Programming and Organization

of
Training
by: Y.V. Verkhoshansky

GV
341
-V413
Sportivny Press
198°
C.l
Livonia, Michigan
 T a b l e of C o n t e n t s
Page
A b b r e v i a t i o n s and D e f i n i t i o n s I
Chapter 1 1
Theoretico-Methodical Attempts at Programming and
Organization of Training
1.2 Training as an O b j e c t of M a n a g e m e n t 6
1.3 Scientific Prerequisites of Programming and O r g a n i z a -
tion of T r a i n i n g 11
1.4 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of Sports 15
Chapter 2 18
R e g u l a r i t i e s of the P r o c e s s of Attaining Sport M a s t e r y
2.1 General R e g u l a r i t i e s of the A t h l e t e ' s A d a p t a t i o n to
Intense M u s c u l a r W o r k 18
2.2 General R e g u l a r i t i e s of M o r p h o - f u n c t i o n a l Speciali-
zation in the P r o c e s s of A t t a i n i n g S p o r t M a s t e r y 36
2.3 S t r u c t u r e of Special-Physical-Preparedness 43
2.4 R e g u l a r i t i e s of A t t a i n i n g S p o r t - T e c h n i c a l M a s t e r y .... 67
Chapter 3 82
The Principal Connection Between the A t h l e t e ' s S t a t e
and the T r a i n i n g Load
3.1 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e T r a i n i n g Load and its Effect .. 83
3.2 F a c t o r s and C o n d i t i o n s Determining the T r a i n i n g -
Effect 90
3.2.1 T h e C o n t e n t s of the Loading 91
3.2.2 T h e V o l u m e of the T r a i n i n g Load 96
3.2.3 O r g a n i z a t i o n of T r a i n i n g Loads 101
3.3 The L o n g - T e r m Lag in the T r a i n i n g - E f f e c t of the
Loading 108
3.4 General Tendencies in the D y n a m i c s of the S p o r t s m a n ' s
State in t h e Y e a r - C y c l e ; D e p e n d i n g on the O r g a n i z a t i o n
of Training Loads 120
Chapter 4 125
P r i n c i p l e s of P r o g r a m m i n g and O r g a n i z a t i o n of Training
4.1 Forms of C o n s t r u c t i n g T r a i n i n g 126
4.1.1 Forms of Constructing Training with Respect to
Organization 127
4.2 Primary Aims in Programming T r a i n i n g 151
4.3 Fundamental Model S y s t e m s of Constructing Training in
the Y e a r - C y c l e 153
4.3.1 A Model for G r o u p s of S p o r t s , Requiring the Display
of E x p l o s i v e - F o r c e 156
4.3.2 A Model for G r o u p s of Sports, Requiring E n d u r a n c e
(Middle D i s t a n c e s ) 157
4.3.3 A Model for G r o u p s of Sports, Requiring E n d u r a n c e
(Long D i s t a n c e s ) 159
4.3.4 A Model for G r o u p s of Sports, with Tri-cyclical
P e r i o d i z a t i o n of T r a i n i n g 161
4.3.5 Practical Use of the Principal M o d e l s of T r a i n i n g
Construction 163
4.4 Logical Sequence for P r o g r a m m i n g Training in the
Year-Cycle 168
4.5 M a n a g i n g t h e C o u r s e of T r a i n i n g 170
 Abbreviations used in the Text

CAR: T h e c u r r e n t a d a p t a t i o n r e s e r v e s of the o r g a n i s m . The

