Vacuum/volume 31 /number Bl9lpages 351 to 357/l 981 0042-207x/81 /08035i -07$02.

00/o
Printed in Great Britain Pergamon Press Ltd

Space environment and vacuum properties of

spacecraft materials
T J Patrick, University College London, Mullard Space Science Laboratory, Holmbury St Mary, Dorking,
Surrey RH5 6NT, UK

This review of the literature of vacuum aspects of space science and technology during the last decade has
focused on (i) the vacuum environment of spacecraft in orbit and under test and (ii) materials for structures,
instrumentation and mechanisms of spacecraft. Earlier knowledge of the parameters of the environment for
near-Earth orbits has been consolidated. There have been advances in the understanding of the molecular flow
around spacecraft. The outgassing of materials remains an important consideration, so criteria for selection still
include low mass loss and low propensity to contaminate critical surfaces. There are now good data for the
choice of lubricants, both liquid and solid, for mechanisms intended to operate for several years in space. The
techniques for spacecraft testing in space simulation chambers are well established and only relatively small
special-purpose chambers are now being built.

1. Historical introduction repeatedly. Mechanisms began to be tested for lives of several

Space technology has its origins in rocket engineering. but the
techniques of vacuum were as essential to progress as skill in
electronics and the design of light structures. A proper concern of
the designers of the first artificial satellites was the temperature
balance of a body exposed to intense solar radiation on one side
yet liable to lose its heat to black space on the other. The heat
transfer problem is complicated by the conduction of electrical
energy from solar panels to heat dissipating circuits which cannot
cool by convection unless installed in a relatively heavy gas-filled
pressure vessel. Hence was born the need for techniques for testing
of space hardware in thermal vacuum chambers whose walls
could be heated or cooled. Solar simulators were a further
development in which the energy input was an arc lamp whose
output was collimated to represent solar radiation, and in such
apparatus, which by the mid-1960s had become large and
expensive, solar energy systems for satellites were tested and
developed. The chambers threw up their own problems, of
contamination by diffusion pump oil, but other outgassing and
contamination problems, already familiar in vacuum labora-
tories, were met afresh in the space hardware context, particularly
on account of the weight-saving attractions of newly-developed
polymer materials in electrical parts. Problems of lubricating the
bearings of mechanisms in space were essentially those already
encountered in research into friction under vacuum. but the need
to adjust the orientation of radio antennae and solar cell arrays
gave new impetus to developments, many of them employing new
materials, in this area of space engineering and tribology. By the
time in the 1960s that successful space missions had departed for
the Moon and nearer planets. a pattern had been established in
which spacecraft technologists proved their electronic systems in
thermal vacuum tests and checked their predictions of thermal
radiation balance in a solar simulation chamber. In the ensuing
years this pattern for the validation of new designs was applied
years in vacuum, as geostationary satellites took over telecom-
munications, and other new spacecraft were used increasingly for
meteorological observations, navigation, studies of Earth re-
sources and the monitoring of military activity.
A space science background for this technology developed with
it. but pure science objectives were also pursued. For example.
radio research led early to the exploration of the ionosphere by
sounding rocket and satellite and so. by way of thediscovery of the
magnetosphere, to today’s plasma geophysics with its continuing
study of solar terrestrial relations. The geophysical instrumen-
tation of spacecraft requires calibration in vacuum systems.
Satellite access to cosmic uv radiation, X-rays and gamma-rays
beyond their absorption in Earth’s atmosphere has given birth to
new branches of astronomy, for which increasingly large new
kinds oforbiting telescope have been developed. These have made
even greater demands on vacuum test facilities. and have
increased the pressure to exclude materials, often new polymers,
whose outgassing products included condensible matter which
might contaminate optical surfaces. Now the second generation
interplanetary spacecraft are transforming the astronomy of the
solar system from an observational to an experimental science.
Amongst goals planned for the next few years. two projects
illustrate respectively some space science and technology am-
bitions awaiting fulfilment. First, the close investigation of a
comet. The predicted return of Halley’s comet in 1986 has
stimulated the European Space Agency. Japan and the Russians
to mount missions in which unmanned spacecraft will encounter
the comet and return physical data on matter composing it. No
previous space Right will have met an environment so hostile as
the cloud of interplanetary dust against which these missions will
have to be shielded. Secondly, there is the potential of the US
Space Shuttle for technological research. This piloted space
vehicle which. after orbital Right. will land and be reflown. will be
351
T J Patrick: Space environment and vacuum properties of spacecraft materials

