GUIDEBOOK FOR NON-FERROUS CASTING

PURPOSE: To develop and enhance individual knowledge, skills and

capability in non-ferrous casting and to introduce modern technology on
non-ferrous casting.

Non-ferrous – is dealing with aluminium, copper, and magnesium

casting alloys.

I. ALUMINIUM CASTING ALLOYS

Aluminium casting is dominated by the automotive industry. It is widely

used in cars for engine blocks, heads, piston, rocker covers, inlet
manifolds, differential casing, steering bones, brackets, etc. Itis also
used in marine engineering parts& propellers.For aluminium cast, we
have many potential sources of defects which can harm the quality of
the cast parts. They are subject to:

Shrinkage defects – Al alloys shrunk by 3.5%- 6.0 % during

solidification process (depending on alloy type).

Gas porosity- molten Al readily picks up hydrogen which is expelled

during solidification which will cause porosity.

Oxide inclusion- molten Al exposed to air immediately oxidise forming a

skin of oxide which may be entrained into the casting.

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1.0 HOW TO AVOID THE ABOVE PROBLEMS?

Great care must be taken in all stages of melting, treatment and casting
of aluminium alloys.

1.1 Treatment of aluminium alloy melts:

Before casting, aluminium alloys molten metal must be treated.

Degas - molten metal contains undesirable amounts of hydrogen

which will cause porosity defects in the casting.

Grain refinement - mechanical properties of the casting can be

improved by controlling the grain size of the solidifying metal.

Modify - the microstructure and properties of alloys can be

improved by the addition of small quantities of certain “modifying”
elements.

1.2 Hydrogen gas pick-up in aluminium melts

Hydrogen has a high solubility in liquid aluminium which increases

with melt temperature but the solubility in solid is very low so that
the alloy freezes hydrogen gas expelled forming gas pores in the
casting.

1.3 Sources of hydrogen that usually comes from water:

1.3.1 Water vapour from the atmosphere.

1.3.2 Water vapour from burner fuel.
1.3.3 Damp refractories and crucible linings.
1.3.4 Damp fluxes.
1.3.5 Oily and dirty scrap charges.
1.3.6 Dirty or damp foundry tools.

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 1.4 How to reduce hydrogen pick-up from refractories,
crucibles, tools and oily scrap?

1.4.1 It should be pre-heated to remove water.

1.4.2 Materials should be stored in covered dry and clean
area.
1.4.3 Scrap must be sorted well and removed leftover grease.
1.4.4 Clean all dirty materials prior to charging.

Note: Whatever precautions are taken, however, hydrogen will

still be present.

2.0 DEGASSING TREATMENT

Involves bubbling dry inert gas injected into melts by using nitrogen gas,
argon gas or using degassing tablets (degasser 190) which is plunged in
ladle bottom during tapping.

2.1 ROTARY DEGASSING UNIT (RDU)

An apparatus used so that inert gas generated at the bottom of the

base of the melt and allowed to rise through all areas of the molten
aluminium. It has a graphite rotor which produces a large number
of bubbles to rise through melt and the dissolved hydrogen
diffuses to be ejected into the atmosphere when the bubbles
reaches the surface. The rising bubbles also collect inclusion
(dross) and carry them to the top of the melt where they can be
skimmed off.

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 2.2 Procedure of degassing process

2.2.1 When molten metal is fully melt, drossing off is

carried out, crucible sides are already scrapped and
the remaining balance of flux is added, bring the
mobile degassing unit (MDU) to the furnace.
2.2.2 Position the rotor shaft at the center of the crucible
when nitrogen gas is already open (to avoid
penetration of the metal in shaft hole).
2.2.3 Then automatically switched on the unit and lower the
rotor into the melt and then rotation commences.
2.2.4 Rotation speed must be around 400-500 rpm. At this
speed, the optimum quantity of purging gas is
dispersed while giving fine bubbles.
2.2.5 Treatment should be complete in 5 – 10 minutes.
Take sample of molten metal to check by using
MINIPOROTEC for gas presence.
2.2.6 Keep molten metal at ease for about 15 – 20 minutes
and allow slag/ dross to float continuously and gas to
escape.
2.2.7 After treatment the rotor is carried out from the
furnace and set aside in safe place.
2.2.8 The metal skimmed, cleaned and is ready for pouring.

Reminders:

1. There are also possibilities that hydrogen can be picked up

through improper gating system and sand mould conditions.
2. Avoid too much exposure in atmosphere and keeping long time
prior to pouring.

Structure:

It is microstructure and therefore the mechanical properties of Al-Si

alloys can be modified and improved by appropriate metal treatment.
Modifiers and /or refiners are usually added to the alloy before casting.

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3.0 GRAIN REFINEMENT

Improves hot tears resistance, reduces harmful effect of gas porosity,

redistribute shrinkage porosity in aluminium alloy. A faster cooling rate
generally promotes a smaller grained size.

3.1 Master alloy for grain refinement:

3.1.1 Titanium (Ti) – 0.02 – 0.15 % added as master alloy,

can be used but the effect fades within 40 minutes.

3.1.2 Titanium + Boron (Ti:b) – addition of boron together

with titanium produces finer grains and reduces fade.
Ratio is 5:1 (Ti:b), this is suitable for continuous casting
and bale out crucible.

1. Note the level of silicon in the alloy affects the grain refining
response to Ti and boron. Higher silicon – requires higher grain
refiner:

Typical addition levels:

Si content of alloy (%) Ti addition (%)
4-7 0.05-0.03
8-10 0.03-0.02
11-13 0.02-0.01

2. Grain refining and degassing must take place simultaneously.

4.0 MODIFICATION

By changing the microstructures with addition of a certain elements to

aluminium – silicon alloys improves casting, mechanical properties and
machinability.

Sand cast and gravity die cast (permanent mould) alloys cool relatively
slowly, resulting in a course lamellar eutectic plate structure which is
detrimental to the strength of the casting. The addition of sodium or
strontium modifies the cast microstructure to give finely dispersed
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eutectic fibers and the coarse crystalline fracture of the alloy is refined to
a fine, silky texture.

