The Atomic Structure and the Chemical Elements

The Ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the Atom

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the ideas of the Ancient Greeks
on atoms.

Can matter be infinitely divided into smaller particles?

Last Updated: 08.13.16

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The Indivisible Atom
Democritus of Abdera (460 - 370 B.C.) and his teacher Leucippus of Miletus (c.500
B.C.) were Greek scholars who believed that matter could be divided into tiny particles
until such point where it can no longer be divided anymore. They became the first
proponents of the atomic theory. Their early ideas on atoms are summarized below.

1. All matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms, which come from
the Greek word atomos meaning uncuttable. The atoms are indestructible,
impenetrable, and unchangeable.
2. The atoms make up the universe as they are continuously moving in a “void” that
surrounds them, repelling each other when they collide, or combining into
clusters.
3. Atoms are completely solid which means that there is no void or empty space
inside that will make them prone to disintegration or destruction.
4. Atoms are homogeneous in nature. They have no internal structures.
5. Atoms come in different shapes and sizes.

These proposed ideas about atoms were supported by some Greek philosophers but
were strongly opposed by others especially Aristotle.

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Aristotle's Opposing View on Atoms
Aristotle, a Greek philosopher, had a different view on atoms. He disregarded the
existence of atoms proposed by Leucippus and Democritus. He did not believe that
matter is a collection of atoms. Instead, he believed that everything in the universe is
made up of the four elements, air, fire, water, and earth. He stated that believing in
atoms would mean putting restriction on the gods, who have the power to divide
elements smaller than the atom.

Aristotle's beliefs greatly flourished especially in the Middle Ages in Europe, where
Roman Catholics were strongly influenced by his ideas. They believed that ideas about
the atoms equated to Godlessness. Thus, the whole concept of the atom was dismissed
for centuries. However, the Greeks' concept of atoms and even Aristotle's arguments
were rediscovered in France at the start of the Renaissance period. The theory of
Aristotle was proven incorrect, and Democritus' and Leucippus' theory on the existence
of atoms was proven right.

Explore!
Choose one digital photo and zoom in. Can you see a group of tiny squares? They are
called pixels. How can you relate them to atoms?

Try it!
Get a piece of paper. Divide it into half as many times as you can. What do you notice?
How would you relate this activity to the concept of the atoms?

What do you think?

Is the early idea of the existence of the atom true?

Key Points
 Democritus and Leucippus, ancient Greek philosophers, first proposed the idea
of the atom.
 Their theory states that all matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles
called atoms.
 They believed that the atoms are very small, have different shapes and sizes, are
continuously moving, and can combine with other atoms.
 Aristotle did not believe that matter is strictly a collection of atoms, and that
matter can be made of air, fire, water, or earth.
 Democritus’ idea on the existence of atoms was accepted, and Aristotle’s
argument was proven incorrect.
  The Atomic Structure and the Chemical Elements
 The Discovery of the Structure of the Atom and its Subatomic Particles

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify the main ideas in the discovery
of the structure of the atom and its subatomic particles.

In the previous lessons, you have learned that matter is composed of atoms.

What is the structure of the atom?

Last Updated: 08.13.16

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Greek philosophers Democritus and Leucippus developed the idea that all matter is
composed of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms. However, their atomic theory was
based only on assumptions. It was not until the early 1800s that experiments were
performed to develop models for the structure of the atom.

In 1803, John Dalton, a British scientist, did experiments on mixtures of gases. He

studied how the properties of individual gases affect the properties of the mixtures of
these gases. He developed the hypothesis that the sizes of the particles making up
different gases must be different. After several experiments, he concluded that all matter
is composed of spherical atoms, which cannot be broken down into smaller pieces. He
added that all atoms of one element are identical to each other but different from the
atoms of another element.
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Discovery of the Subatomic Particles
The Electrons in the Plum Pudding Model

In 1897, Joseph John Thomson, a British physicist, proposed an atomic model

known as the plum pudding model. His model consisted of negatively charged particles
(plum) spread evenly throughout the positively charged material (pudding). The small,
negatively charged particles are called electrons.