able to carry ESA’s Spacelab in which many new experiments may electrical breakdown (arcing or ‘corona’ discharge) through the
be performed in a microgravity environment. Processing in this internal atmosphere, if high voltage circuits are switched on too
situation may even lead to the production of materials not early. Ground rules for the avoidance of electrical breakdowns
otherwise available. were compiled by Paul and Burrowbridge” and there is a recent
The paper seeks to review. primarily from the point of view of article by Nanevicz and Adamo”. The rule of thumb is that no
space instrument engineering, the vacuum technology of materials high voltage may be switched on to a conductor if the local
principally for structures, mechanisms, seals, lubricants and pressure is likely to be in the range 5 kPa down to 1 Pa. Detailed
electrical components. As in the early literature in this field, e.g. calculations of spacecraft internal pressures during the ascent
Goetzel’, the space vacuum environment of the spacecraft has have been reported by Scialdone”, who made allowance for the
been included, but it has now been possible to include several new high initial rates ofoutgassing, probably water vapour,from parts
studies stimulated by the development of the Shuttle. of the spacecraft.

2.3. External environment in orbit. The environment surrounding

2. Vacuum environment of spacecraf!
an orbiting satellite is determined by (i) the planetary atmosphere
2.1. The natural space environment. For earth’s atmosphere, the (para 2.1. above); (ii) the height in the orbit; (iii) the outgassing
variation with height of pressure, density, temperature and and other spacecraft emissions, including intermittent firings of
composition has long been systematicaily researched. attitude control and orbit changing motors, and leakage from
Atmospheric density at high altitudes is strongly affected by solar cabins (with dumping of wastes) in the case of manned spacecraft.
activity. Data up to 2000 km are available in the COSPAR Typically a low earth orbit for an artificial satellite has been at
International Reference Atmosphere’ and were given in other altitude above 200 km. The objective of the rocket-driven ascent
more compact texts such as Johnson3 (now somewhat dated). will have been to take the spacecraft to this altitude and to
Witteborn and Simpson” list other references. but none more accelerate it on to the velocity vector required for the planned
recent. At geostationary altitude, 36,000 km, there is virtually no orbit. At 200 km a satellite will have an orbital speed of 8 km s- ‘,
neutral atmosphere. at geosynchronous altitude 3.2 km s-‘.
Results of planetary exploration by space probe began to Scialdone’ 3 gave an account of his calculation of the environ-
appear in the late 1960s after NASA’s Mariner 5 had flown past ment. There will be differences between a ‘condensation’ or
Venus in 1967, and Venera 6 and 7,launched by the USSR in 1969, stagnation region ahead of the satellite and rarefaction region
had landed there. Some discrepancies in the data returned from behind. The condensation region is formed by the sweeping up of
Venera probes’ have been cleared up, confirming an atmosphere ambient atoms and molecules by the forward satellite surface.
much denser and hotter than Earth’s, Measurements made from Before collision, these particles have only a thermal velocity much
Mariners 6 and 7 launched in 1969 to fly close to Mars, improved less than satellite velocity, but they are reflected by collision, and
knowledge of the tenuous Martian atmosphere; Mariner 9 form a stagnation region ahead ofthe satellite, in which region the