organism's specific, limited c a p a b i l i t y to r e s p o n d to exter-
nal influences with adaptational reconstruction, in order to
accommodate the training irritant.
F-max: T h e m a x i m u m force d i s p l a y e d in a specific movement.
GPP: General Physical Preparation. C o n d i t i o n i n g exercises
designed to e n h a n c e the athlete's general, non-specific
work-capacity.
Is The index of e x p l o s i v e - s t r e n g t h . U s u a l l y assessed by
vertical jump r e s u l t s .
LLTE: The long term lagging of the training-effect. A
natural increase in r e s u l t s , following a d e c r e a s e in the
v o l u m e of loading in the pre-competition stage.
MOC: Maximum Oxygen Consumption. The a t h l e t e ' s maximum
oxygen utilization during loading.
PASM: T h e p r o c e s s of attaining (literally, the formation,
Ed.) of Sport M a s t e r y . The e d u c a t i o n a l - p h y s i o l o g i c a l pro-
cess of t h e athlete's continued improvement in physical,
technical, tactical and p s y c h o l o g i c a l m a s t e r y specific to
the given sport.
Po: Index of a b s o l u t e - s t r e n g t h . Usually a s s e s s e d by the
maximum force g e n e r a t e d isometrically (on a d y n a m o m e t e r ) .
Q: The index of starting-strength. The ability of the
organism to o v e r c o m e the resting inertia of t h e body and/or
a sport a p p a r a t u s .
SPP: Special-Physical-Preparation. The t r a i n i n g that is
specific to the s p o r t ' s r e q u i r e m e n t s in competition. For
instance, multiple standing long jumps d e v e l o p the same
qualities necessary for the execution of the running long
jump.
TANE: T h e t h r e s h o l d of a n a e r o b i c e x c h a n g e , that level of
oxygen consumption at which the anaerobic processes are
activated.
TE: The training-effect. The c h a n g e s that o c c u r w i t h i n the
a t h l e t e ' s body as a result of training.
 Definitions

1. Complex-Training: The simultaneous (within one workout)

work on several a s p e c t s of an a t h l e t e ' s preparation. For
example, specific w o r k on strength, speed and t e c h n i q u e in
the same s e s s i o n .
2. Conjugate-Sequence-System: An appropriate succession and
strict s e q u e n c e of inculcating loading of different primary
emphasis, into t r a i n i n g .
3. Cumulative-Training-Effect: T h e c h a n g e s w i t h i n the o r g a n i s m
as a result of the summed a f f e c t s of many training s e s s i o n s .
4. Displacement: Disruptions of the o r g a n i s n ' s homeostatic
state as a result of training.
5. Dynamic C o r r e s p o n d a n c e : The c o n f o r m i t y between t h e d y n a m i c s
of a sport exercise executed in training to the competition
exercise executed in competition.
6. Hetero-Chronicity: T h e v a r i a b l e n e s s of rates of improvement
in a special q u a l i t y (strength, endurance, etc.), of an
organ or system.
7. Large-Stage of T r a i n i n g : A training period of 3-5 months
duration.
8. Partial-Training-Effect: The changes produced by a single
training means.
9. Training-Effect: See #12 in a b b r e v i a t i o n s .
10. Training Potential: The possible training-effect produced
by a specific loading, exercise, etc.
11. Unidirectional-Training: Workouts planned to emphasize
primarily one p h y s i c a l q u a l i t y or aspect of an athlete's
preparation (strength, t e c h n i q u e , etc.).
 Introduction

Programming is the r e g u l a t i o n of the c o n t e n t s of training in

accordance with the a t h l e t e ' s training o b j e c t i v e s and t h e s p e c i -
fic p r i n c i p l e s , d e t e r m i n i n g t h e rational o r g a n i z a t i o n of training
loads w i t h i n a specific time f r a m e . Programming is a n e w , better
form of planning training, solving tasks at a higher scientific-
methodical level and w i t h a g r e a t e r p r o b a b i l i t y of a c h i e v i n g the
goals.

The basis for programming training is a c c e p t a n c e of a solu-

tion, which is a s s o c i a t e d first of all with determining the
general strategy of the a t h l e t e ' s p r e p a r a t i o n , and second, with
s e l e c t i n g the o p t i m a l v a r i a n t of training construction. T h e task
is very c o m p l i c a t e d b e c a u s e of the great number of possible vari-
a b l e s and c o m b i n a t i o n s in the c o m p o s i t i o n , volume, d u r a t i o n and
organization of training loads w i t h d i f f e r e n t p r i m a r y emphasis.
The practical acceptance of a solution in this situation is
effected by s o r t i n g - o u t and a s s e s s i n g if not a l l , then many of
the a c c e p t a b l e v a r i a n t s of training construction. They are fewer
in number, the m o r e e x p e r i e n c e d the c o a c h , i.e., he has the
e x p e r i e n c e to permit immediately rejecting one and thinking of
another.

Consequently, the p r i m a r y condition for correct selection of

the optimal solution is the substantiation for preliminary
a s s e s s m e n t of the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of a p a r t i c u l a r v a r i a n t . In the
not-too-distant past p l a n n i n g w a s based on t h e personal experi-
ence of the coach; o b t a i n e d by trial and e r r o r ; based on his
intuition and logical p r i n c i p l e s . Now we h a v e more objective
basises and premises. T h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e m a k e s it p o s s i b l e to
s w i t c h to p r o g r a m m i n g as a better form of planning and c o n s t r u c t -
ing training.