The Protons in the Planetary Model

In the early 1900s, Ernest Rutherford, a New Zealand-born physicist, established the
planetary model which described the atom as small, dense, and has a positively charged
core called the nucleus. Inside the nucleus are positively charged particles called
the protons. The nucleus is surrounded by negatively charged particles or electrons.
The electrostatic attraction between electrons and nucleus mimics the gravitational
force of attraction between planets and the sun.

The Neutrons

In 1923, James Chadwick proved the existence of the neutron, which is also situated
in the nucleus together with the proton. It has the same mass as the proton but unlike
the latter, it has no electric charge.

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Recent Atomic Models
Bohr’s Atomic Model

Rutherford’s model showed that the electrons and nucleus have opposite charges which
according to the laws of physics, will attract each other. Thus, Rutherford's model would
have electrons collapsing into the nucleus, making the atom unstable. Niels
Bohr solved this problem by proposing that the electrons orbit around the nucleus in
set energy levels. An electron absorbs energy if it moves from lower to higher energy
level, and it emits energy if it returns to the lower energy level.

Quantum Mechanical Model

The quantum mechanical model of the atom states that a nucleus is surrounded by a
cloud of electrons called orbitals. It explains that it is impossible to determine the exact
location of the electron at a given time, but one can find its probable location. It
incorporates the concept of Bohr’s model where the electrons move in one orbital to
another by absorbing or emitting energy.

Explore!
Look around your house. Try to think of Bohr’s discovery of energy levels. What things
can you find in your house that use the same concept proposed by Bohr?

Try it!
Create a timeline on the discovery of subatomic particles and development of the atomic
theory. Who are the scientists who had important contributions in atomic theory?

What do you think?

Based on Bohr's atomic model, what causes an electron to move from one orbital to
another?

Key Points
 John Dalton described the atom as spherical.
 Joseph John Thomson discovered the electron.
 Ernest Rutherford proposed that the electrons orbit around the nucleus. He,
together with his students, discovered the proton.
 Niels Bohr proposed that electrons orbit around the nucleus in set energy
levels.
  James Chadwick discovered the neutron.
 Niels Bohr proposed that the electrons orbit around the nucleus in set energy
levels.
 In the quantum mechanical model, the nucleus is surrounded by a cloud of
electrons called orbitals.

The Atomic Structure and the Chemical Elements

Understanding the Structure of Atom:The Contributions of J.J. Thomson, Ernest
Rutherford, Henry Moseley, and Niel

Objective
In this lesson, you will be able to cite the contributions of Joseph John Thomson, Ernest
Rutherford, Henry Moseley, and Niels Bohr to the understanding of the structure of the
atom.

What are the contributions of Joseph John (J.J.) Thomson, Ernest

Rutherford, Henry Moseley, and Niels Bohr to the understanding of the
structure of the atom?

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J.J. Thomson’s Discovery of the Electron

In 1897, J.J. Thomson discovered the electrons by conducting a series of experiments

using a high-vacuum cathode-ray tube that was composed of negatively charged
particles 1000 times lighter than the hydrogen atom. He also proposed a sea of positive
charge for the overall neutrality of the atom. He then proposed an atomic model known
as the plum pudding model depicting a sphere of positive charge (pudding) with
negatively charged particles (plums) embedded all throughout.

Ernest Rutherford’s Discovery of the Nucleus

In the early 1900s, Rutherford discovered the nucleus containing positively charged
particles called protons. He advised his students, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, to
bombard a thin sheet of gold foil with alpha particles. He assumed that the alpha
particles would just pass straight through the foil, meaning an atom has a void space.
However, after the experiment, some particles passed right through it, and some were
deflected. He arrived at these two conclusions: (1) The atom contained an empty space,
as some particles went through the foil; and (2) The atom had a very dense center of
positive charge. From these, Rutherford proposed the planetary model. He believed that
the electrons moved around a nucleus.