Modification increases hot tear resistance and alloy feeding

characteristic, decreasing shrinkage porosity.

4.1 Sodium modification – can be added either as metallic

sodium in the form of NAVAC or as sodium salts in the form of
COVERAL flux 29A or 36A or GR2715 granular flux (Coverall
11 powder flux). Salt flux addition methods are widely used
because of their convenience and low cost. It also has a very
large undercooling effect so that it is particularly useful in
slowly cooled casting process such as sand casting and
gravity die casting.

Note: The modified structure is unstable and tends to fade.It

will be back to unmodified condition depending on the silicon
content, temperature and size of the melt.Reversion is slow of
750oC and holding not larger than 10 minutes as long as the
metal is not agitated by stirring or degassing. It must be
poured without delay.

4.2 Strontium modification- Strontium (Sr) is added as a master

alloy containing 10% Sr for use on hypoeutectic and eutectic
alloys (6-8% & 10-13% Si). It is mainly used as alloys for
gravity and low pressure die casting.

Strontium (Sr) has the ability to modify the structure of

aluminium – silicon alloy without the effect of fading on
standing (lay holding). This is popular for low pressure and
gravity die casting where it may be necessary to hold molten
metal for relatively long period.

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5.0 CASTING PROCESSES

Aluminium alloys can be cast by several processes:

- Sand casting
- Chill casting, i.e. Gravity die (permanent mould casting ) or low
pressure
- Die casting in a metal die using sand cores
- Pressure die casting
- Lost foam
- Squeeze casting
- Investment casting or plaster moulding precision casting
techniques
- May also used for aerospace casting

Casting alloys are designed to be cast by one or other of these

techniques, although some alloys are suitable for more than casting
method.

6.0 THE EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS

Pure aluminium melts at 660.4oC. It is not suitable for casting and is

only used for electrical applications (high conductivity is essential). Most
casting alloys contain silicon as the major alloying elements.

Silicon –
forms a eutectic with aluminium at 11.7 % Si, melt at 577oC. Silicon
addition improves casting characteristic by improving fluidity, feeding,
and hot-tear resistance. The silicon – rich phase is hard, so the
hardness of the alloy is increased with Si content but ductility and
machinability are reduced.

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6.1 Typical silicon levels of popular alloys are:

Alloy Si Content Remarks

Lm4 Low silicon 4-6% Higher strength is

needed,diecast for
engineering
components.
Lm25 Medium silicon 7.3-9.5% Good for thin section,
leak-tight casting and
good corrosion
resistance
Lm6 Eutectic alloys 10-13% Has the highest fluidity
with short freezing
range
Special hypereutectic › 16% Used in wear-resistant
alloys application such as
piston

Copper (Cu)
Improves strength, hardness, machinability and thermal conductivity.
Heat treatment is most effective with 4-6% Cu alloys. Copper decrease
castability and hot tear together with corrosion resistance.

Magnesium (Mg)
Small additions of 0.25-0.5% Mg allow Al-Si alloys to harden by heat
treatment, improving mechanical properties through the precipitation of
Mg2 Si in a finely dispersed form.Their proof stress can be almost
doubled. Mg is used at levels of around 1% in high silicon piston alloy.
3%-6% Mg used in low silicon alloys to improve the anodizing
characteristic and gives a bright surface finish for decorative
components, kept in low pressure diecasting alloys to avoid
embrittlement.

Iron
Levels of 0.9% –1.0% Fe are used in pressure diecasting alloys to
prevent die sticking. High Fe contents decrease ductility, shock
resistance and machinability.Castability is decreased by Fe due to the
formation of sludge phases with manganese and chromium etc. so alloys
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for processes other than pressure diecasting are limited to less than
0.8% Fe.

Manganese
Improves casting soundness at levels over 0.5%.Mn controls the inter-
metallic form of iron in the alloy, leading to improve ductility and
shrinkage characteristics.

Nickel
When combined with copper, enhances strength and hardness at
elevated temperature.

Zinc
When combined with copper and magnesium, heat treatment and
natural ageing characteristics are improved. The fluidity is increased but
shrinkage problems may occur.

Lead
Improves machinability at levels over 0.1%.

Titanium
Refines the grain structure when combined with boron.

Phosphorus
Refines the primary Si phase in hypereutectic alloys. In hypoeutectic
alloys, low levels of phosphorus coarsen the eutectic structure and
reduce the effect of Na and Sr eutectic modifiers.

Strontium
Levels of 0.008–0.04% Sr modify the Al–Si eutectic structure.

Sodium
Used to modify the eutectic structure.

Lithium
While lithium up to 3% may be used to improve the properties of wrought
aluminium alloys, it has a generally harmful effect on casting properties
by reducing the effectiveness of Na or Sr modifiers at levels above 0.5%.
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At even lower levels, above 0.01%, porosity problems are experienced.
It is recommended that Li levels below 0.003% are used for casting
alloys.

7.0 RUNNING, GATING AND FEEDING ALUMINIUM CASTING

The primary function of a gating system is to introduce clean, dross-free

metal from the pouring ladle to the mould cavity and to do so in a
manner which will not cause subsequent reoxidation and gas pick-up.
Aluminium alloys are all subject to dross formation, a film of oxide forms
immediatelyon any metal surface exposed to air, Metal stream as it
pours from ladle to mould within filling the mould cavity and turbulence
on molten metal flow. Oxide films entraps within the casting (oxide folds)
leading to a reduction in mechanical properties.

7.1 Most widely accepted methods of gating system:

7.1.1 Where possible, gating should be into the bottom of the

casting
7.1.2 Unpressurized gating should always be used, that is,
the gate areas should not limit the flow rate into the
mould cavity.
7.1.3 Ingates should be taken from the top of the runner to
ensure that the runner bar is always full.
7.1.4 The sprue should control the fill rate of the casting.
7.1.5 The sprue should be designed to avoid entraining air
and dross; it should be tapered downwards so that the
sprue base is the flow
controlling area.
7.1.6 Low
stream velocities
should be used to
avoid turbulence.

