Conversion Factors

Mass and Density Pressure

1 kg 5 2.2046 lb 1 Pa 5 1 N/m2
1 g/cm3 5 103 kg/m3 5 1.4504 3 1024 lbf/in.2
1 g/cm3 5 62.428 lb/ft3 1 bar 5 105 N/m2
1 lb 5 0.4536 kg 1 atm 5 1.01325 bar
1 lb/ft3 5 0.016018 g/cm3 1 lbf/in.2 5 6894.8 Pa
1 lb/ft3 5 16.018 kg/m3 1 lbf/in.2 5 144 lbf/ft2
1 atm 5 14.696 lbf/in.2

Length Energy and Specific Energy

1 cm 5 0.3937 in. 1 J 5 1 N ? m 5 0.73756 ft ? lbf
1 m 5 3.2808 ft 1 kJ 5 737.56 ft ? lbf
1 in. 5 2.54 cm 1 kJ 5 0.9478 Btu
1 ft 5 0.3048 m 1 kJ/kg 5 0.42992 Btu/lb
1 ft ? lbf 5 1.35582 J
Velocity 1 Btu 5 778.17 ft ? lbf
1 Btu 5 1.0551 kJ
1 km/h 5 0.62137 mile/h
1 Btu/lb 5 2.326 kJ/kg
1 mile/h 5 1.6093 km/h
1 kcal 5 4.1868 kJ

Volume Energy Transfer Rate

1 cm3 5 0.061024 in.3 1W 5 1 J/s 5 3.413 Btu/h
1 m3 5 35.315 ft3 1 kW 5 1.341 hp
1 L 5 1023 m3 1 Btu/h 5 0.293 W
1 L 5 0.0353 ft3 1 hp 5 2545 Btu/h
1 in.3 5 16.387 cm3 1 hp 5 550 ft ? lbf/s
1 ft3 5 0.028317 m3 1 hp 5 0.7457 kW
1 gal 5 0.13368 ft3
1 gal 5 3.7854 3 1023 m3 Specific Heat
1 kJ/kg ? K 5 0.238846 Btu/lb ? 8R
1 kcal/kg ? K 5 1 Btu/lb ? 8R
Force 1 Btu/lb ? 8R 5 4.1868 kJ/kg ? K
1 N 5 1 kg ? m/s2
1 N 5 0.22481 lbf Others
1 lbf 5 32.174 lb ? ft/s2
1 ton of refrigeration 5 200 Btu/min 5 211 kJ/min
1 lbf 5 4.4482 N
1 volt 5 1 watt per ampere

Constants

Universal Gas Constant Standard Atmospheric Pressure

8.314 kJ/ kmol ⴢ K 1.01325 bar
R ⫽ • 1545 ft ⴢ lbf/ lbmol ⴢ ⬚R 1 atm ⫽ • 14.696 lbf / in.2
1.986 Btu/ lbmol ⴢ ⬚R 760 mm Hg ⫽ 29.92 in. Hg

Standard Acceleration of Gravity Temperature Relations

9.80665 m/ s 2 T1⬚R2 ⫽ 1.8 T1K2
g⫽ e T1⬚C2 ⫽ T1K2 ⫺ 273.15
32.174 ft/ s2
T1⬚F2 ⫽ T1⬚R2 ⫺ 459.67
78 Chapter 2 Energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics