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Henry Moseley’s Atomic Number

In 1913, Henry Moseley, a British chemist, developed the use of X-ray in studying the
structure of the atom. During this time, a coherent structure of the atom was being
developed, starting from J.J. Thomson’s discovery of the electron to Rutherford’s
publication of his planetary model. He published results of his measurements of
wavelengths of the X-ray emissions of some elements that coincided with the order of
their atomic numbers. Moseley’s experimental data backed up Rutherford’s structure of
the atom with a very dense center of positive charge. The data also justified that the
atomic number of an element is the number of positive charges in its nucleus.

Niels Bohr’s Atomic Model

If you would recall in magnetism, unlike charges attract. In Rutherford’s model, since
the electron and the nucleus have opposite charges, the electrons would collapse into the
nucleus, making the atom unstable. Niels Bohr modified this model by proposing that
the electrons move in fixed energy levels or orbits by absorbing or emitting energy.

Try it!
Look at the periodic table. List down three elements with the lowest atomic number and
three with the highest atomic number. What does the low and high atomic numbers
signify?

What do you think?

What is the importance of knowing the atomic number of elements?

Key Points
 J.J. Thomson discovered the electron and proposed the plum pudding model.
 Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed the planetary model.
  Henry Moseley used the X-rays in studying the structure of the atom. The
results of his experiments supported Rutherford's model.
 Niels Bohr proposed that the electrons move in fixed energy levels or orbits.

The Atomic Structure and the Chemical Elements

The Nuclear Model of the Atom

Objective
In this lesson, you should be able to describe the nuclear model of the atom and the
location of its major components (protons, neutrons, and electrons).

If you have lived during the time when the atom was discovered, how would
you describe its structure?

Last Updated: 08.13.16

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As subatomic particles were discovered, models for their arrangement in the atom were
developed. There was J. J. Thomson’s plum-pudding model, which he proposed after his
discovery of the electrons. Then there was Ernest Rutherford’s planetary model,
proposed after the discovery of the protons in the nucleus.

The Nuclear Model

The nuclear model states that the nucleus is small, dense, and located at the center of
the atom. It contains protons and neutrons. Overall, it is positively charged. It contains
nearly all the mass of the atom. The electrons orbit around it.
The nuclear model has been deduced from the experiment done by Rutherford.

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Geiger-Marsden Experiment
Under Rutherford's supervision, Hans Geiger, his assistant, and Ernest Marsden, an
undergraduate student, shot a narrow beam of alpha particles at a very thin sheet of
gold foil and measured the scattering pattern on a fluorescent screen. It was observed
that some particles deflected, and others penetrated through the sheet of gold foil.
There was a force behind the deflections – the repulsion of the positively charged alpha
particles by a positively charged material. If this charge existed in a sphere with the
same size of the atom, the force should have been weak. This led to the assumption that
the charge was concentrated in a small space or sphere.

Rutherford proposed that the positive charge, and the mass of the atom were
concentrated in a small part of the total volume of the atom called the nucleus.

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Issues Involved in the Nuclear Model
The main problem in Rutherford's model was how the electrons remained in their orbit
without falling into the nucleus. Another problem is the electron's continuous
centripetal acceleration and the energy lost through electromagnetic radiation. This
energy would make it approach the nucleus while increasing the electrostatic force. The
increase in force would increase the acceleration and the emission of energy. Thus, the
nucleus and the electrons would collide with each other. This means that the atom
would be unstable.

Explore!
Imagine you're holding two magnets with the same magnetic poles (north to north poles
or south to south poles). When you try to put the magnets together, there is a force
acting upon them which makes it difficult to do so. The repulsion between the magnets
represents the forces between the alpha particles and the positively charged material in
the atom of the gold foil as presented in the Geiger-Marsden experiment of Rutherford
and his colleagues. What is the importance of this scenario in studying the structure of
the atom?

Try it!
Research on the succeeding studies about the nucleus and its characteristics.

What do you think?

Rutherford postulated a neutral particle inside the nucleus. How did he come into this
conclusion?

Key Points
 The nuclear model states that the nucleus is small, dense, and located at the
center of the atom.
 The nucleus is positively charged. It contains nearly all the mass of the atom. The
electrons orbit around it.
 The nuclear model has been deduced from the experiment done by Rutherford.