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Non-ferrous alloys should always be cast with an unpressurized gating
system with the runner in the drag (lower half of the mould) and the
ingates in the cope (upper half of the mould). The area of the runner bar
should be between 2 and 4 times the area of the sprue base, and the
total area of ingates at least equal and up to twice the runner area. This
is to ensure that the required fill rate is achieved at the lowest possible
velocity.

7.2 GATING WITH FILTERS

The widespread use of foam ceramic filters has introduced a new

dimension into the running and gating of aluminium castings.
Filters have several important effects:

7.2.1 They effectively trap dross and some oxide films.

7.2.2 They control metal flow rate.
7.2.3 They reduce turbulence.

The filter requires a certain amount of pressure and time to prime,

so the flow of metal is temporarily arrested on encountering the
filter, this allows the sprue to backfill excluding air from the
incoming metal.

The beneficial effect of filters is seen therefore as mainly due to

their ability to eliminate turbulence, although they also filter out any
gross dross inclusions carried over from the melting unit.

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8.0 FEEDING SYSTEM

During the cooling and solidification of most metals and alloys, there is a
reduction in the metal volume known as shrinkage. Unless measures are
taken which recognise this phenomenon, the solidified casting will
exhibit gross shrinkage porosity which can make it unsuitable for the
service for which it was designed.

To avoid shrinkage porosity, it is necessary to ensure that there is a

sufficient supply of additional molten metal, available as the casting is
solidifying, to fill the cavities that would otherwise form. This is known as
“feeding the casting” and the reservoir that supplies the feed metal is
known as a feeder, feeder head or a riser.The feeder must be designed
so that it must freeze later (last) than the casting itself.

8.1 Natural feeders

Feeders moulded in the same material that forms the mould for the
casting, usually sand, are known as natural feeders. As soon as
the mould and feeder have been filled with molten metal, heat is
lost through the feeder top and side surfaces and solidification of
the feeder commences.

8.2 Aided Feeders – Feeding System (Exothermic Sleeve)

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 If by the use of “feeding aids” the rate of heat loss from the
feeder can be slowed down relative to the casting, then the
solidification of the feeder will be delayed and the volume of feed
metal available will be increased. The time by which solidification
is delayed is a measure of the efficiency of the feeding aid. The
shape of the characteristic, conical, feeder shrinkage cavity will
also change and in the ideal case, where all the heat from the
feeder is lost only to the casting, a flat feeder solidification pattern
will be obtained. As much as 76% of an aided feeder is available
for feeding the casting compared with only 10% for a natural sand
feeder.

8.3 The increase of efficiency means greatly reducing the

feeder dimensions with the following advantages for the
foundry:

8.3.1 A greater number of castings can be produced from a

given weight of liquid metal.
8.3.2 Smaller moulds can be used, saving on moulding sand
binder costs.
8.3.3 A reduction in the time needed to remove the feeder
from the casting is possible.
8.3.4 More castings can be fitted into the moulding box.
8.3.5 Less metal is melted to produce a given volume of
castings.
8.3.6 Maximum casting weight potential is increased.
8.3.7 Smaller feeders mean less fettling time and cost.

9.0 FLUXES

A chemical substance used to absorb oxides and non-metallic material,

cleansing the metal and forming a good metal-free from dross which is
easily to be removed.

9.1 Functions of chemical fluxes in aluminium:

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 9.1.1 Covering fluxes which form a molten layer to protect
the melt from oxidation and hydrogen pick-up.
9.1.2 Drossing-off fluxes which agglomerate the oxides
allowing easy removal from the surface of the melt.
9.1.3 Cleaning fluxes which remove non-metallics from the
melt by trapping the oxide particles as they float out.
9.1.4 Fluxes which “modify” the alloy, by introducing
sodium, improving its microstructure.
9.1.5 Exothermic fluxes which ensure that aluminium liquid
trapped in the dross layer is returned to the melt.
9.1.6 Other Fluxes for reclaiming swarf,skimmings and
turnings, giving a high metal yield.
- Also removal of oxide build-up from furnace walls

Application:

About 0.5% -1 % of metal weight is added in 2 stages. First half at

the early stage was put into solid materials and the remainder was
sprinkled as soon as the charge was fully melt.

9.2 Procedure:

9.2.1 In crucible, when charge was fully melted at the

temperature of 650oC - 700oC, scrape the side of the
crucible using a fabricated tool for the removal of oxide
build-up in the walls.
9.2.2 Rabble the dross then skim out with the use of a
perforated skimmer to free off metal.
9.2.3 Put the remainder of flux by sprinkling into the metal
surface and mix thoroughly into the melt bottom with
bell plunger for about 3 – 5 minutes or either until dross
becomes red.
9.2.4 Skim out dross with perforated paraphernalia then
sprinkle a little amount of covering flux, applied
degassing process. (see degassing method using of
mobile degassing unit).
9.2.5 After degassing process, raise the metal temperature
with covering flux and tap.
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9.3 Lists of the granulated fluxes available and the most
widely used granular fluxes are as follows:

COVERAL GR2516 (equivalent to COVERAL 11 powder flux)

It is a non-hazardous cleansing and drossing-off flux containing
some sodium so should not be used for alloys containing more
than 3% Mg where even a slight sodium pick-up must be
avoided. Apart from this limitation, it is used for most Al alloys. It is
particularly recommended for use with crucible furnaces.

COVERAL GR6511 (equivalent to COVERAL 66 power flux)

A sodium-free cleansing and drossing flux for use on alloys
sensitive to trace amounts of Na. It is used for all alloys containing
Mg in the range 1–10% melted in crucible and bale-out furnaces.

COVERAL GR2220 (equivalent to COVERAL 72 powder flux)

An exothermic drossing flux for use on all sodium tolerant alloys
where metal temperature is below 680°C.It is particularly suitable
for use with bulk melting shaft furnaces and helps to reduce
corundum build-up. This is commonly used in pressure
diecasting foundries.

COVERAL GR2715 (equivalent to COVERAL 36A power flux)

For the sodium modification of 7–13% Si alloys melted in crucible
or bale-out furnaces at low temperatures. It should not be used on
strontium modified metal or on hypereutectic alloys (which are
modified with phosphorus).

