Pet roleum Geology:

From Mat ure Basins t o New Front iers

Proceedings of the 7th Petroleum Geology Conference
Edited by
B. A. Vining and S. C. Pickering

12. Geologic Resources

Dr. Ir. Eko

Published by The Widianto,
Geological Society MT
Program Studi Teknik Geologi
FTKE Universitas Trisakti
2013 - 2014
GEOLOGIC RESOURCES

Mineral and Coal

Oil and Gas

Groundwater
Mineral
and Coal
 What is a mineral?

"Minerals are naturally-occurring inorganic

substances with a definite and predictable
chemical composition and physical properties."
(O' Donoghue, 1990).
Examples:
quartz - SiO2 (an oxide)
hematite - Fe2O3 (another oxide)
chalcopyrite - CuFeS (a sulphide)
 What is an orebody?

An occurrence of minerals or metals

in sufficiently high concentration to
be profitable to mine and process
using current technology and under
current economic conditions.
Resources and Reserves
 Mineral Deposits
• Metalic or Ore Deposits
• Non-Metalic or Industrial Minerals

Pyrit

Quartz
 Plate Tectonics and Mineral
Resources

• Plate boundaries are related to the origins of

many ore deposits
• Plate tectonic processes (high temperature,
high pressure, and partial melting) promote
release and enrichment of metals along plate
boundaries
• Common metal ores along plate boundaries
are Fe, Au, Cu, and Hg, etc.
 Origin of Metallic Ore Deposits
1. Ores associated with igneous rocks
a. Crystal setting
b. Hydrothermal fluids
• Contact metamorphism
• Hydrothermal veins
• Disseminated ore deposits: Porphyry copper
• Hot springs
c. Pegmatites
2. Metamorphic Ore Deposits
3. Ores formed by surface processes
a. Chemical precipitation in layers
b. Placer deposits
Magma/Hydrothermal Ore Deposits

As magma cools, more abundant metals

(silicon, aluminum) deposit first
Solidification of magma releases water - a
hydrothermal solution
Minerals precipitate from hydrothermal
solution and deposit in cracks or veins in
rock
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
 Metamorphic Ore Deposits

Concentration of minerals caused by high

temperatures and pressures near intrusions
Examples:
Lead-zinc deposits in southeast B.C.
Diamonds
Garnets
 Sedimentary Ore Deposits

Deposition of dense, resistant minerals

in streams, lakes etc (Alluvial Deposits),
e.g. Placer gold
Precipitation of minerals from lakes-
oceans (Evaporite Deposits), e.g. Potash
and Salt Deposits
Accumulation, burial and petrofication
of vegetation, e.g. Coal Deposits.
Placer gold deposits and hydraulicking

The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Exploration Concept
Genesis and the origin of Coal

David Mathew & Nick Davies, Arrow Energy, Gas

Power & Alternative Energy, Jakarta, Februari 2007

Gas

Trisakti PetroFest2007
070329
Halaman 19
Sulfur deposits around volcanic fumaroles

The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

 Some Important Mineral Deposits

Metals Non-Metals
• Iron • Quartz
• Copper • Limestone
• Aluminium • Phosphate
• Lead • Gypsum
• Zinc • Sulphur
• Silver
• Gold
Genesis of Mineral Resources
Oil and
Gas
DIMANA KITA MENDAPATKAN MINYAK & GAS?
  Exploration ------
------- Man hours 
Geophysics
 Development ------ In the petroleum
industry, petroleum
geology is only one
 Production ------ aspect of petroleum
exploration and
Geology Petroleum Engineering production

First Well Discover Production

Drilled y made begins
------- Time ten of years 
Chemical and
Exploration Petroleum Petroleum Mechanical
Geophysics Geology Engineering Engineering Marketing

Acquisition of Exploration /
Concession Production
Transportation Refining Sale

All operation subject to legal, political and economic constraints (Selley, 1998)
27
1st
• SEDIMENTARY BASIN
ECONOMICS
NOT
IMPORTANT

2nd
• PETROLEUM SYSTEM

3rd
• EXPLORATION PLAY
ECONOMICS
VERY
IMPORTANT

4th
• PROSPECT

Four Levels of Petroleum Investigation

Magoon and Dow (1994)
Sedimentary basins, petroleum systems, plays, and prospect
can be view as separate levels of investigation, all of which
are needed to better understand the genesis and habitat of
hydrocarbons.

Sedimentary basin investigations emphasize the stratigraphic

sequence and structural style of sedimentary rocks.

Petroleum system study describe the genetic relationship

between a pod of active source rock and the resulting oil and
gas accumulations.

Investigation of play describe the present-day geologic

similarity of a series of present-day traps.

