fundic region forms a number of longitudinal folds (rugae). Surface mucous cells line the
inner surface of the stomach and the gastric pits, which are the openings into the branched fundic
glands. Surface mucous cells produce an insoluble, viscous, gel-like coat that contains bicarbonate ions
to protect against physical and chemical injury of the gastric wall.
◗ The epithelium of the fundic gland has five major cell types: mucous neck cells, which produce soluble
and low-alkaline mucussecretions; parietal cells, which are responsible for the production of HCl within
the lumen of their intracellular canalicular system; chief cells, which secrete the protein pepsinogen;
enteroendocrine cells, which produce small regulatory gastrointestinal and paracrine hormones; and
stem cells, which are precursors to all cells in the fundic gland. (Figure 2.6)
◗ Mucous neck cells produce soluble and low-alkaline mucus secretions.
◗ Parietal cells are large cells in the middle of the gland and are responsible for the production
of HCl within the lumen of their intracellular canalicular system. Th ey also secrete intrinsic
factor.
◗ Chief cells reside at the bottom of the fundic gland and secrete the protein pepsinogen. On
contact with the low pH of gastric juice, pepsinogen is converted to pepsin, an active
proteolytic enzyme.
◗ Enteroendocrine cells are found at every level of the fundic gland. Th ey produce small
regulatory gastrointestinal and paracrine hormones.
◗ Stem cells are precursors to all cells in the fundic gland and are located in the neck region of
the gland.
◗ The fundic glands produce gastric juice containing four major components: hydrochloric acid (HCl),
pepsin ( proteolytic enzyme), intrinsic factor (for B12 absorption), and acid-protective mucus.
◗ Cardiac glands are entirely composed of mucus-secreting cells with occasional interspersed
enteroendocrine cells.
◗ Pyloric glands are branched and lined with cells resembling the surface mucous cells and occasional
enteroendocrine cells.

Figure 2.6

WANCHALERM YENJAI, SCBM 5905560

 Structure of cell and tissue
SCBM 214 Report
16

ALVEOLI
◗ The respiratory bronchiole divides into the alveolar ducts that lead into alveolar sacs surrounded by
clusters of alveoli. (Figure 3.5)
◗ Alveoli are the terminal air spaces of the respiratory system. Their septa are the locations for gas
exchange between the air and the blood.
◗ Alveolar epithelium is composed of type I and II alveolar cells (pneumocytes) with occasional brush
cells.
◗ Type I alveolar cells are extremely thin squamous cells that line 95% of the alveolar surface and form
the barrier between the air space and the septal wall.
◗ Type II alveolar cells are secretory cells that produce and secrete surfactant, which lowers surface
tension in the alveoli. They have characteristic lamellar bodies visible with electron microscopy.
◗ The alveolar septum is the site of the air–blood barrier. It consists of a thin layer of surfactant, a type I
epithelial cell with its basal lamina, and a capillary endothelial cell with its basal lamina. Often, these
two basal laminae are fused together.
◗ Alveolar and septal macrophages are present in alveolar air spaces and septal connective tissue,
respectively.

Respiratory
Bronchiole

Figure 3.4 Figure 3.5

BLOOD SUPPLY, INNERVATION, AND LYMPHATIC DRAINAGE

◗ The lung has both pulmonary and bronchial circulations.
◗ Pulmonary circulation delivers blood via branches of the pulmonary artery to the capillary network
surrounding the alveoli for oxygenation. Blood is collected by pulmonary venous capillaries that
eventually form the pulmonary veins.
◗ Bronchial circulation, via bronchial arteries, supplies the walls of the bronchi, bronchioles, and
the remaining connective tissue of the lung.
◗ Autonomic nerves follow the branches of pulmonary arteries and innervate the smooth muscle of
blood vessels, the bronchial tree, and the respiratory mucosa.
◗ A dual lymphatic drainage of the lungs parallels the dual blood supply. Accumulation of the
bronchus-associated lymphatic tissue (BALT) and lymph nodes are frequently found near large
bronchi.

WANCHALERM YENJAI, SCBM 5905560

 Structure of cell and tissue
SCBM 214 Report
20

◗ The pineal gland contains two types of parenchymal cells: pinealocytes that secrete melatonin and
supporting interstitial (glial) cells. It also possesses characteristic calcifi ed concretions called corpora
arenacea or brain sand.

THYROID GLAND
◗ The thyroid gland is located in the neck and develops from the endodermal lining of the
floor of the primitive pharynx.
◗ The thyroid gland consists mainly of thyroid follicles, which generally are formed from simple cuboidal
follicular epithelium. Lumen of the follicles is fi lled with a gel-like mass called colloid, which contains
thyroglobulin, an inactive storage form of thyroid hormones.
◗ Follicular epithelium contains two types of cells: follicular cells that produce thyroid hormones
T4 and T3, and parafollicular cells that produce calcitonin.
◗ Synthesis of T4 and T3 takes place in follicular cells and the lumen of the follicle. It involves a series
of steps, from the synthesis of thyroglobulin, to the uptake and oxidation of iodide, to iodination of
the thyroglobulin to form T4 and T3 hormones.
◗ In response to TSH stimulation, follicular cells resorb colloid and transport T4 and T3 into circulation.

PARATHYROID GLANDS
◗ The parathyroid glands (two pairs) are located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. They
develop from the third and fourth pharyngeal pouches.
◗ Parathyroid glands consist of two major epithelial cells: principal cells, which are the most numerous
and secrete parathyroid (PTH) hormone, and oxyphil cells.
◗ PTH regulates calcium and phosphate levels in the blood. It binds to the PTH receptors on target cells
and increases the Ca2+ level in the blood.

ADRENAL (SUPRARENAL) GLANDS

◗ The adrenal glands are paired triangular organs embedded in the perirenal fat at the upper poles of
the kidneys.
◗ Adrenal glands are organized into two distinct regions: the cortex, a steroid-secreting portion that
developed from the mesoderm, and the medulla, a catecholamine-secreting portion that developed
from neural crest cells.
◗ During development the fetal adrenal gland is composed of the fetal cortex without a definitive
medulla.
◗ The adrenal medulla contains chromaffin cells that synthesize epinephrine and norepinephrine to
prepare the body for a “fight-or-flight” response.
◗ The adrenal cortex is divided into three zones: zona glomerulosa (outer); zona fasciculata (thick
middle); and zona reticularis (inner), which communicates with the medulla.
◗ Zona glomerulosa cells form ovoid clusters and produce mineralocorticoids (e.g., aldosterone). Th e
renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system provides the feedback mechanism to control secretion of the zona
glomerulosa cells.
◗ Zona fasciculata cells are arranged in long straight cords and produce glucocorticoids (e.g., cortisol)
that regulate gluconeogenesis (glucose synthesis) and glycogenesis (glycogen polymerization). ACTH
regulates secretion of the zona fasciculata cells.
◗ Zona reticularis cells are arranged in anastomosing cords separated by fenestrated capillaries and
produce weak androgens (mostly DHEA). ACTH regulates secretion of the zona reticularis cells.

WANCHALERM YENJAI, SCBM 5905560

Structure of cell and tissue
SCBM 214 Report
21

WANCHALERM YENJAI, SCBM 5905560