Chapter 7

Site Investigation (S.I)

and
Geophysics
 SI comprises
a) Planning

b) Desk Study

c) Investigation on Natural rock or Man Made

outcrop

d) Drilling Exploration

e) Observation into borehole

 Planning
 The successful design and construction really need
prediction data like:

 Soil and rock characteristics,

 Groundwater level
 Knowledge on geology structure.

 To obtain that information, engineers and geologists acquires

MAP and CROSS SECTION SUBSURFACE which are
having the kind of information such as:

 Topography contour for pre and post construction.

 Top layer of rocks contour
 Weathered rocks layer contour
 Contour between rock and soil boundaries
 Desk Study

 Study on:-

MAP and REPORTS

Aerial Photo and Remote Sensing

Photographs on color or black and white

 Investigation on Natural rock
or Man Made outcrop
1) Investigation on surface:
 Test pits and trenches
 Adits and Shaft

2) Observation on rock outcrops:

 Geological mapping on rock exposed
 Sampling on jointed rocks

3) Seismic activities and Faulted:

4) Using geophysics methods in SI

 TRIAL PIT & TRENCHES
 Trial pitting can be carried out by a
variety of methods from hand dug
pits to machine excavated trenches.

 Trial pitting is generally carried out to

a maximum depth of 4.5m with
standard excavation plant and,
depending on soil conditions, is
generally suitable for most low rise
developments.

 All trial pit investigations are

supervised by experienced engineers
with a thorough understanding of
geology and soil mechanics.
Shaft and Adit
 Drilling Exploration

 Rock core drilling

 Core orientation

 Supervision and logging

 Observation into borehole
 Camera (TV)

 Packer Test

 Geophysics

 Dilatometer, Pressuremeter
 Wash boring
 The foremost S.I used around the world.

 The soil and rock characteristics were

recorded into BORELOG (Figure 7.3 (a) & (b))

 Soil samples were taken using spilt barrel

 Rock samples obtained using core barrel.

Rotary Wash Boring (Borehole)
Boring Machine (Tanah Merah, 2015)
 Boring Record
 Boring logs: Information on subsurface conditions obtained
from the boring operation presented in the form of a boring log
(boring record).

 A continuous record of the various strata found at the boring is

developed.

 The contents are:

 Description/classification of soils and rock type

 Changes in strata
 Water level
 Soil consistency
 Type and depth of sample
 Field test
 Limitation of Boring Data
(1) Providing info on subsurface conditions only at the actual drilling location.

 Interpolation between borings to determine conditions does involve some

degree of uncertainty.

(2) Some limitations inherent to the info shown on typical driller’s log:

 The employed crews are primarily drilling tradesmen: w/ limited

experience in detail soil classification; have no familiarity w/ the
importance of subsurface conditions on the features of building design
and construction.

 Some importance items of info can be innocently passed over by

driller whose major interest is in the rate of drilling progress.

 Assign technically trained personnel: to examine and classify

recovered soils, to direct the depth as which should be taken, to select
the drilling sequence, to document factors relating to surface and
subsurface conditions that could influence on design or construction.
 Soil Sampling
 Disturbed (but representative):

 Grain size analysis

 Liquid & plastic limit
 Specific gravity
 Organic content
 Classification

 Undisturbed:

 Consolidation
 Hydraulic conductivity
 Shear strength
 Rock Sampling
 6 meter of core rock length must be obtained for granitic
rocks in order to make sure the rock formation is not a
BOULDER.

 12 meter of core rock length of limestone must be coring to

ensure the rock formation is bedrock. (Hinder from cavity,
pinnacles, sinkholes or others CARSTIC formation structures
resulting from present of limestone).

 RQD, TCR, SCR and FI must be calculated for geotechnical

interpretation.

 Rock strength Tests: Uniaxial Compression Test, Triaxial

Compression Test, Point Load Test and Schmidt hammer
(Strength Test)
Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
 The Rock Quality Designation index (RQD) was
developed by Deere (Deere et al 1967) to provide a
quantitative estimate of rock mass quality from drill
core logs.

 RQD is defined as the percentage of intact core pieces

longer than 100 mm (4 inches) in the total length of
core.

 The core should be at least NW size (54.7 mm or 2.15

inches in diameter) and should be drilled with a double-
tube core barrel.
Procedure for measurement and calculation of RQD (After Deere, 1989)

35
Cont’d

 RQD will be referred to Table 7.1.