COVERAL GR2815
For the grain refinement of all alloys melted in crucibles or bale-out
furnaces. It uses a ratio of 10:1 titanium:boron to nucleate and
propagate a fine equiaxed grain growth during solidification.
Typical alloys which may be treated are LM4 (Al–Si5Cu3), LM5
(Al–Mg5Si1), LM25 (Al–Si7Mg).

9.4 Functions of chemical fluxes for copper:

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 9.4.1 Alloy treatment fluxes - for treatment of alloys
containing Al, they dissolve and remove alumina.
9.4.2 Oxidising fluxes – for preventing hydrogen pick-up.
Neutral or reducing fluxes- they protect alloys from
oxidation and reduce zinc loss.
9.4.3 Other fluxes - for melting copper alloys swarf,
skimming and scrap.
- For slag coagulant
- Protective flux when metal is held molten metal for a
long period of time, e.g. continuous casting.

9.5 Methods and paraphernalia for drossing off:

9.5.1 The function of drossing off flux

- To absorb oxides form during melting process
- To collect non-metallic material in the melt.
- Cleansing the molten metal bath.
- Forming a good free-dross which can be easily
removed.

9.5.2 Method of dross/slag removal in crucible furnace

- When drossing off is carried out, the crucible sides
are scraped (molten metal is fully melt) to remove
oxides built-up in walls.
- Additional remaining balances of flux sprinkled into
the metal surface.
- When it became pasty, flux is worked well in the
melt with bell plunger for 3 minutes.
- Dross –off with the use of perforated skimmer.
- Furnace surfaces should be scraped and raked out
dross every cycle of melting.

9.5.3 Tools and paraphernalias

- Perforated skimmer – a semi-circularhand tool for

the removal of dross/slag in the melt with pores to
avoid including molten metal from discharging.
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 - Scraper bar - a rectangular flat bar welded in a long
pipe used to scrap oxides build up in furnace wall.

- Skimmer rake - a semi-circular plate welded

vertically in a long pipe rod to rake leftover
dross/slag inside the furnace or crucible bottom.

- Flat bar – 10 mm x 50 mm x 1 length size used to

scrape crucible walling when molten metal reach the
melting point. This purpose is to remove oxide
crucible walling and float to metal surface.

II. COPPER AND COPPER ALLOY CASTING

1.0 The main copper alloys and their applications:

1.1 High conductivity coppers. Used chiefly for their high

electrical and thermal conductivities. Applications include
tuyeres for blast furnaces and hot blast cupolas, water-
cooled electrode clamps, switchgear, etc.

1.2 Brasses. Copper–zinc alloys where zinc is the major alloying

element. This is easy to castwith excellent machinability
and good resistance to corrosion in air and fresh water.They
are widely used for plumbing fittings. High tensile brasses are
more highly alloyed and find uses in marine engineering.

1.3 Tin bronzes. Copper–tin alloys where tin is the major alloying
element. With tin contents of 10–12%, tin bronze castings are
more expensive than brass. They have high corrosion
resistance and are suitable for handling acidic waters, boiler
feed waters, etc. High tin alloys are also used in wear-resistant
applications.

1.4 Phosphor bronzes. Copper–tin alloys with an addition of

about 0.4–1.0%.Phosphorous-they are harder than tin bronzes
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 but with lower ductility. They are used for bearings where
loads and running speeds are high and for gears such as
worm wheels.

1.5 Lead bronzes. Copper–tin–lead alloys. They are used almost

exclusively for bearings, where loads and speeds are more
moderate.

1.6 Gunmetals. Copper–tin–zinc–lead alloys. Favourite alloys for

sand casting. They have a good combination of castability,
machinability and strength with good corrosion resistance.
They are used for intricate, pressure-tight castings such as
valves and pumps. Also, for bearings where loads and speeds
are moderate.

1.7 Aluminium bronzes. Copper–aluminium alloys where Al is the

major alloying element. They combine high strength with high
resistance to corrosion. Applications range from decorative
architectural features to highly stressed engineering
components. They have many marine uses including
propellers, pumps and valves and are used for the
manufacture of non- sparking tools.

1.8 Copper–nickels. Copper–nickel alloys where Ni is the major

alloying element. Used for marine applications in severe
conditions, for example for pipework.

2.0 SYMBOLS FOR CASTING AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION %

RANGE OR MAX

1. Copper and copper - chromium ( High conductivity coppers) –

CuCr1-C

2. Copper – Zinc (Brasses) - CuZn33OPb-C ( Cu- 63-65.0, Ni-100,

Pb-1.0-3.0, Sn- 1.5)

3. Copper-Tin (Gun metals and Phosphor-bronzes) - CuSn10-C

(Cu- 88.0- 90.0, Ni- 2.0, P- 0.2, Pb- 1.0, Sn- 9.0-11.0)
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 4. Copper-Tin- Lead (Gunmetals and lead bronzes) -
CuSn3Zn8Pb5-C (Cu-81.0-86.0, Ni-2.0, P-0.05, Pb- 3.0-6.0, Sn-
2.0-3.5, Zn- 7.0-9.5)

5. Copper - Aluminium (Aluminium bronze) CuAl9 (Cu- 68-77.0,

Al- 7.0-9.0, Fe- 2.0-4.0, Mn- 8.0-15.0, Ni-1.5-4.5)

6. Copper - Manganese- aluminium CuMn11Al8Fe3Ni3-C (Cu- 68-

77.0, Al-7.0-9.0, Fe-2.0-4.0, Mn-8.0-15.0, Ni-1.5-4.5)

7. Copper – nickels CuNi10Fe1Mn1-C ( Cu-84.5, Fe- 1.0-1.8, Mn-

1.0-1.5, Ni-9.0-11.0)

3.0 Melting copper and copper-based alloys

The melting of copper and copper-based alloys presents special

problems. Molten copper dissolves both oxygen and hydrogen and on
solidification. When the two were combined, they form water vapour
which causes porosity in the casting. Even Without the presence of
oxygen, hydrogen alone may also cause gas porosity. Alloys containing
aluminium form oxide skins which can cause problems in castings. In
other alloys, traces of aluminium can cause defects and residual
aluminium must be removed.