followed in 1971, then Mars 4 and 5in 1975. In 1976 Vikings I and particle concentration is increased, up to density three times
2 were launched by the US. and, as well as sending back the classic ambient. The region contains the reflected particles, the arriving
pictures from the planet’s surface, yielded data on the structure of ambient particles, and outgassed and other particles from the
the Martian atmosphere”. Mariner 10 (1974) made the closest satellite. The rarefaction region trails the satellite, contains
encounter with Mercury and confirmed that small inner planet to molecules from satellite outgassing. and is eventually refilled by
be, like our Moon. almost free of any atmosphere. thermally motivated ambient particles at about 25 satellite radii
The outer planets became the targets for fly-by missions in the behind the satellite. The outgassed or otherwise emitted particles
1970s. Pioneer IO was launched from the US towards Jupiter in deposited in this wake will be left behind and, unlike those in the
1973. Pioneer 1 I followed it in 1974 and went on to Saturn. stagnation region, cannot return to the satellite to contaminate it.
Voyagers I and 2 flew past Jupiter and Saturn in 1979 and 1980. Although the satellite acquires an electric potential (see
The complexities of the atmosphere of these giant planets are a Garrett14). due to impact of charged particles and surface
subject of continuing study, and plans for atmospheric entry emission due to solar radiation, this will not affect the molecular
missions have yet to be implemented. flow of uncharged outgassed material.
The neutral atmospheres of Earth, Venus, Mars and Jupiter are The cabin leakage problem was studied during the Gemini and
surrounded by ionospheres. basic accounts of which have been Apollo programmes by Kovar and Banner” who found evidence
given by Boyd’. Further out are found magnetospheres which of a substantial ‘debris’ atmosphere.
contain belts of trapped energetic protons and electrons, also On the spinning satellite Explorer 32 Silverman and Newton6’
described by Boyd; see also Akasofu’. measured pressures using coldcathode gauges. Pressures varied
smoothly from stagnation ahead to rarefaction behind, cor-
2.2. Ascent. During a rocket launch from earth the ambient responding to spacecraft ambient modified by outgassing.
pressure around a spacecraft falls quickly (see, for example. The flights planned for the Space Shuttle could include an
Patrickg). The rate of fall of ambient pressure is determined by the application of the wake rarefaction effect to produce low
accelerationtime curve of the ascent trajectory, which does not pressures, even below IO-” Pa (or IO-l4 torr). Melfi er allh
vary very significantly among vehicles of the same type, and by the analysed a molecular shield model in terrestrial orbit above
pressure-height relation of the atmosphere. Molecular Row 200 km, considering outgassing from the shield and instrumen-
conditions are established typically about 3 min from launch, at tation as well as the free-stream atmosphere and that part of it
which time the ambient pressure may be typically IO PPa at scattered offthe spacecraft (the Shuttle Orbiter). The atmospheric
altitude 90 km. One of the lessons from the early history of rocket component would be principally atomic hydrogen of density less
and satellite launches was that internal compartments need time than 10” cmm3 , corresponding to a pressure near 4 x IO- ’ ’ Pa at
to pump out to the ambient pressure to avoid the danger of 300 K. But theshuttle Orbiter will be manned. will have an active