Study of prospects describe the individual present-day trap

 Petroleum System Definition
The essential elements and processes and all
genetically-related hydrocarbons that occur in
petroleum shows, and accumulations whose
provenance is a single pod of active source rock.

Elements Processes
Source Rock Generation
Migration Route
Migration
Reservoir Rock
Accumulation
Seal Rock

Trap Preservation
 Petroleum
Petroleum SystemSystem
ElementsProcesses

Gas
Cap
Oil
Accumulation
Entrapment Water Seal Rock
Reservoir
Rock

Migration
120° F

350° F
Generation Source Rock
24803
Black Shale
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/04/Plankton.jpg
• However, if there is little or no
oxygen in the water then animals
can’t survive and the organic
mush accumulates

• Where sediment contains

more than 5% organic matter,
it eventually forms a rock
known as a Black Shale

© Earth Science World Image Bank

Figure: Loss of carbon and related petroleum potential in the sedimentary cycle
 Characterizing Source Rocks
To be a source rock, a rock must have three
features:
1. Quantity of Organic matter
2. Quantity capable of yielding moveable
hydrocarbon
3. Thermal maturity
The first two components are products of the
depositional setting. The third is the function
of the structural and tectonic history of the
province.
 Cooking
As Black Shale is buried, it is heated.

Organic matter is first changed by the

increase in temperature into kerogen,
Kerogen which is a solid form of hydrocarbon

Around 90°C, it is changed into a liquid

state, which we call oil
Oil

Around 150°C, it is changed into a gas

Gas

A rock that has produced oil and gas in

www.oilandgasgeology.com/oil_gas_window.jpg
this way is known as a Source Rock
Reservoir
Reservoir Rocks
• The permeable strata in an oil trap
is known as the Reservoir Rock

• Reservoir rocks have lots of

interconnected holes called pores.
These absorb the oil and gas like a
sponge

As oil migrates it fills up the pores

(oil-filled pores shown in black)
Earth Science World Image Bank Image #h5innl
Reservoir Rock Statistic
Migration
www.diveco.co.nz/img/gallery/2006/diver_bubbles.jpg • Hot oil and gas is less dense than
the source rock in which it occurs

• Oil and gas migrate upwards up

through the rock in much the same
way that the air bubbles of an
underwater diver rise to the surface

Rising oil

• The rising oil and gas eventually gets

trapped in pockets in the rock called
reservoirs
 Traps and Seal
•Definition and Concept
•Trap Classification
• Structural traps
• Stratigraphic traps
• Hydrodynamic traps
• Combination traps
Oil Traps
• Some rocks are permeable
Impermeable and allow oil and gas to freely
pass through them

• Other rocks are impermeable

and block the upward passage
of oil and gas

• Where oil and gas rises up

into a dome (or anticline)
capped by impermeable rocks
it can’t escape. This is one
type of an Oil Trap.

Permeable
Worldwide reserves can be related to their location within a petroleum basin,
regardless of its basin type.
Seal Rock Statistic
 INDONESIA TERTIARY SEDIMENTARY BASINS

SOUTH CHINA SEA

400 KM
SULAWESI
SEA

eastern

BANDA SEA

western

UNDRILLED
22 PRODUCING
15 DISCOVERY
TOTAL OF 8
60 BASINS
NON PRODUCING NON DISCOVERY
DRILLED 15
38 23

Status : Jan 01, 1999

Groundwater
Groundwater
• Groundwater is water located beneath the ground
surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of
lithologic formations. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated
deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable
quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or
fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated
with water is called the water table.
• Groundwater is recharged from, and eventually flows to,
the surface naturally; natural discharge often occurs at
springs and seeps, and can form oases or wetlands.
Groundwater is also often withdrawn for agricultural,
municipal and industrial use by constructing and
operating extraction wells. The study of the distribution
and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, also
called groundwater hydrology.
Water cycle
• Groundwater makes up about twenty percent of the world's fresh
water supply, which is about 0.61% of the entire world's water,
including oceans and permanent ice. Global groundwater storage is
roughly equal to the total amount of freshwater stored in the snow
and ice pack, including the north and south poles. This makes it an
important resource which can act as a natural storage that can
buffer against shortages of surface water, as in during times of
drought.

• Groundwater is naturally replenished by surface water from

precipitation, streams, and rivers when this recharge reaches the
water table.