Special melting and metal treatment techniques have been developed to

deal with these effects. These include fluxing, degassing and
deoxidation treatments.

4.0 Products for the melting and treatment of copper and its alloys

ALBRAL - fluxes for treatment of alloys containing Al, they dissolve and
remove alumina.

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CUPREX - oxidising fluxes for preventing hydrogen pick-up during
melting.

CUPRIT - neutral or reducing fluxes, they protect alloys from oxidation

and reduce zinc loss.

DEOXIDISING TUBES – used for deoxidising copper and its alloys.

ELIMINAL - flux for removing aluminium from melts.

LOGAS 50 - briquettes for the removal of hydrogen.

PLUMBRAL - covering and scavenging flux for treating high lead alloys.

RECUPEX - fluxes for melting copper alloy swarf, skimmings and scrap.

RECUPEX 250 – reducing and protective flux for use when molten metal
is held for a long time, e.g. during continuous casting.
SLAX 20 -slag coagulant.

4.1 CUPREX oxidising fluxes and applications

4.2 CUPRIT reducing fluxes and their applications

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4.3 Grades of DEOXIDISING TUBES
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4.4 Deoxidants for copper and its alloys
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 The ideal deoxidant should function as follows:

1. It should combine with all the oxygen present to form a fluid

slag.

2. Deoxidation products should not be entrained in the

solidified casting.

3. Residual deoxidant should not adversely affect the physical

properties of the alloy and should prevent further oxidation
during pouring.

Phosphorus satisfies most of these requirements but a residual

content of 0.025% is necessary to ensure adequate
deoxidation. This can seriously affect the conductivity of pure
copper and causes embrittlement of high nickel bearing alloys.

4.5 The following are the alternative deoxidants:

MAGNESIUM: Very effective and it eliminates the harmful effects

of sulphur, but the oxide formed tends to remain entrapped in the
metal at grain boundaries, causing embrittlement.

MANGANESE: An excellent deoxidant present in DEOXIDISING

TUBES E. Manganese imparts some grain refinement.

CALCIUM: A good deoxidant although metal fluidity is slightly

reduced.

SILICON: Deoxidises well but the oxide formed may affect the
surface appearance and pressure tightness of the casting.

BORON: A satisfactory deoxidant having some grain-refining

action. Excess can cause embrittlement.

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 DEOXIDISING TUBES L: are also available for commercial and
high conductivitycopper, Ni–bronze, Cu–Ni alloys and Al–bronze.
They contain lithium and remove hydrogen as well as
deoxidise.

Copper-based alloy castings are usually made from charges using

pre-alloyed ingot together with foundry returns (runners, risers and
scrap castings). Such internal scrap must be carefully segregated
to avoid mixing of metal of different specifications. With successive
remelting, there will be a tendency to lose volatile elements,
particularly zinc, and to pick up contaminants such as iron. The
level of residual phosphorus may vary depending on the
deoxidation practice used, and it must be carefully monitored.

The alloys are frequently melted in gas-fired furnaces, usually

crucible furnaces. Medium frequency induction furnaces are also
used with silica or alumina linings. Clay–graphite or silicon carbide
crucibles can also be used, the electrical conductivity of the
crucible allowing it to absorb induction power, yielding higher
crucible temperatures and reduced stirring in the melt.

III. NON-FERROUS WORK STANDARDS AND PROCEDURE

It will also be very important to discuss the work standards during the
training so that the participants or operators would properly be
familiarized with the right non-ferrous casting methods and
processes.Please refer to our submitted full documentation of standard
operating procedures dated April 1, 2011 for the complete details of the
following:

1.0 MOLDING BY FURAN-BONDED SAND PROCESS

1.1 Scope

This work standard applies to molding using furan-bonded sand.

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1.2 Tools and measuring instrument to be used

1.2.1 Ramming tools.

1.2.2 Molding flask.
1.2.3 Levelling tools.
1.2.4 Steel plate.

1.3 Things to check/note before process

1.3.1 Check the wooden pattern/or pattern.

1.3.2 Availability of the molding flask.
1.3.3 Tools needed for molding.
1.3.4 Condition of sand mixer machine.
1.3.5 Properties of sand.

1.4 Mold material preparation

1.4.1 Check the design and specification of the work order

based on the drawing.
1.4.2 If pattern is used already, check for the damage and
make necessary repair.
1.4.3 Deliver the pattern to the molding area and select the
appropriate flask.
1.4.4 Prepare molding accessories: runner, sprue, riser neck
jig, ceramic filter guide, ingate, and sprue base.
1.4.5 Apply strip coat in the surface above.

1.5 Procedure

1.5.1 Cope molding

1.5.1.1 Position the wooden pattern on the floor or steel

plate.
1.5.1.2 Set up gating system and other paraphernalia
needed in molding.
1.5.1.3 Set the cope flask on the pattern inside the
frame.
1.5.1.4 Compact the sand at all surfaces of pattern,
gating system, and runner.
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 1.5.1.5 Fill the flask with furan sand to about 50-70 mm
thickness, flatten sand around the area of
exposed part of the pattern and sprue.
1.5.1.6 Keep the work piece extend for about 10-20
minutes during curing time.

1.5.2 Drag molding

1.5.2.1 Fasten the cable sling to the lifting stubs of the

cope flask and hoist the work piece.
1.5.2.2 Turn the workpiece upside down and bring it
slowly on the floor.
1.5.2.3 Clean and remove excess sand by grinding
stone or grinding disc.
1.5.2.4 Blow hose sand off the cope mold and brush
the entire surface with parting powder.
1.5.2.5 Place similar size of drag flask over the cope
mold.
1.5.2.6 Fill the flask with furan sand until the pattern is
entirely hidden. Ram the sand around the
pattern with ramming tools.
1.5.2.7 Allow the sand to cure for a sufficient time.

1.5.3 Removal of pattern and molding accessories

1.5.3.1 Fasten the cable sling to the lifting stubs of the

cope flask (one layer only) and lift the work
piece with an overhead crane.
1.5.3.2 Turn upside down and lower slowly to the floor.
1.5.3.3 Draw the pattern out of the mold.Blow the
excess sand in the drag mold with air.
1.5.3.4 Pull out the pattern of runner, ingate and sprue
base.
1.5.3.5 Deliver the mold to setting area.

