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DATA TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS

TRANSMISSION MODES

F Simplex Transmission

Allows data to flow in one direction


only (unidirectional).

F Half-duplex Transmission

Allows data to flow in both directions


but only one at a time.

There is a problem with


turnaround time (the
time it takes for the
transmission circuits to
change direction).

F Full-duplex Transmission

Allows data to flow in both directions


simultaneously. This usually requires
one set of transmission circuits each for
transmission and reception.

Data Transmission Fundamentals 1


PARALLEL VS. SERIAL TRANSMISSION

F Parallel transmission is the sending of several bits at


the same time. One line or wire is needed for each bit
(plus one line or wire for the signal ground and another
for the timing or strobe).

b0 b0

b1 b1

b2 b2

b3 b3

b4 b4

b5 b5

b6 b6

b7 b7

strobe strobe

ground ground

transmitter receiver

Data Transmission Fundamentals 2


F Serial transmission is when bits are transmitted one at
a time. Two lines are needed in the implementation of
serial transmission, one for the signal and one for the
signal ground.

1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0

data data

ground ground

transmitter receiver

F All communication between chips and components


inside a computer system (internal computer data
transfer) unit takes place in parallel through the system
unit bus.

F The type of communication between a computer and


an external device (external computer data transfer)
depends on the distance between them.

F Parallel transmission is common for distances less than


10 feet. Serial transmission is ideal for distances
greater than 10 feet.

Data Transmission Fundamentals 3


F The reasons why parallel transmission is not suitable
for long distance communication are:

1. cost (parallel transmission uses more lines)

2. varying delays among the different bits or


signals (bus skew). In other words, bits may
arrive at the receiver at different times

F For long distance communication, it would be more


cost-effective to transmit data using serial
transmission. The telephone lines can be readily used
for serial transmission.

F Since data inside a computer system move in parallel,


it is necessary to convert them to serial before external
communication can take place.

Data Transmission Fundamentals 4


PARALLEL-TO-SERIAL AND SERIAL-TO-PARALLEL
CONVERSION

F Transmitter Part (Parallel-to-Serial)

From CPU

b7 b6 b5 b4 b3 b2 b1 b0

Transmit
Buffer

Transmit Transmitted
Register Data

F Receiver Part (Serial-to-Parallel)

To CPU

b7 b6 b5 b4 b3 b2 b1 b0

Receive
Buffer

Received Receive
Data Register

F The transmit and receive registers are simply shift


registers.

Data Transmission Fundamentals 5


SIGNAL PROPAGATION DELAY

F The transmission delay (Tx ) of a signal is the time


taken to transmit binary data at a given data rate. It is
computed as:

Tx = N / R

where:

N = number of bits to be transmitted

R = data rate (bps)

F There is always a short but finite time delay for a


signal to propagate or travel from one end of a
transmission medium to the other. This is the
propagation delay (Tp) of the channel and is computed
as:

Tp = S / V

where:

S = distance to be travelled

V = velocity of propagation

Data Transmission Fundamentals 6


Example:

A 1 Mbyte file is to be transmitted between two


machines. Determine the propagation and
transmission delays if the distance between the
two is 10 Km and the data rate is 19.2 Kbps.
Assume that the velocity of propagation is
200,000 Km/second.

S = 10,000 m
V = 200,000 x 103 m/s
R = 19,200 bps
N = 1 x (1,048,576) x 8
= 8,388,608 bits

Tp = 10000 / 200,000 x 103


= 0.00005 sec

Tx = 8388608 / 19200
= 436.91 sec

Total Transmission Time

= Tp + Tx

= 0.00005 + 436.91

= 436.91005 sec.

Data Transmission Fundamentals 7


SIGNAL MODULATION

F When moving a voice or data signal through a


communications channel, it is necessary to vary
electrical energy in the channel so that the information
moves from one point in the media to another.

F Modulation of the process of varying the electrical


energy in the channel.

F A signal carrier is the electrical energy that flows in


the channel (the one that is varied to transmit
information).

F A modulator is an electronic device that varies the


signal carrier to reflect or represent the information in
the original signal.

Data Transmission Fundamentals 8


CASE STUDY : MODEMS

F Digital signals cannot be transmitted directly over


telephone lines which are basically analog lines.