352
T J Patrick; Space environment and vacuum properties of spacecraft materials

attitude-control system, and relatively large emissions. Hence of a complex numerical approach to spacecraft self-
such low pressures are more likely to be achieved behind a passive contamination can be found in Harvey”. Scialdone” has
spacecraft; a Long Duration Exposure Facility. Oran and developed his analysis to predict the gaseous environment for the
Naumann” have discussed the vacuum in the wake of such a Shuttle, and has reckoned that the payloads will dictate it except
vehicle, and gave a graph of the directional flux of H, He and 0 during attitude motor firing and waste water evaporation; his
atoms as a function of angle from the wake axis. It shows 10” H detailed paper quotes the criteria agreed on for limiting gaseous
atoms cm-l s-‘sr-’ from the wake direction, but IO” on the contamination, and lists design and operational criteria for
forward side of the shield. Moore ” has looked at molecular wake experiment builders. Cooled instruments will be particularly at
shields of various shapes. Kleber l9 has discussed the problem of risk, and first flights of each Shuttle are expected to outgas a dirtier
pressure measurements in a Shuttle Orbiter environment. environment than subsequent flights (on account of the ‘bake-out’
effect of re-entry heating).
2.4. Internal pressures in orbit. The simplest case is that of a The nature and quality of condensibles has been a concern for
spacecraft compartment directly connected through an orifice even longer than outgassing quantities. Zwaalz6 gave IR spec-
with the external space environment. The compartment is troscopy techniques for the detection of organic contamination.
evolving gas from its walls ofarea A, (cm’) for which the material The most feared were human (finger)grease and ‘creeping’silicone
is outgassing at a quasi-steady rate Q(; (cm - ‘). This gas is passing fluids. Gross” lists over 60 IR-characterized contaminants.
through an orifice of area A (cm’) for which the pumping speed S Contaminants identified by their spectra point back to the need
is II.6 A I s-‘. Hence. by equating the quantities in pres- for adequate standards in material selection (4 below), storage,
sure-volume units, we calculate the quasi-steady equilibrium cleaning, fabrication, and testing (2.7 below). A recent review of
pressure as spacecraft contamination has been given by Jemiola’8.
p =*,.QG-A,.Q,
-- 2.6. Descent. The majority of unmanned spacecraft which have
L
S A 11.6’
been launched are either still in orbit or have been destroyed by
Inserting QG in units of torr-I s-’ cm-’ yields a pressure in torr. aerodynamic heating after their orbits decayed to altitudes of
[Transcribed to coherent (SI) units the equation becomes 30 km or less. Those still in orbit slowly return to lower altitudes,
depending on their drag, which, until re-entry is imminent, will be
a tiny fraction of their weight. Hence the pressure environment in
orbit will always be below the level ofa few torr or IkPa, although
high voltagecircuits will have been at risk from breakdown below
from which P,. is found in pascals. if QG is given in Pa m s-l.1 90 km, I Pa.
If outgassing rates as a function of time are available, the Manned spacecraft fire retrorockets to achieve controlled re-
compartment pressure for increasing times into orbital flight may entry trajectories, along which will be reached (and passed) a
be estimated. But often the outgassing data do not run beyond a hypersonic continuum flow condition with intense aerodynamic
few hours. Following Schittko”, it has been suggested’ that heating of an ablative or refractory heat shield. The difficulty of
outgassing rates be extrapolated by an inverse square-root law.
developing a refractory tile system for the Shuttle Orbiter is well
This approach matches the outgassing model ofGuillin” ; but see known. This same vehicle is expected to encounter water
also Scialdone”, and Elsey13 for discussion of mechanisms. condensation in its payload bay in the phase of aerodynamically
More complex cases were calculated by Scialdone”, who
controlled flight after re-entry but before landing.
developed a computer program which could handle several
compartments interconnected in various ways and made due
2.7. Test chamber environments. Haeferzg described ‘2nd gener-
allowance for the nature and temperature of ambient gas, the
ation’ installations for thermal vacuum and solar simulation
temperature of internal surfaces, and the reduction of outgassing
testing. The facilities required to complete the development of the
rate.
Shuttle have existed for some time. Sanger and Franz3’ reported
2.5. Contamination. The outgassed particles from a satellite are in that the change to titanium sublimation and ion getter pumps
the stagnation zone ahead of it. Scialdone’ 3 assembled the theory from an oil diffusion system reduced the organic content of
to derive the density ofparticles returning to the surface, the mass residual gas by two orders of magnitude.
column-density, and the time to form a monolayer of con- Scialdone’s analysis’4 calculated that tests conducted in
densibles. He gathered test data on satellite outgassing after I h in conventional vacuum chambers can result in returning con-
vacuum. The calculated monolayer condensation time was a few taminating fluxes comparable to space up to altitude 400 km. For
seconds for manned spacecraft including Gemini, Apollo and higher equivalent altitudes, chambers could produce contami-
Apollo Telescope Mount (Skylab), and also for the scientific nation exceeding that returned in the space environment. Pres-
satellite IMP-B. But for a Nimbus weather satellite the outgassing sure measurements are not selective and cannot indicate self-
rate was some 200 times lower, leading to a result implying that a contamination. Kleber 31 has also addressed this problem of the
monolayer would never form. Another point brought out in this meaning of pressure measurements, and Haefer3’ has
and a contemporary paper 24 is that the molecules outgassed contributed.
produce a concentration which diminishes with distance from the Among new needs to have been met, there have been those of
spacecraft surface along the direction of the velocity vector. The ion propulsion development, and vacuum pipelines permitting X-
decrease depends on altitude. For 100 km and 500 km orbits, the ray and uv telescopes to be calibrated at a sufficient distance
distances for an order of magnitude reduction in outgassing (typically tens of metres) from the radiation source so that rays are
concentration are respectively 0.1 m and 2 m. The ratio of almost effectively parallel. Workers planning installations can
returned to emitted outgassing flux was calculated at one half at consult reviews such as Weston33, Bentley34, Harris” and
160 km, reducing to one millionth at 1000 km. Another example Henning3’.
353
T J Patrick: Space environment and vacuum properties of spacecraft materials