• Groundwater can be a long-term 'reservoir' of the natural water cycle

(with residence times from days to millennia), as opposed to short-
term water reservoirs like the atmosphere and fresh surface water
(which have residence times from minutes to years). The figure
shows how deep groundwater (which is quite distant from the
surface recharge) can take a very long time to complete its natural
cycle.
A cross sectional diagram showing qualitative flow times for various
pathways through a typical aquifer system, from USGS circular 1139.
Aquifer
• An aquifer is a layer of porous substrate that contains
and transmits groundwater. When water can flow directly
between the surface and the saturated zone of an
aquifer, the aquifer is unconfined. The deeper parts of
unconfined aquifers are usually more saturated since
gravity causes water to flow downward.
• The upper level of this saturated layer of an unconfined
aquifer is called the water table or phreatic surface.
Below the water table, where generally all pore spaces
are saturated with water is the phreatic zone.
• Substrate with low porosity that permits limited
transmission of groundwater is known as an aquitard. An
aquiclude is a substrate with porosity that is so low it is
virtually impermeable to groundwater.
Confined aquifer
• A confined aquifer is an aquifer that is overlain by a relatively
impermeable layer of rock or substrate such as an aquiclude or
aquitard. If a confined aquifer follows a downward grade from its
recharge zone, groundwater can become pressurized as it flows.
This can create artesian wells that flow freely without the need of a
pump and rise to a higher elevation than the static water table at the
above, unconfined, aquifer.
• The characteristics of aquifers vary with the geology and structure of
the substrate and topography in which they occur. Generally, the
more productive aquifers occur in sedimentary geologic formations.
By comparison, weathered and fractured crystalline rocks yield
smaller quantities of groundwater in many environments.
Unconsolidated to poorly cemented alluvial materials that have
accumulated as valley-filling sediments in major river valleys and
geologically subsiding structural basins are included among the
most productive sources of groundwater.
HYDROGEOLOGICAL UNITS
Environmental Problems Associated
with Groundwater
As with many of our valuable natural resources,
groundwater is being exploited at an increasing
rate. In some areas, overuse threatens the
groundwater supply. In other places,
groundwater withdrawal has caused the ground
and everything resting upon it to sink. Still other
localities are concerned with the possible
contamination of their groundwater supply.

Lutgens and Tarbuck, 2012

Treating Groundwater
as a Nonrenewable Resource
• Many natural systems tend to establish a condition of equilibrium. The
groundwater system is no exception. The water table’s height reflects a
balance between the rate of water added by precipitation and the rate of
water removed by discharge and withdrawal. Any imbalance will either
raise or lower the water table. A long-term drop in the water table can
occur if there is either a decrease in recharge due to a prolonged drought
or an increase in groundwater discharge or withdrawal.
• For many, groundwater appears to be an endlessly renewable resource
because it is continually replenished by rainfall and melting snow. But in
some regions groundwater has been and continues to be treated as a
nonrenewable resource. Where this occurs, the water available to
recharge the aquifer falls significantly short of the amount being
withdrawn.

Lutgens and Tarbuck, 2012

Lutgens and Tarbuck, 2012
Land Subsidence Caused by
Groundwater Withdrawal
As you will see later in this chapter, surface subsidence can result from
natural processes related to groundwater. However, the ground may also sink
when water is pumped from wells faster than natural recharge processes can
replace it. This effect is particularly pronounced in areas underlain by thick
layers of loose sediment. As water is withdrawn, the weight of the
overburden packs the sediment grains more tightly together and the ground
subsides.
Many areas can be used to illustrate such land subsidence caused by
excessive pumping of groundwater from relatively loose sediment. A classic
example in the United States occurred in the San Joaquin Valley of California.
This important agricultural region relies heavily on irrigation. Land subsidence
due to groundwater withdrawal began in the valley in the mid-1920s and
locally exceeded 8 meters (28 feet) by 1970 (FIGURE 10.15). Then, because of
the importation of surface water and a decrease in groundwater pumping,
water levels in the aquifer recovered and subsidence ceased.
Lutgens and Tarbuck, 2012
Lutgens and Tarbuck, 2012
Groundwater Contamination
• The pollution of groundwater is a serious matter, particularly in areas where
aquifers provide a large part of the water supply. One common source of
groundwater pollution is sewage. Its sources include an ever-increasing number of
septic tanks, as well as inadequate or broken sewer systems and farm waste.
• If sewage water that is contaminated with bacteria enters the groundwater
system, it may become purified through natural processes. The harmful bacteria
may be mechanically filtered by the sediment through which the water percolates,
destroyed by chemical oxidation, and/or assimilated by other organisms. For
purification to occur, however, the aquifer must be of the correct composition. For
example, extremely permeable aquifers (such as highly fractured crystalline rock,
coarse gravel, or cavernous limestone) have such large openings that
contaminated groundwater might travel long distances without being cleansed. In
• this case, the water flows too rapidly and is not in contact with the surrounding
material long enough for purification to occur. This is the problem at Well 1 in
FIGURE 10.16.

Lutgens and Tarbuck, 2012

Lutgens and Tarbuck, 2012
Lestarikan Lingkungan