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2.0 SETTING AND POURING OPERATION

2.1 Scope

This work standard applies to the setting of molds and final process
before pouring operation of mold produce using furan sand.

2.2 Tools and measuring instrument to be used

2.2.1 Overhead crane.

2.2.2 Brush.
2.2.3 Puller.
2.2.4 Hacksaw blade
2.2.5 Ball pin hammer.
2.2.6 Grinding stone.

2.3 Setting

2.3.1 Set the mold over the steel plate and separate the two
parts.
2.3.2 Scrape off excess sand of the drag mold and cope
mold. Check for any damage or broken part and
make necessary repair.
2.3.3 Cut out the sand on runner and ingate exit for melt
entry.
2.3.4 Blow sand off the cope and drag molds.
2.3.5 Apply coating to all parts of mold cavity, runner,
ingates, and riser part.
2.3.6 Apply mold paste parts if necessary to avoid run out.
2.3.7 Hoist the cope mold and position it over the drag
mold as the original and make sure that the mold is
aligned.
2.3.8 Blow hose sand off the cavity mold with the fabricated
vacuum hose.
2.3.9 Deliver the mold to the pouring area.

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 2.4 Pouring preparation

2.4.1 Position counter weights or clamping equally on both

sides of mold.
2.4.2 Inspect inside mold cavity and sand with vacuum
hose.
2.4.3 Select a suitable heat insulating sleeve firmly by
applying furan sand around the base area.
2.4.4 Place the pouring basin over the sprue.
2.4.5 Set the pouring basin or bush and sleeve firmly by
applying furan sand around the base area.

3.0 MELTING OPERATION

3.1 Scope

This work standard applies to the melting of aluminium, bronze,

and brass materials

3.2 Tools and measuring instrument to be used

3.2.1 Induction furnace.

3.2.2 Ladle.
3.2.3 Gas burner.
3.2.4 Weighing scale.
3.2.5 Pyrometer.
3.2.6 Fabricated paraphernalia.
3.2.7 Mini Porotec for gas checking.
3.2.8 Mobile degassing unit for the removal of hydrogen.

3.3 Charge preparation

3.3.1 Determine the weight of the charge base on the

present capacity of the induction furnace.
3.3.2 Weigh out the prescribed ratio of raw materials and
constituent.
3.3.3 List down the charge number (if any), date and time
of melting, furnace number, and all necessary data
needed in melting

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3.4 Melting preparation

3.4.1 Check the power of induction furnace.

3.4.2 Inspect the condition of the furnace lining/crucible
wall.
3.4.3 Make sure that refractory lining of the furnace/crucible
surface is free from cracks and metal penetration.
Repair cracks if the width is over 2mm.
3.4.4 Pre-operate the tilting unit before switching on the
furnace.

3.5 Ladle preparation

3.5.1 Inspect the ladle walls and carry out necessary

repairs before preheating operation. If a defective
portion is detected, make sure that the lining is metal
free.
3.5.2 Secure the ladle in roughly horizontal position on the
preheating stand.
3.5.3 Position the blowtorch in front on the ladle.
3.5.4 Preheat the ladle in accordance with the Table 1.
Refer to Figure 1 for details set up.

TABLE 1: Preheating time of ladle

Ladle capacity Preheating time( Position

(kgs) hrs)
100-200 1 Bottom up
300-500 2 Bottom up
1,000 3 Side position
2,000-3,000 4 Side position

Note: For 1,000 and 2,000 kgs of newly relining ladle charcoal,
preheating with a minimum of 6 hrs must be done before
blow torching.

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3.6 Metal charging procedure

3.6.1 Charge the furnace initially with fresh ingots to

maximize the contact surface of the material with
furnace bottom.
Note: Preheat the furnace empty to drive off moisture
before charging if it not used for more than two (2)
days.
3.6.2 Put the remaining material until the initial charge is
about 50% of the melting weight.
3.6.3 Placed damp/oily material over the furnace top frame
to drive off moisture during melting.
3.6.4 Activate the induction furnace to melt the charge
materials.
3.6.5 Add the balance of the charge when the materials
begin to melt.
3.6.6 Make sure the different sizes of the charge material
are added correctly to avoid bridging.

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 Reminders:

Primary causes of metal splash and furnace eruption:

1. Wet or damp charge materials.

2. Dropping heavy charge into a molten bath.
3. Wet or damp tools and additives.

Primary protection from splashes and furnace eruption:

1. Scrap drying and pre-heating system.

2. Remote charging system.
3. Appropriate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE).
4. Barriers.

3.7 Melting operation

3.7.1 Check the meters on the control panel regularly

during melting and adjust the power supply when
necessary.
3.7.2 Check the surface of the melt occasionally for any
abnormal sign e.g. bridging.
3.7.3 Switch off the power supply and measure the
temperature with the pyrometer if the surface of the
melt visually suggests that the temperature be close
to the prescribed level of perfect melt.
3.7.4 If the temperature is way below the prescribed level,
switch on the surface power to attain the temperature
range as indicated below:

Perfectly melt:

Aluminum 720oC-750oC
Bronze 1280 oC-1300 oC
Brass 1080oC-1100oC

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4.0 FURNACE CLEANING AND MAINTENANCE

4.1 Cleaning

Most effective way of cleaning furnace walling made during melting

process where charge material is fully melt:

4.1.1 Scraping of furnace/crucible side wall to loosen

residues with the use of scraping tools.
4.1.2 Take out dross by perforated hand tools.
4.1.3 Every tapping – scrape furnace /crucible side wall to
avoid dross to stick/ harden.
4.1.4 Final stage of melting. All dross in the
furnace/crucible bottom must be removed by raking
out (vertical tilted position).

4.2 Maintenance

4.2.1 Inspect furnace top cast and spout for possible

damage and carry out necessary repairs before
charging and melting operation.
4.2.2 Take out corundum growth in lining wall as long as
they are small, regular inspection must strictly
implemented.
4.2.3 Daily cleaning of the surface refractory with a suitable
flux is advisable.
4.2.4 Once a week, the furnace should be allowed to cool
and dry and remaining dross should be carefully
removed using chisels.
4.2.5 If furnace melting capacity is less than 25%- 30%
(furnace original capacity),it must replace its
refractory lining because furnace efficiency is already
reduced.