3. Criteria for acceptance of materials

The mechanical design of a spacecraft, its systems and instrumen-
tation is largely the application of well established principles in
structures using materials which are strong, light, resistant to
radiation, and have low outgassing. Subsidiary requirements are +Loctlte
AA +-H
low magnetic properties and general resistance to corrosion. 322
Manned spacecraft have additional severe restrictions on flam- +
mability and toxicity; see Bennett36. POlrlTS, 1
polyurethane +
Kopton
A vacuum physicist might define good vacuum properties as
Hi 1
low vapour pressure, low outgassing rate, and low gas perme- 2
ability. The first concern here is with low outgassing. In some 306 - +
circumstances, any outgassing rate is acceptable which does not +
lead to an equilibrium pressure in an internal compartment high .-_-_----
Mass loss trIterIon
A-
enough to present a risk of electrical breakdown. The actual Av lO6/
Hv I00

+I
outgassing rate, itself a function of time in vacuum, can often be
\
found in the vacuum literature, e.g. Elseyz3. But this approach is Polyo:efl”
rarely adopted. The condensibility of the evolved gases is also Dacron +
t to pe
important as a source of contamination. vespe I s
+ +Delrln k
Hence a relatively simple standard test which yields data on ‘C
+ t
both outgassing and condensed products has been adopted by PA P 113 Mylar E
two principal authorities concerned with the flight-worthiness of I
‘F CCT + +
/ 3
space hardware, NASA (the National Aeronautics and Space Board
t+ u
Sllastomer
Administration of the USA) and ESA (the European Space
‘Vito” A
Agency). The test procedure is given in several references
(Campbell et &‘, ESA3a). The standard criteria for the accept- Durold
Teflon I I
ance of a material are: 0 05 0 IO 0 15

Total mass loss, after 24 h at 125°C at 0.13 mPa
( 10m6 torr): denoted TML: < 1.0%.
Condensed volatile condensible materials, collected for 24 h
on a plate at 25°C: denoted CVCM : <O.l%.
As might be expected it has been found’ that mass loss correlates
with outgassing rate, albeit roughly. Whereas outgassing rate is a
physical quantity of a kind, TML is’ only a percentage figure of
comparison. Nevertheless, there is now a large body of TML and
CVCM data on materials used in space projects over two decades.
Campbell et a13’ give a collection of over 3000. Figure I and its
accompanying table give TML, CVCM values for materials
typical of current space practice, and show that similar values are
found for comparable materials tested in different laboratories.
The rough correlation with outgassing rate is also shown by the
table.
Taking a simple view, any material within the criteria is ‘space-
approved’. In practice, difficult design problems are sometimes
solved by choosing materials which are above the limits, but the
degree of damage (contamination or loss of mass) which can be
tolerated will depend on the relative quantities of good and bad
material used, and such cases must be judged on their merits. To
quote Dauphin3’, ‘a waiver is like a sin in that it must be
committed reluctantly, regretted deeply, and not repeated . . if
possible’. But the utility of the TML/CVCM figures’ of com-
parison continues to appear, as for instance in Guillaumon’s
report4’ on new paints and silicone varnishes, or Bennett’s
comment36 that for the Spacelab ESA tested some 100 materials.
Spacelab is the first manned spacecraft built in Europe, albeit
captive to the Shuttle.
One way past the arbitrary criteria of ML/VCM has been
reported by Thomas4’ as applied in the Faint Object Camera
project, which is ESA’s contribution to NASA’s Space Telescope.
The standard test has been replaced by continuous measurement
of condensate deposition on a quartz crystal microbalance. This
approach has been explored at NASA by Scialdone4’. Other
354
Condensed volotlle condensable moterlol, 01~
Figure 1. TML (Total Mass Loss) and CVCM (Condensed Volatile
Condensible Material) for some typical spacecraft materials which show
significant outgassing from Table 1.
refined techniques are exemplified in mass spectrometry,
Colony43, and IR spectrometry, Gross”.
Evidently there are areas where the requirements for spacecraft
materials approach those in laboratory uhv, as given by
Weston44. Perhaps expensive materials are more often cost-
effective in space applications. Other notable differences are (i)
space hardware is much less often baked to reduce its outgassing
and VCM content; (ii) glass and ceramics are uncommon, the
need for insulating materials being satisfied among polymer
materials.
4. Structural materials
The light alloys of aluminium, and to a lesser extent titanium, are
the metals most likely to be chosen for a spacecraft structure. If
space experience has revealed problems they are in other areas,
e.g. occasional instances of stress corrosion cracking, rather than
in vacuum performance. There is a tendency away from the heat
treatable copper-bearing alloys to AlSi and the dimensionally very
stable Al 39, Mg alloys. Magnesium alloys, although even lighter
than aluminium, are falling from favour on account of their
susceptibility to general corrosion and the attendant problems of
paint finishes. The higher vapour pressure of magnesium is also
against it but has not excluded its use on some projects.
Steel, though three times denser than the aluminium alloys,
nevertheless can match them in strength/weight ratio. Usually a
stainless alloy (with chromium and nickel) is chosen, the non-
magnetic austenitic forms (e.g. 321320) being preferred. Small
components such as screw fastenings are usually of steel or
titanium alloy Ti 4Al9V. Carbon steels passivated by cadmium
T J Patrick: Space environment and vacuum properties of spacecraft materials