c CHAPTER SUMMARY AND STUDY GUIDE

In this chapter, we have considered the concept of energy
from an engineering perspective and have introduced energy
balances for applying the conservation of energy principle to
closed systems. A basic idea is that energy can be stored
within systems in three macroscopic forms: internal energy,
kinetic energy, and gravitational potential energy. Energy
also can be transferred to and from systems.
Energy can be transferred to and from closed systems by
two means only: work and heat transfer. Work and heat
transfer are identified at the system boundary and are not
properties. In mechanics, work is energy transfer associated
with macroscopic forces and displacements. The thermody-
namic definition of work introduced in this chapter extends
the notion of work from mechanics to include other types of
work. Energy transfer by heat to or from a system is due to
a temperature difference between the system and its sur-
roundings and occurs in the direction of decreasing tem-
perature. Heat transfer modes include conduction, radiation,
and convection. These sign conventions are used for work
and heat transfer:
are accounted for by the energy balance. The energy balance
for a process of a closed system is Eq. 2.35 and an accom-
panying time rate form is Eq. 2.37. Equation 2.40 is a special
form of the energy balance for a system undergoing a ther-
modynamic cycle.
The following checklist provides a study guide for this
chapter. When your study of the text and end-of-chapter
exercises has been completed, you should be able to
c write out the meanings of the terms listed in the margins
throughout the chapter and understand each of the
related concepts. The subset of key concepts listed below
is particularly important in subsequent chapters.
c evaluate these energy quantities
–kinetic and potential energy changes using Eqs. 2.5 and
2.10, respectively.
–work and power using Eqs. 2.12 and 2.13, respectively.
–expansion or compression work using Eq. 2.17
c apply closed system energy balances in each of several

# alternative forms, appropriately modeling the case at

o: work done by the system
c W, W e hand, correctly observing sign conventions for work and

o: work done on the system
heat transfer, and carefully applying SI and English units.
# o: heat transfer to the system
c Q, Q e c conduct energy analyses for systems undergoing thermody-

o: heat transfer from the system
namic cycles using Eq. 2.40, and evaluating, as appropriate,
Energy is an extensive property of a system. Only changes the thermal efficiencies of power cycles and coefficients of
in the energy of a system have significance. Energy changes performance of refrigeration and heat pump cycles.

c KEY ENGINEERING CONCEPTS

kinetic energy, p. 41 heat transfer, p. 56 thermodynamic cycle, p. 72

gravitational potential energy, p. 42 sign convention for heat transfer, power cycle, p. 73
work, p. 44 p. 56 refrigeration cycle, p. 74
sign convention for work, p. 45 adiabatic, p. 57 heat pump cycle, p. 74
power, p. 46 first law of thermodynamics, p. 60
internal energy, p. 55 energy balance, p. 61

c KEY EQUATIONS

¢E  ¢U  ¢KE  ¢PE (2.27) p. 55 Change in total energy of a system.

1
¢KE  KE2  KE1  m1V22  V212 (2.5) p. 41 Change in kinetic energy of a mass m.
2
¢PE  PE2  PE1  mg1z2  z12 (2.10) p. 42 Change in gravitational potential energy of a mass m at
constant g.
 Exercises: Things Engineers Think About 79

E 2  E1  Q  W (2.35a) p. 61 Energy balance for closed systems.

dE # #
QW (2.37) p. 62 Energy rate balance for closed systems.
dt
s2
W
# s 1
冮
F ⴢ ds (2.12) p. 44 Work due to action of a force F.

WFⴢV (2.13) p. 46 Power due to action of a force F.

V2
W 冮V1
p dV (2.17) p. 48 Expansion or compression work related to fluid pressure.
See Fig. 2.4.

Thermodynamic Cycles

Wcycle  Qin  Qout (2.41) p. 73 Energy balance for a power cycle. As in Fig. 2.17a, all
quantities are regarded as positive.
Wcycle
h (2.42) p. 74 Thermal efficiency of a power cycle.
Qin

Wcycle  Qout  Qin (2.44) p. 74 Energy balance for a refrigeration or heat pump cycle. As in
Fig. 2.17b, all quantities are regarded as positive.
Qin
b (2.45) p. 75 Coefficient of performance of a refrigeration cycle.
Wcycle
Qout
g (2.47) p. 75 Coefficient of performance of a heat pump cycle.
Wcycle

