Reinforcement

3.5

Chemical admixtures

3.6

Mineral admixtures and blended cements

Production

4.1

Mixing

4.2

Workability

4.3

Curing

4.3.1

Techniques

Specialty types

5.1

Pervious

5.2

Nanoconcrete

5.3

Microbial

5.4

Polymer

Safety

Properties
8

In construction

8.1

Mass structures

8.2

Surface finishes

8.3

Prestressed structures

8.4

Cold weather placement

8.5

Roads

8.6

Energy efficiency

8.7

Fire safety

8.8

Earthquake safety

Degradation

9.1

Useful life

10

Effect of modern use

10.1

Environmental and health

10.2

Recycling

11
World records

12

See also

13

References

13.1

Bibliography

14

External links

Etymology[edit]

The word concrete comes from the Latin word "concretus" (meaning compact or condensed),[4] the
perfect passive participle of "concrescere", from "con-" (together) and "crescere" (to grow).

History[edit]

Prehistory[edit]

Small-scale production of concrete-like materials dates to 6500 BC, pioneered by the Nabataea traders
or Bedouins, who occupied and controlled a series of oases and developed a small empire in the regions
of southern Syria and northern Jordan. They discovered the advantages of hydraulic lime, with some
self-cementing properties, by 700 BC. They built kilns to supply mortar for the construction of rubble-
wall houses, concrete floors, and underground waterproof cisterns. They kept the cisterns secret as
these enabled the Nabataea to thrive in the desert.[5] Some of these structures survive to this day.[5]

Classical era[edit]

In the Ancient Egyptian and later Roman eras, builders re-discovered that adding volcanic ash to the mix
allowed it to set underwater.

German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann found concrete floors, which were made of lime and
pebbles, in the royal palace of Tiryns, Greece, which dates roughly to 1400–1200 BC.[6][7] Lime mortars
were used in Greece, Crete, and Cyprus in 800 BC. The Assyrian Jerwan Aqueduct (688 BC) made use of
waterproof concrete.[8] Concrete was used for construction in many ancient structures.[9]

The Romans used concrete extensively from 300 BC to 476 AD, a span of more than seven hundred
years.[10] During the Roman Empire, Roman concrete (or opus caementicium) was made from
quicklime, pozzolana and an aggregate of pumice. Its widespread use in many Roman structures, a key
event in the history of architecture termed the Roman Architectural Revolution, freed Roman
construction from the restrictions of stone and brick materials. It enabled revolutionary new designs in
terms of both structural complexity and dimension.[11]