Limited bandwidth of telephone lines


(300 to 3,400 Hz)

Internal capacitance of telephone lines


(sudden changes in voltages are not
allowed)

F Modems (modulator-demodulator) convert digital


signals (1’s and 0’s) to analog signals (tones) having
frequencies within the 300 to 3,400 Hz range.

Modulation

F At the receiving end, the tones are converted back to


digital signals or pulses.

Demodulation

F The frequency used is approximately 1,700 to 1,800


Hz since transmission is best at frequencies at the
center of the 300 to 3,400 Hz passband.

Data Transmission Fundamentals 9


Example of a typical computer-to-computer
communication using modems and the public
telephone system:

Modem
Computer

Telephone
System

Modem
Computer

Data Transmission Fundamentals 10


F In modems, a sine wave is used as a carrier.

amplitude

one
cycle

τ = period or length of one cycle in terms of


time (seconds).

f = frequency of signal in cycles per sec or Hz.

= 1/τ

A = amplitude or magnitude of the signal in volts


(signal strength).

Data Transmission Fundamentals 11


The phase angle of a signal is the number of degrees
in which the signal or sine wave differs a reference
sine wave.

90o

360o

The phase angle of this signal is 90 degrees.

Take note that one complete cycle is equivalent to 360


degrees.

Data Transmission Fundamentals 12


F Modulation is therefore the process of changing the
amplitude, frequency, or phase of a carrier sine wave
signal to represent information.

carrier
signal

0 1 0 0 1 1
information
signal

amplitude
modulation

frequency
modulation

phase
modulation

Amplitude, frequency, and phase modulation are also


known as amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency
shift keying (FSK), and phase shift keying (PSK).

Data Transmission Fundamentals 13


DIGITAL SIGNAL MODULATION

F Analog modulation techniques do not apply to digital


communications. Digital modulation does not require
the presence of an analog carrier.

F The digital signal remains at a given voltage for a


specified period to signal a binary or digital value. The
signal modulates from one discrete value to another
only when the information changes value.

F Several factors combine to limit the channel length a


digital signal can traverse without revitalization:

1. Electronic Noise

2. Signal Attenuation

3. Signal Reflection

F The farther the signal travels through a medium, the


more the signal becomes distorted because of the three
factors.

F A wire channel requires a proper termination to


prevent signal reflection from further distorting the
signal.

Data Transmission Fundamentals 14


time

original digital signal

time

digital signal after travelling 100 feet

time

digital signal after travelling 500 feet

Data Transmission Fundamentals 15


F A digital signal cannot be amplified to increase its
distance range in a channel. If a digital signal is
amplified, the noise that has contaminated the signal is
also amplified.

F In the case of signal distortion, repeaters are placed


along the digital channel to regenerate a digital signal.
Regenerating a signal means that the signal is received
and rebuilt to its original strength and shape.

Distorted Regenerated
Digital Digital
Signal Signal

Regenerative
Repeater

F Repeaters remove the noise from a signal while it is


regenerating the signal.

Data Transmission Fundamentals 16


SYNCHRONIZATION OF DIGITAL MODULATION

F Digital Communications depend upon exact timing of


signal generation and reception to be successful.

F If the transmitter sends a signal and the receiver starts


to examine the signal at the wrong time, the receiver
will get meaningless information.

F Synchronization is the process in which the receiver


looks at the digital signal at the appropriate times to
detect the proper transition from one energy level to
another.

F For the receiving device to decode and interpret the


incoming bit pattern correctly, it must be able to
determine:

1. the start of each bit cell. This is known as bit or


clock synchronization.

2. the start and end of each character or byte. This


is known as character or byte synchronization.

3. the start and end of each complete message block


or frame. This is known as block or frame
synchronization.

Data Transmission Fundamentals 17


F Synchronization between a sending and receiving
device requires an agreement on bit period or bit time
between the two devices.

F There are two types of synchronization techniques:

1. Asynchronous. The transmitter and receiver


work independently of each other and exchange a
specified signal pattern at the start of each signal
exchange.

In asynchronous communication, each character


or byte is treated independently for clock (bit)
and character (byte) synchronization purposes.

2. Synchronous. The transmitter and the receiver


exchange initial synchronizing information, then
continuously exchanges a digital stream that
keeps them in lock step.

In synchronous transmission, the complete frame


(block) of characters is transmitted as a
contiguous string of bits and the receiver
endeavors to keep in synchronism with the
incoming bit stream for the duration of the
complete frame (block).