Table ISome spacecrilrt materials typical ofcurrent practice, listed in approximate order of outgassing rale, with Total Mass Loss (TM L) and Condensed
Volatile Condensible Malerial (CVCM); after Campbell er P/” or ESA’s (ESA resuhs denoted E)

TML CVCM Outgassing rate, IO h Elsey”

Material Application Manufacturer (‘I,,) I “J (torr I s-’ cm’) (Pams-‘)

Sleel, slainless, BS 1449 321 S I2 Filtings I.4 X lo-9 1.9x l0-h

Tilanium 6 Al 4 V (IMI 318) Fillings 1.8 x lO-9 2.4x IO-h
Aluminium 4 Cu Structure 3.5 x 10-s 4.7 x 10-5
PTFE. Teflon Wire sleeving Du Pant 0.00 0 2.5 x IO-’ 3.3 x 10-s
PTFE-glass-MoSz composite, Duroid Bearings Rogers 0.0 I 0
Perfluoroether. Fomblin Oil and grease Mintedison 0.0 1 0
FEP. Teflon, film Thermal insulalion Du Pant 0.02 0
Fiberglass woven cloth. Betacloth Thermal insulation Stevens 0.03 0
Viton A fluorocarbon rubber Seals Du Pant 0.22 0.02 -IO-' - 1o-4
Silicone elaslomer, 93500 Potting, seals Dow Corning 0.30 E 0.03
PETP, Mylar, film Thermal insulation 0.30 E 0.03
0.65 0.04 4 x10-’ 5.3 x Io-J
Epoxy-glass laminate Circuil board 0.37 0.02
Epoxy, Araldite F, hoi-cured Potting CIBA 0.40 E 0
Diallyl phrhalate Connector bodies 0.44 0
Polyurethane, Solithane Il3/300 Conformal coaling Thiokol 0.40 E 0.03
r 0.50 0.03
Polyimide. Vespel Solid lubricant Du Ponr 0.58 0.0 I
Polyacetal, Delrin Insulating parts Du Pant 0.58 0.06
PETP, Dacron, tape 21 D 96 Wire lacing Gude 0.73 0.15
Epoxy, Araldite AV lOO/HV 100 Adhesive CIBA 0.78 0.10 -IO-h - 10-l
i I.10 E 0.07
Polyolefin. heat shrunk Sleeving Raychem 0.80 0.08
Polyimide. Kapton H. film Thermal insulation Du Pant I .30 0.02
Polyurethane Z 306 Paint Hughson I.17 0.07
r 1.50 E 0.03
Polyurelhane H 322 Conducting paint Hughson 1.39 0.08
I .60 E 0.04
Resin loctite AA/primer N Thread locking I .64 0