c EXERCISES: THINGS ENGINEERS THINK ABOUT

1. Why are aerodynamic drag coefficients of Formula One
race cars typically much greater than for ordinary
automobiles?
2. What are several things you as an individual can do to
reduce energy use in your home? While meeting your
transportation needs?
3. How does the kilowatt-hour meter in your house measure
electric energy usage?
4. Why is it incorrect to say that a system contains heat?
5. What examples of heat transfer by conduction, radiation, and
convection do you encounter when using a charcoal grill?
6. After running 5 miles on a treadmill at her campus rec
center, Ashley observes that the treadmill belt is warm to
the touch. Why is the belt warm?
7. When microwaves are beamed onto a tumor during cancer
therapy to increase the tumor’s temperature, this interaction
is considered work and not heat transfer. Why?
8. For good acceleration, what is more important for an
automobile engine, horsepower or torque?
9. Experimental molecular motors are reported to exhibit
movement upon the absorption of light, thereby achieving a
conversion of electromagnetic radiation into motion. Should
the incident light be considered work or heat transfer?
10. For polytropic expansion or compression, what causes the
value of n to vary from process to process?
11. In the differential form of the closed system energy balance,
dE 5 ␦Q 2 ␦W, why is d and not ␦ used for the differential
on the left?
12. When two amusement park bumper cars collide head-on
and come to a stop, how do you account for the kinetic
energy the pair had just before the collision?
13. What form does the energy balance take for an isolated
system?
14. What forms of energy and energy transfer are present in
the life cycle of a thunderstorm?
15. How would you define an efficiency for the motor of
Example 2.6?
16. Steve has a pedometer that reads kilocalories burned. How
many miles does he need to walk to burn off the candy bar
he ate while watching a movie?
17. How many tons of CO2 are produced annually by a
conventional automobile?
 Key Equations 149

c sketch T–␷, p–␷, and p–T diagrams and locate principal
states on such diagrams.
c apply the closed system energy balance with property data.
c evaluate the properties of two-phase liquid–vapor mix-
tures using Eqs. 3.1, 3.2, 3.6, and 3.7.
c estimate the properties of liquids using Eqs. 3.11–3.14.
c apply the incompressible substance model.
c use the generalized compressibility chart to relate p–␷–T
data of gases.
c apply the ideal gas model for thermodynamic analysis,
including determining when use of the ideal gas model is
warranted, and appropriately using ideal gas table data
or constant specific heat data to determine Du and Dh.
c apply polytropic process relations.

c KEY ENGINEERING CONCEPTS

phase p. 96 saturation pressure p. 100 enthalpy p. 111

pure substance p. 96 p–␷ diagram p. 100 specific heats p. 122
state principle p. 96 T–␷ diagram p. 100 incompressible substance
simple compressible system p. 96 compressed liquid p. 102 model p. 124
p–␷–T surface p. 98 two-phase liquid–vapor mixture p. 102 universal gas constant p. 127
phase diagram p. 100 quality p. 102 compressibility factor p. 127
saturation temperature p. 100 superheated vapor p. 102 ideal gas model p. 133

c KEY EQUATIONS
mvapor
x⫽ (3.1) p. 102 Quality, x, of a two-phase, liquid–vapor mixture.
mliquid ⫹ mvapor
y ⫽ 11 ⫺ x2yf ⫹ xyg ⫽ yf ⫹ x1yg ⫺ yf2 (3.2) p. 108
u ⫽ 11 ⫺ x2uf ⫹ xug ⫽ uf ⫹ x1ug ⫺ uf2 (3.6) p. 112 Specific volume, internal energy and enthalpy of a
h ⫽ 11 ⫺ x2hf ⫹ xhg ⫽ hf ⫹ x1hg ⫺ hf2 (3.7) p. 112 two-phase liquid–vapor mixture.

y1T, p2 ⬇ yf1T2 (3.11) p. 123

Specific volume, internal energy, and enthalpy of
u1T, p2 ⬇ uf1T2 (3.12) p. 123 liquids, approximated by saturated liquid values,
h1T, p2 ⬇ hf1T2 (3.14) p. 123 respectively.

Ideal Gas Model Relations

py ⫽ RT (3.32) p. 133
u ⫽ u1T2 (3.36) p. 133 Ideal gas model.
h ⫽ h1T2 ⫽ u1T2 ⫹ RT (3.37) p. 133

T2
u1T22 ⫺ u1T12 ⫽ 冮
T1
cy1T2 dT (3.40) p. 136 Change in specific internal energy.

u1T22 ⫺ u1T12 ⫽ cy1T2 ⫺ T12 (3.50) p. 140 For constant c␷.

T2
h1T22 ⫺ h1T12 ⫽ 冮
T1
cp1T2 dT (3.43) p. 136 Change in specific enthalpy.

h1T22 ⫺ h1T12 ⫽ cp1T2 ⫺ T12 (3.51) p. 140 For constant cp.