Data Transmission Fundamentals 18


ASYNCHRONOUS SIGNAL SYNCHRONIZATION

F The clocks of the transmitter and the receiver are not


continually synchronized. But the receiver needs to
know when the character begins and ends.

F Each transmitted character is encapsulated or framed


between an additional start bit and one or more stop
bits.

Start Bit - logic 0


Stop Bit - logic 1
line idle line idle

1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0

8-bit character
start bit 1, 1.5, or 2 stop bits to
ensure a negative
transition at the start of
each new character

F The start bit resets the receiver’s clock so that it


matches the transmitter’s. The clock needs to be
accurate enough to stay in synch for the next 8 to 11
bits.

Data Transmission Fundamentals 19


F The receiving device can determine the state of each
transmitted bit in the character by sampling or reading
the received signal approximately at the center of each
bit cell period.

F In order to receive the incomiong bits correctly, the


receiving device performs the following operations:

1. Wait for the line to become a logic 0 (start bit of


the incoming character).

2. Once the line becomes a logic 0, the receiving


device should wait for ½ of the bit period. At this
point the receiving device is approximately at the
center of the start bit.

3. The receiving device should then sample or read


the bit (which is still the start bit) to ensure that it
is not a false start bit (voltage fluctuation). If the
bit read is a logic 1, then it is assumed that it was
a false start bit (go back to step 1).

4. The receiving device should then wait for a


period of time equal to 1 bit period. This would
take the receiving device to the center of the first
data bit. Then the device should sample this bit.
This step is repeated 8 times (since there are 8
data bits per character).

Data Transmission Fundamentals 20


no
Input bit = 1 ?

yes

no
Input bit = 0 ?

yes Flowchart of the


Process Required
Wait 1/2 Bit Delay
to Recover
Asynchronous
no Serial Data
Input bit = 0 ?

yes

Bit Counter = 8

Wait 1 Bit Delay

Read Incoming Bit Wait 1 Bit Delay

Decrement Bit no
Counter Input Bit = 1 ? Framing Error

yes
no yes
Counter = 0 ? Store the Byte

Data Transmission Fundamentals 21


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
received

start

stop
data

sample
strobe
output 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1

Ideal Sampling at Midpoint of Each Bit

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
received
start

stop
data

sample
strobe
output 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

Sampling When Receiver Clock is Slightly Fast

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
received
start

data stop

sample
strobe
output 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

Sampling When Receiver Clock is Too Slow

Data Transmission Fundamentals 22


F Asynchronous transmission is often used in situations
when characters may be generated at random
intervals, such as when a user types at a terminal.

F The main problem with asynchronous transmission is


its high overhead primarily due to the additional start
and stop bits for every byte.

Example:

1 start bit and 2 stop bits

To transmit 1 byte (8 bits), a total


of 11 bits are needed.

8 bits for data plus


3 bits for control

% Overhead = 3 x 100 = 27.27%


11

72.73% of what is transmitted actually contain


data. The remaining 27.27% contain control bits.

Data Transmission Fundamentals 23


If the data rate of the transmission is 9,600 bps,
then the effective data rate will be:

Effective = 0.7273 x 9600


Data rate
= 6,982.08 bps

F The overhead problem becomes more apparent for


data transmission involving large quantities of data.

Example:

1 MB file

1 MB = 1,048,576 bytes

Total Data Bits = 8 x 1,048,576 = 8,388,608 bits

Total Control Bits = 3 x 1,048,576 = 3,145,728 bits

11,534,336 bits

Data Transmission Fundamentals 24


SYNCHRONOUS SIGNAL SYNCHRONIZATION

F Synchronous signal modulation and demodulation


require precise clocks at both ends of the
communications link.

F The sender provides the clock signal to generate the


transmission frames. The receiver provides a clock to
decipher the transmission when it arrives.

F There are two techniques in implementing


synchronous transmission:

1. Clock Encoding and Extraction

The clock (timing) information is embedded


into the transmitted signal and subsequently
extracted by the receiver.

2. Data Encoding and Clock Synchronization

This technique utilizes a stable clock source


at the receiver which is kept in synchronism
with the incoming bit stream. However, as
there are no start and stop bits with a
synchronous transmission scheme, it is
necessary to encode the information in such
a way that are always sufficient bit
transitions (1→0 or 0→1) in the transmitted
waveform to enable the receiver clock to be
resynchronized at frequent intervals.