plating are not favoured because of some evidence of the growth of recognized as the trouble-makers. Electrical insulating and
cadmium whiskers, whose fracture and (weightless) drift could potting materials, paint finishes and lubricating greases came
short-circuit electric circuits. under suspicion until accepted on ML/VCM criteria. Re-
A widely-used structural component is the honeycomb sand- visions of lists of approved polymers were frequent and lead to
wich panel. This frequently tomprises two thin aluminium alloy the references (Campbell 1978, ESA 1979) which are current
sheet skins spaced apart by hexagonal cells formed in alloy foil, the today. Further attention was focused on polymers on account of
honeycomb cells being bonded to each other and to the skins by their degradation under uv and particulate radiations, topics
synthetic resin adhesive.Pinholes in the cell walls allow the cellsto which were discussed by Goetzel et a/ ’ and again recently by
vent and outgas, but such a component is a much greater Bourrieau and Paillous4’.
outgassing risk than a plain metal sheet. The problem is one of In what follows, the polymer materials will be referred to by their
surface area and effective porosity, and has been studied by customary trade names, with the chemical name given in Table 1.
Schalla4’ of Lockheed in a study of several different porous The most exposed materials on a spacecraft are often the
materials. A typical 1 m* panel will have 3 m2 internal surface and thermal insulation blankets and the paint finishes. The blankets
after 7 h invacuum will beoutgassing3.10-I0 torr-I cme2 S-‘,i.e. are multiple layers of aluminized plastic foil (Mylar or Kapton)
evolving IO-’ torr-I s-‘, that is about lo-* g s-‘, from the sometimes interleaved with nylon mesh. Glassford and Liu4”
panel’s interior. recently published outgassing figures. Recent attention to paints
Composite materials, such as those incorporating carbon fibre has been given by Lehn4’ and by Giullaumon and Guillin4’. In
(carbon fibre reinforced plastic, CFRP, more accurately described another paper on the outgassing of paints and potting materials,
as epoxy-resin-toughened carbon fibre) show great promise for Guillin” has sought to establish a mathematical model with an
structures (see Bowen4”) but there is no evidence to suggest that activation energy (Arrhenius equation) basis. (Seealso Henriso,
outgassing rate will be lower than would be expected from any Heslin” and Scialdonez2.) Another concern with thermal control
other material containing perhaps 50”,, of epoxy resin. Moisture coatings, that of electrostatic charging properties, has been
absorption has been a problem and might have to be controlled by explored for ESA by Bosma and Levadou52.
storage in a dry gas. For some purposes such as gas storage vessels and valves,
elastomer seals are another spacecraft application for polymers.
Principles of design have been discussedby Sessinkand Verste?.
Chernatony has made extensive contributions to the literature on
5. Polymers the fluorocarbon rubber Viton and its derivatives54*5s.
When, in the first few years of spaceactivity, it was discovered that As an example from the relatively few polymers with outstand-
outgassing was a problem, the polymer ‘plastics’ materials were ingly good outgassing properties PTFE should be mentioned.
355
TJ Patrick: Space environment and vacuum properties of spacecraft materials
Poole and Michaehs5’ have recently drawn attention to improve-
ments found by removing the skin of the extruded material.
6. Ceramics
Not excluding the silica tiles developed for the protection against
aerodynamic re-entry heating of the Shuttle Orbiter, ceramic
materials have made an undistinguished contribution so far
among spacecraft materiais. The machinable glass ceramics
appear attractive for many applications including space in-
strumentation. Alternose and Kacyon’s have considered their
vacuum compatibility, and Grossmans has given an extended
account of their machining properties.
7. Space tribology and lubrication of mechanisms
Spacecraft require mechanisms with such applications as solar
panel deployment and orientation, antenna steering, gyroscopes,
inertia wheels, instrument booms, shutters, tape recorders, slip
rings for power transfer, and cryogenic heai pumps. Bearings,
whether plain journals or with rotating elements, are needed. But
conventional lubricating oils evaporate and contaminate where
they recondense,and so cannot be tolerated unlessthe mechanism
can be sealed in a pressure vessel.The problems are sufficiently
formidable to have warranted the setting up in 1972 of the
European Space Tribology Laboratory (at Risley. England), and
have been discussed by Robbins6’. Conferences took place in
19756’ and 19806’.
Lubricating oils and greaseshave been developed from vacuum
pump oils in order to depress the vapour pressure. The greases
have employed molybdenum disulphide and oleophilic carbon.
But there has been a long history of successfuluse of MoS, and
other lubricants, going back to work reviewed by C)aussh3. Such
developments included proprietary composite bearing materials
based on glass-tibre-reinforced PTFE, e.g. Duroid in Bartemp
bearings for which many successful applications have been
reported (Devine et a/64, Patrick6’). Another significant solid-
lubricant is ion-plated lead (Todd and Robbins)66. Hadley6’ has
reported long life with carbon fibre reinforced polyacetal and has
used Vespel polyimide. Ball bearings have been operated in space
with both solid and liquid lubricant; see ESA paper?‘. Their
thermal conductivity has been studied by Stevens and Todd6s.
Acknowledgements
Thanks for assistance are due to Professor R L F Boyd, CBE,
FRS; J A Bowles; L de Chernatony; J Robbins; P H Sheather and
W Steckelmacher.
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