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5.0 LADLE PREPARATION AND RECOMMENDED MATERIAL

5.1 Daily cleaning and maintenance

Start of work. Responsible person must check all theused ladles

and make necessary preparation.

5.1.1 Take out remaining metal in ladle and carry out

necessary repair for the damage lining and spout.
5.1.2 Apply wash coat or ladle coating in all lining surfaces
and normally dry.
5.1.3 Double coat with water based graphite powder for
easy removal of left over materials.
5.1.4 Position ladle on pre-heating stand and set fire. See
table for ladle pre-heating time.

Recommended wash coat:

Ceramol 258G/2 – Foseco product

General description:

A water-based coating containing zirconium silicate base and other

addition, it’s special edition to prevent the adherence of metal and
slag to the crucible or ladle as far as possible. The effect of this is to
increase the life of ladle lining and help to ensure a clean receptacle
for the molten metal.

Properties:
Viscosity when delivered Ca 95% B’e
Density 2.6 kg/L
Color Beige
STD packing Drums of 40 kgs

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6.0 DIFFERENT FLUXES APPLICATION FOR NON-FERROUS
MELTING

6.1 Function of chemical fluxes for aluminium

6.1.1 Covering fluxes – form a molten layer to protect the

melt from oxidation and hydrogen pick-up.
6.1.2 Drossing-off fluxes – which agglomerate the oxides
allowing easy removal from the surface of the melt.
6.1.3 Cleaning fluxes – remove non-metallic from the melt
by trapping the oxide particles as they float air.
6.1.4 Modifying fluxes- “modify” the alloy by introducing
sodium thereby improving its microstructure.
6.1.5 Exothermic fluxes- ensure that aluminium liquid
trapped in the dross layer is returned to the melt.
6.1.6 Other fluxes – for reclaiming swarf, skimming, and
turning, giving a high metal yield.
- removal of oxide build up from furnace walls.

6.2 Application

About 0.5% - 1% of metal weight is added in 2 stages. First half at

the early stage was put into solid materials and the remainder was
sprinkled as soon as the charge was fully melted.

6.3 Procedure

6.3.1 In crucible furnace, when charge was fully melted at

the temperature of 650oC – 700oC, scrape the side of
the crucible using a fabricated tool for the removal of
oxide build up in the walls.
6.3.2 Rabble the dross then skim out with the use of a
perforated skimmer to free off metal.
6.3.3 Put the remainder of flux by sprinkling onto the metal
surface and mix thoroughly into the melt bottom with
bell plunger for about 3-5 minutes or either until the
dross becomes red.
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 6.3.4 Skim out dross with perforated paraphernalia then
sprinkle a little amount of flux to serve as cover.
6.3.5 After degassing process, raise the metal temperature
and tap.

6.4 Function of chemical fluxes for copper

6.4.1 Alloy treatment fluxes- for treatment of alloys

containing Al, they dissolve and remove alumina.
6.4.2 Oxidising fluxes- for preventing hydrogen pick up.
6.4.3 Neutral or reducing fluxes- they protect alloys from
oxidation and reduce zinc loss.
6.4.4 Other fluxes- for melting copper alloy swarf,
skimming, and scrap
- Slag coagulant.
- Protective flux when metal is held molten for a long
time, e.g. continuous casting

6.5 Application

About 1% of metal weight is added in two stages. 0.75% on first

stage is spread on furnace wall and put into solid materials. Add the
remainder balance when metal is fully melt, stir before drossing off.
More fluxes may be added if the charge consist of swarf and spread
same amount in ladle prior to tapping.

7.0 METHOD AND PARAPHERNALIA FOR DROSSING OFF

7.1 The function of drossing-off flux

 To absorb oxides form during melting process.

 To collect non-metallic material in the melt.
 Cleansing the molten metal bath.
 Forming a good metal-free dross which can be easily removed.

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 7.2 Method of dross/slag removal in crucible furnace

 When drossing off is carried out, the crucible sides are scraped
(metal is fully melt to remove oxide build up in walls.
 Additional remaining balances of flux sprinkled into the metal
surface.
 When it becomes fusty, flux is worked well in the melt with bell
plunger for about 3 minutes.
 Dross-off with the use of perforated skimmer for metal free.
 Furnace surfaces should be scraped and rake-out dross/slag
every cycle of melting.

8.0 DEGASSING OPERATION

8.1 Degassing operation on bronze metal

8.1.1 Furnace degassing procedure

8.1.1.1 Upon reaching the melting temperature, switch off

the induction furnace power and prepare the set-up
of the degassing unit.
8.1.1.2 Position the nitrogen gas tank two or three meters
away from the surface. Preheat the ladle intensely
by tapping at least twice before degassing
operation.
8.1.1.3 Scrape slag off the surface wall with an iron flat bar.
Skim off slag atop the melt.
8.1.1.4 Preheat the pipe over the surface of melt.
8.1.1.5 Open the blowing valve of the cylinder to a
moderate pressure.
8.1.1.6 Dip the pipe slowly into the melt until it reaches
close to the furnace bottom. Adjust the pressure
control to obtain continuous bubbling.
8.1.1.7 Purge the melt with nitrogen for 5-10 minutes.
8.1.1.8 Activate the furnace to maintain the temperature
drop.
8.1.1.9 On completion of nitrogen blowing, skim dross off
the surface of the melt, then take a sample by hand
ladle and pour in the preheated metallic crucible.
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 8.1.1.10 Check metal condition on Mini Porotec for any gas
presence.
8.1.1.11 If the test result is satisfactory, measure the
temperature of the melt and top

Note: If gassy melts is detected, degas the melt for

another 5 minutes, then comply with no. 1.1.9 and
1.1.10 until gas-free melt is obtained.