 Table 7.1 indicated the rock quality from

core obtained from sites.

 Sometimes, RQD data obtained, could not

trusted because of drilling techniques
improper.

 For example, the drilling machine should

be setup in properly manner.
Measurement identify rock quality
(Source: Deere, 1989)

RQD (%) Descriptions Rock Quality

0-25 Very Poor
25-50 Poor
50-75 Moderate
75-90 Good
90-100 Very Good
Core Rock Sample of Quartz Mica Schist at Lebuh
Raya Simpang Pulai to Cameron Highland
Schematic diagram of Rock Core
 Core Logging Calculations
 Total Core Recovery (TCR%) = Core Recovered/Length of Core

 Solid Core Recovery (SCR%) = Solid core pieces in full diameter/

Length of Core

 Rock Quality Designation (RQD%) = Solid Core Pieces >

100mm/Length of Core

 Fracture Index (FI/m run) = Number of Fractures/Length of Core

 Examples Calculation:

 Given: Total length of core = 1.5 m

 TCR = 1.4/1.5 = 93%

 SCR = 0.18 +0.71 + 0.17/1.5 = 71%
 RQD = 0.23 + 0.33 + 0.24 + 0.15/1.5 = 63%
 Example of RQD, TCR & SCR
 According to Figure below, calculate the Rock
Quality Designation (RQD), Total Core
Recovery (TCR) and Solid Core Recovery
(SCR) for the obtained rock sample below.
ANSWER
 Geophysics
 Resistivity

 Seismic Refraction

 Seismic Reflection

 Gravity
 Resistivity
 Resisitivity measurements are made by
injecting a DC current into the ground through
two electrodes and measuring the resulting
voltage at the surface at two other electrodes.

 The depth of measurement is related to

electrode spacing.

 Resisitivity measures bulk electrical

resistivity which is a function of the soil and
rock matrix, percentage of saturation and
type of pore fluids.
Equipments used during carried out the resistivity survey
Resistivity Sounding
Resistivity Measurement & Field arrangement of
Resistivity Imaging based on ABEM Instrument
 Electrical Resistivity Field
Operation (Data Acquisition)

BOREHOLE
(1) Setup the spread line (2) Pluck in the electrode

(3) Connect the jumper (4) Setup the terrameter (5) Terrameter operator
cable
 Resistivity
 Uses:

 Used for soundings to determine depth and thickness

of geologic strata.

 Used to profiling measurements for locating

anomalous geologic conditions, detecting and
mapping contaminant plumes, locating buried
wastes and mineral exploration.

 Used for azimuthal measurements to determine fracture

orientation.
Cont’d

 Advantages:

 Good vertical resolution (sounding)

 May also be used for profiling

 Measurements can be easily made to depths

of few hundred feet or more

 Various electrode configurations (Wenner,

Schlumberger, Dipole-dipole, Pole-dipole,
etc) are available for different applications
Cont’d

 Disadvantages:

 Requires intrusive contact with the ground

 Station measurements only

 Electrode array can be quite long, with outermost

electrode spacing from 9 to 18 times the depth of interest

 Susceptible to interference from nearby metal fences,

buried pipes, cables, etc

 Generally, cannot be used over asphalt or concrete

 Effectiveness decreases at very low resisitivity values

(use electromagnetic measurements)
Table 7.3 List of resistivity value for several rocks and soils. (Keller and
chknecht, 1966, Daniels and Alberty, 1966)

Material Resistivity Conductivity

Igneous& Metamorf
Conductivity
Resistivity
m
1
Granite 5x103 –106 10-6-2x10-4
Basalt 103-106 10-6-10-3
Slate 6x102-4x107 2.5x10-8-1.7x10-3
Marble 102-2.5x108 4x10-9-10-2
Quarzite 102-2x108 5x10-9-10-2

Sedimentary Rock
Sandstone 8-4x103 2.5x10-4-0.125
Shale 20-2x103 5x10-4-0.05
Limestone 50-4x102 2.5x10-3-0.02