Data Transmission Fundamentals 25


Option 1: Clock Encoding and Extraction

This uses the Manchester encoding scheme (also


known as Biphase-Level) in encoding the bit
stream to be transmitted.

1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
bit steam to be
transmitted

Manchester
encoded
waveform

extracted
clock

decoded
signal

The presence of a positive or negative transition


at the center of each bit cell period in the
Machester encoded waveform is used by the
clock extraction circuit at the receiving side to
produce a clock pulse at approximately the center
of the bit.

The Manchester encoded waveform is then


decoded into the conventional encoding form
(Non-Return-to-Zero Level or NRZ-L). With
the extracted clock and the decoded waveform,

Data Transmission Fundamentals 26


the receiver can easily read the incoming bit
stream.

Data Transmission Fundamentals 27


Option 2: Data Encoding and Clock
Synchronization

This technique uses bit transitions (1→0 or


0→1) in the transmitted waveform to enable
the receiver clock to be resynchronized at
frequent intervals. However, there has to be
sufficient bit transitions in order for this to
be accomplished. A contiguous stream of 1s
or 0s will prevent the resynchronization of
the receiver clock.

This technique therefore uses the Non-


Return-to-Zero Space (NRZ-S) scheme in
encoding the bit stream to be transmitted.

With NRZ-S encoding, the signal level (1 or


0) does not change for the transmission of a
binary 1 whereas a binary 0 does cause a
change.

bit steam to be 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
transmitted

NRZI
waveform

Data Transmission Fundamentals 28


This means that there will be bit transitions in this
incoming signal of the an NRZ-S waveform,
provided there are no contiguous streams of
binary 1’s. To solve the problem of continuous
streams of 1’s, use the zero bit insertion or bit
stuffing technique.

In the zero-bit insertion technique, if there is a


sequence of five contiguous binary 1 digits, a zero
is automatically inserted after the fifth binary 1
bit.

Example:

1011111110010111101011111001101111111

1011111011001011110101111100011011111011

stuffed zeros

Consequently, the resulting waveform will


contain a guaranteed number of transitions, since
0’s cause a transition in a bit cell, and this enables
the receiver to adjust its clock so that it is in
synchronism with the incoming bit stream.

Data Transmission Fundamentals 29


F Sample Synchronous Frame Formats:

1. Binary Synchronous Control (BSC)

SYN SYN STX ETX BCC BCC

DATA BYTES

SYN (00010110) - Synchronizing Character. It


main function is to enable the receiver to achieve
character synchronization (reading each character
on the correct bit boundary).

STX (00000010) - Start of Text Character. It


indicates the start of a frame.

ETX (00000011) - End of Text Character. It


indicates the end of a frame.

BCC - Block Check Character. This allows the


receiver to identify errors in the frame and
request a retransmission of the frame.

BSC is a character-oriented synchronous


transmission control scheme.

Data Transmission Fundamentals 30


2. Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC)

SF SSA C INFORMATION FCS EF

SF (01111110) - Opening Flag. This signals the


start of a frame.

SSA - Secondary Station Address. This contains


the unique address of the intended recipient of
the frame.

C - Control. This indicates if the frame is an


information frame or supervisory frame.

FCS - Frame Check Sequence. This is for error


handling

EF (01111110). Ending Flag. This signals the


end of a frame.

The SDLC is a bit-oriented protocol. The frame


contents need not necessarily comprise multiples
of eight bits.

Data Transmission Fundamentals 31


F Comparison of Synchronous and Asynchronous

Points Regarding Synchronous Transmission

1. Low overhead.

2. Ideal for high-volume, high-speed data


transfer.

3. Very complicated to implement.

Points Regarding Asynchronous Transmission

1. High overhead.

2. Ideal for low-volume, low-speed data


transfer.

3. Very easy to implement.

However, most networks use asynchronous


transmission even for high-volume file transfer
because of its simplicity.

Data Transmission Fundamentals 32


DIGITAL SIGNAL ADVANTAGES

F It takes more electrical noise to corrupt a digital signal


than it does to contaminate an analog signal.

If the voltage levels that represent each


digital value are far apart, it will take a
large amount of noise to get the signal
to move from one digital value to
another to cause an error.

F Most digital communications systems also send


specific and separate data, along with the information
they convey, that allows the receiver to detect errors.

The receiver can request a


retransmission of the erroneous
information.

Data Transmission Fundamentals 33

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