8.1.2 Ladle degassing procedure

8.1.2.1 Tap molten metal as ladle with temperature of

1250oC - 1300oC.
8.1.2.2 Insert hose to one end of degassing pipe and
release nitrogen at minimum pressure.
8.1.2.3 Dip opposite end of degassing pipe (STKM) in
molten metal (center of ladle) until it reaches the
bottom surface.
8.1.2.4 Adjust upward STKM pipe about 50-80 mm, then
hold on the level.
8.1.2.5 Regulate pressure of nitrogen gas until bubbling
motion of molten metal appear on top portion.
Note: Not to the extent that would create splashes.
8.1.2.6 Monitor degassing period about 5-10 minutes , then
take sample of molten metal (using hard ladle), put
in iron cap and check in MiniPorotec unit(vacuum
machine).
8.1.2.7 If gas presence appears in the molten metal,
continue degassing until such series checking has a
good result.
8.1.2.8 Take out STKM pipe and take out slag from the
ladle. Check temperature and pour.

Note: During degassing period, if molten metal drops

its temperature to 1200oC and below and if
presence of gas is still visible, return molten
metal to furnace, raise temp. Repeat procedure
from the beginning.

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9.0 CASTING DEFECTS

POSSIBLE ACTION
CAUSES/REASON PLANS/COUNTER
PROBLEMS S MEASURES

> Low Temperature > Check temperature of

- immediate molten metal by using of
PIPES (OPEN solidification of thermo couple prior for
1 CHRINKAGE) molten metal. pouring.
>Risering - > Use appropriate sleeve
insufficient feeding riser (Iso Wool) to prolong
of molten metal. molten metal temperature.
> Pouring
technique/procedur > Applied back pouring
e. method as reservoir.
> No coverall for > Introduce proper
maintaining molten ramming procedure and
metal temperature. paraphernalia.
> No ramming
procedure on > Use appropriate material
molten metal. for coveral (Celite).

MOLD > Poor quality of > Check the quality of

EROSION AND coating material. coating material prior to
2 SAND DROPS use.
> Mixture of sand to > Daily calibration of
chemical. highspeed mixer (sand
mixer).
> Insufficient
ramming of furan > Demonstrate proper
sand. molding procedure and
setting process.
>Inproper setting > Check conveyors rollers
and cleaning. condition and one at a time
transport of mold.
> Molds vibrates
strongly during
transporting on
pouring line.

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 > Ramming sand
thoroughly during molding
> Mold with crack or process to have a
3 RUN-OUT damage. stronghold.
> Check wall thickness
> Weak mold due to allowance of mold that
wall thickness could withstand molten
allowance. metal pressure.
> Insufficient
counter weights, > Ensure counter weights,
buckles and other buckles, and fittings are
fittings. enough and tightly fit.
> Checking of molten
> Sand problem metal temperature prior for
(uncalibrated). pouring.
> Too much high
temperature.

> Inspect pattern

appearance before using
4 SCAB > Pattern defect. it.
> Entrapment of air > Put gas line on mold to
in mold cavity. release gases built inside.
> Study mold thoroughly
> Insufficient and take out excess sand
cleaning of mold and coating material
surface. before closing.

> Check thickness

MISRUN/COLD > Pattern thickness allowance of pattern prior
5 SHOTS allowance is thin. to use for molding.
> Countercheck mold
cavity to be free of
> Moisture on mold moisture and apply blow
cavity. torching thoroughly.
> Insufficient pre- > Ensure proper gating
heating of mold. system set-up.
> Check molten metal
> Gating system temperature prior to
problem. pouring.
> Low temperature.

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 > Sand erosion on > Apply hard ramming
ENTRAPMENT gating/runner procedure during molding
6 (CHOKE) system. process.
> Formation of > Skim slag/dross on ladle
slag/dross on filter before pouring in mold
area. cavity.
> Check molten metal
temperature prior to
> Low temperature. pairing.
> Check molten metal
> Metal fluidity. fluidity.
> Gating system > Ensure proper
problem. gating/runner set-up.
> Re-orient worker proper
> Pouring pouring method and
technique. technique.

>Inproper molding > Re-orient worker

RAT TAIL & and ramming regarding proper molding
7 BUCKLE procedure. and ramming method.
> Re-orient pourer and
> Pouring conduct proper pouring
technique. method and technique.

> Gating and runner > Ensure proper

system. gating/runner set-up.

MICRO,
MACRO >Proper treatment of
POROSITY molten metal degassing
AND PIN application and checking
8 HOLES > Gas problem prior to pouring.
Always check molten metal
> Too much high temperature both furnace
temperature. and ladle.
> follow work standard and
> Melting process procedures in melting
and procedures. operation.
> Check the quality of
coating material (series of
trial).
> Coating material.
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 > Adjust add-mixtures
(additives) if needed.
> Metals additives.

> Create knockdown table

9 CRACK/WARP > Early knockdown. for every cast item.
> Analyze metal
> Metal condition. composition every melting.
> Instruct and orient
assigned personnel proper
>Mis-handling of handling of cast item
casted product. during knockdown.

> Reaction of > Blow torch and clean

SLUG molten metal inside mold surfaces thoroughly
CLUSTER/SLU cavity mold due to and allow to cool down
10 G INCLUSION the ff: before setting.
> Ensure proper gating
a) Moisture and runner set-up.
b) Cold/wet > Eliminate too much
surface turbulence on molten flow.
c) Contact with > Use filter (Ceramic Filter)
foreign object and screen filter.
> Gating > Remove slag on ladle
system/runner set- and mold cavity during
up problem. entry of molten metal.
> Strong turbulence
on molten metal >Application of fluxes on
flow. metal treatment.
> No filter.
> No skimming of
slag in ladle and
mold cavity.

> Install air vents material

> Entrapment of air (Saran Pipe) during
11 AIR LOCK on mold cavity. molding process.
> Put gas line on molds
parting face for air exits.

Page | 43
 > Double check sentry of
12 SENTRY > Off-setting. item.
> Apply paste material to
avoid movement or mis-
alignment.
> Additional mark line for
reference during setting.

IV. WORKSHOP / ACTUAL TRAINING DEMONSTRATION

The participants will also undergo an interactive workshop or actual

trainingdemonstration in order to better grasp the whole non-ferrous
casting training module.

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