Soil and Water

Clay 1-100 0.01-1
Alluvium 10-800 1.25x10-3-0.1
Groundwater (Clean) 10-100 0.01-0.1
Marine water 0.15 6.7
Application to detect boulders
Application of resistivity survey to
determine weathering profiles
Application on slope stability
Application of resistivity survey to
determine weathering profiles
Application of resistivity survey to determine sinkholes or cavity of limestone
Application of resistivity survey to
determine water boundaries
Application of resistivity survey
to determine water boundaries
Application of resistivity survey to
locate tube well (groundwater)
Groundwater assessment using ERI (2-D)
Groundwater overflow seepage
mapping using ERI (2-D)
Groundwater overflow seepage
mapping using ERI (2-D)
Application on seepage of water
Application on ground settlement
 Seismic Refraction
 Seismic refraction measurements are made by measuring the travel time
of a refracted seismic wave

 Seismic energy travels from the surface through one layer to another
and is refracted back to the surface where it is picked up by geophones.

 Shock or impact is made at a point (Source: using hammer, air gun,

dynamite, etc), seismic waves through the surrounding soil & rock.

 The wave speed relating to the density and bonding characteristics of

the material.

 The velocity is determined.

 The magnitude of the velocity is than utilized to identified the material.

 The travel time of a seismic wave is a function of soil and rock density
and hardness.
Seismic Refraction Basic Principles

Subsurface condition
showing direct wave
and refracted sound
waves

Travel-time plot for

conditions in (a)
Seismic refraction survey equipment

Seismograph

Seismic
cable Geophone
Trigger
cable
Seismic
12lb Sledge cable
hammer

Striker
12V AC plate
battery
Seismic Refraction Measurement & Field arrangement
 Seismic Refraction Method

5
2
3
2
4
Seismograph
Printer

6
7
Battery Trigger
Seismic cable cable
1) Terraloc MK6
2) Seismic cable
3) Trigger cable Hammer
4) Sledge Hammer (12lb) shot

5) Geophone
6) Battery (12v)
7) Striker plate
Legend
Shot point location
Geophone
 Seismic Refraction Field Operation
(Data acquisition)
(1) Setup the spread line (2) Seismograph operator (3) Shooter ready!!!

(4) Creating a source

Geophone (detector)

(5) Seismic trace

Seismic refraction wave movement
into subsurface
Cont’d
 Uses:

 Primary application for seismic refraction is for determination

of depth and thickness of geologic strata, structure and
anomalous conditions

 Depth can be calculated under each geophone to produce a

detailed two-dimensional top of rock profile

 If compressional P-wave and shear S-wave velocities are

measured, in situ elastic moduli of soil and rock can be
determined

 Can be used for azimuthal measurements to determine

fracture orientation

 Also has application for evaluation of man-made structures

Cont’d

 Advantages:

 Typical measurements are less than 100 feet but can

easily made to greater depths, if necessary

 Can resolve up to 3 to 4 layers

 Can provide depth under each geophone

 Both P and S waves can be determined

 The source of seismic energy can be as simple as 10

pound sledge hammer
Cont’d

 Disadvantages:

 The survey line length (source to farthest geophone) may be 4

to 5 times the desired depth of investigation

 Requires intrusive contact with the ground

 Station measurement only

 Sensitive to acoustic noise and vibrations

 Seismic velocity of layers must increase with depth

 Will not detect thin layers or layers with inverted velocities

 Deeper measurements will require explosives as an energy

source
Application to geological structure

4452.92 m/s

3006.53 m/s

Possible 1852.67 m/s

Fault

828.82 m/s

227.52 m/s
Utilization of Seismic Refraction Method in
Rippability Assessment
 Objective: Mapping a stratigraphy (materials, layer,
bedrock) for excavatibility purposes.
BH1 A

 Can extend borehole data and will eliminate unnecessary

drilling.

W.L=22 m  Typically suitable used in a new development project (e.g.

W.L=23 housing and highway project) where a ground
assessment under construction are usually large and
long.
W.L=30
m  It is cheaper to seismic refraction method in conjunction
A’
with boreholes than closely spaced borings to determine
the degree of excavatibility (ripper or blasting).
 Seismic Reflection
 The seismic reflection technique measures the
travel time of seismic waves from the ground
surface downward to a geologic contact

 The seismic energy is reflected back to

geophones at the surface while the rest of the
energy continues to the next interface.

 The travel time of the seismic wave is a function of

soil and rock density and hardness.
Schematic diagram of seismic reflection
Cont’d

 Uses:

 Primary application is for determination of

depth and thickness of geologic strata,
structural and anomalous conditions.
Cont’d

 Advantages:

 Provides a high resolution cross section (as compared to

refraction) of soil/rock along profile line

 The high resolution method uses frequencies of up to a few 100

Hz

 Measurements can be made from about 50 feet to a few 1,000 feet

deep (deeper)

 Measurements to these depths can often be made without

explosives, often using a 10 pound sledge hammer as a seismic
source

 The survey line length (source to farthest geophone) is usually 1 to

2 times the desired depth of investigation (much less than that
required for refraction measurements)

 Both P and S waves can be measured.

Cont’d

 Disadvantages:

 Requires intrusive contact with the ground

 Station measurement only

 Sensitive to acoustic noise and vibration

 Can require extensive processing (data

analysis)
 Wave velocity in various soils & rock
Type of soil/rock P-wave velocity m/sec

Soil:
• Sand, dry silt, fine grained top soil 200 – 1 000

• Alluvium 500 – 2 000

• Compacted clays, clayey gravel, dense clayey sand 1 000 – 2 500

• Loess 250 - 750

Rock:
• Slate and shale 2 500 – 5 000

• Sandstone 1 500 – 5 000

• Granite 4 000 – 6 000

• Sound limestone 5 000 – 10 000

P-Wave velocities of common soil materials
Material P-Wave Velocities (m/ s)
Air 330
Water 1450-1530
Petroleum 1300-1400
Loess 300-600
Soil 100-500
Snow 350-3000
Solid Glacial Ice 3000-4000
Sand (loose) 200-2000
Sand (dry, loose) 200-1000
Sand (Water Saturated, loose) 1500-2000
Glacial Moraine 1500-2700
Sand and Gravel (near surface) 400-2300
Sand and Gravel (2 km depth) 3000-3500
Clay 1000-2500
Estuarine Muds/ Clay 300-1800
Floodplain Alluvium 1800-2200
Permafrost (Quartenary sediment) 1500-4900
Sandstone 1400-4500
Limestone (soft) 1700-4200
Limestone (hard) 2800-7000
Dolomites 2500-6500
Anhydrite 3500-5500
Rock salt 4000-5500
Gypsum 2000-3500
Shales 2000-4100
Granites 4600-6200
Basalts 5500-6500
Gabbro 6400-7000
Peridotite 7800-8400
Serpentinite 5500-6500
Gneiss 3500-7600
Marbles 3780-7000
Sulphide ores 3950-6700
Pulverised fuel ash 600-1000
Made Ground 160-600
Land fill refuse 400-750
Concrete 3000-3500
Disturbed soil 180-335
Clay landfill cap (compacted) 335-380
Determination of subsurface profile using seismic refraction method
Determination of subsurface profile
using seismic reflection method
Determination of subsurface profile
using seismic refraction method
Determination of subsurface profile using seismic refraction method
Determination of subsurface profile
using seismic refraction method
Determination of subsurface profile and geological
structure using seismic refraction method
 Gravity

 Gravity measurements detect:

 Changes in the earth's gravitational

field caused by local changes in the
density of the soil and rock or
engineered structures.
Sketch of gravity survey over cavity
Gravity survey
Cont’d
Uses:

 Standard gravity measurements are primarily applied

to characterizing geologic structure using widely
spaced stations (100's to 1,000's of feet apart).

 Microgravity measurements can be used to

characterize detailed localized geologic conditions
(such as bedrock channels, caves, and abandoned
tunnels and mines) usually within the upper few 100
feet.

 Microgravity uses closely spaced stations (a few

feet to about 50 feet) and a micro gravimeter
(capable of reading to a few microgals).
Cont’d

Advantages:

 Provides a means to characterize conditions in

geologic and cultural environments, where
other geophysical methods may fail

 Does not require intrusive ground contact

 Data can be interpreted to provide estimates

of depth size and the nature of the anomaly

 Can be used inside buildings and structures

Cont’d

Disadvantages:

 Station measurements only

 Requires base station for drift corrections

 Requires accurate elevation measurements

 The process of making microgravity

measurements is a relatively slow and tedious
in the field and requires extensive processing
and corrections

 Susceptible to cultural and natural vibrations

End of the Chapter 7.…

Q & A
Figure 7.3 (a) Borelog in soil condition
Figure 7.3 (b) Borelog shows the core rock logging