Selection of t h e solution to p r o g r a m m i n g training is based,

first of a l l , on t h e k n o w l e d g e of the specific r e g u l a r i t i e s in-
herent to the p r o c e s s of a t t a i n i n g sport mastery (PASM) and
determining its systematic development over time. These regular-
ities, as we shall show later, are revealed by t h e study of the
p e c u l i a r i t i e s of t h e l o n g - t e r m a d a p t a t i o n of t h e o r g a n i s m to in-
tense muscular work and the p r i n c i p a l tendencies in the changes
of its s t a t e ; d e p e n d i n g on the o r g a n i z a t i o n of the training loads
of different primary emphasis, then v o l u m e and duration. The
elucidation of t h e r e g u l a r i t i e s of the PASM also c o n t r i b u t e s to
the study of t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of the p r o c e s s of attaining sport-
technical m a s t e r y and t h e m o r p h o - f u n c t i o n a l s p e c i a l i z a t i o n of the
o r g a n i s m in t h e c o u r s e of m u l t i - y e a r t r a i n i n g .
Research in t h i s area a s s u r e s an essential e n h a n c e m e n t of
the o b j e c t i v i t y of t h e p r e l i m i n a r y assessment of the t r a i n e e ' s
potential for the p r e s c r i b e d load; and c o n s e q u e n t l y , the prognos-
tical probability of the training effect it can secure. The
research contributes to the c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e most rational
o r g a n i z a t i o n of training loads w i t h i n c o n c r e t e s t a g e s , providing
both the optimal d u r a t i o n and rational i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e of loads
of d i f f e r e n t p r i m a r y e m p h a s i s and their e x p e d i t i o u s introduction
into training. Finally, this research is the basis for re-
understanding traditional principles of training construction.
Instead of the a n a l y t i c o - s y n t h e t i c approach of examining
training as a r e c r u i t m e n t of separate microcycles, and its o r g a n -
ization as a l i n i n g - u p of m i c r o c y c l e s of different e m p h a s i s in a
sequential chain; consider switching to the programmed o b j e c t i v e
p r i n c i p l e of o r g a n i z i n g t r a i n i n g . It is based on the formulation
of concrete purposeful objectives for any stage of training and
the c o n s t r u c t i o n of t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s and c o m p e t i t i o n s to ensure
their r e a l i z a t i o n . Thus, the b a s i c form of training construction
is not t h e m i c r o - c y c l e , as has a l w a y s been c o n s i d e r e d , but the
large training stage (3-5 m o n t h s ) ; apportioned in the yearly
cycle, by taking into c o n d s i d e r a t i o n the competition calendar and
the r e g u l a r i t i e s of t h e a t h l e t e ' s a d a p t a t i o n to intense muscular
work. This, in turn, a l t e r s the r e q u i r e m e n t s for the o r g a n i z a -
tion of the micro-cycles; w h i c h instead of basic structural
units, construction of training a c q u i r e s a functional form for
the r e g u l a t i o n of those p o r t i o n s of t h e training loads to which
they are allotted.
 Furthermore, o b j e c t i v e p r e m i s e s concerning t h e r e g u l a t i o n o f
the contents of training a r e formed by t a k i n g into a c c o u n t the
qualitative specifics of the a f f e c t s of the means and methods
involved. Here instead of m a n i p u l a t i o n of large, medium and
small waves of the " g r o s s " volume of the load, permitting only
c h a n g e s in sporting form; it is p o s s i b l e to d i r e c t the influence
(of the training load) to the q u a l i t a t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the
sportsman's state, by a p p r o p r i a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n of the loads with
different training effects.
Substantiation and d e v e l o p m e n t of the programmed-objective
principle of c o n s t r u c t i n g the t r a i n i n g of highly-qualified ath-
letes is the m a i n t h e m e of this b o o k . However, before getting
into it, it is n e c e s s a r y to dwell on some p e c u l a r i t i e s of scruti-
nizing it and to d e t e r m i n e a number of l i m i t a t i o n s and t h e most
general ideas.
Training is a m u l t i - f a c e t e d , pedagogical process, having a
specific form of organization, that t r a n s f o r m s it into a complex
system of influences on a p e r s o n ' s personality and physical
state. With respect to its c o n t e n t s , training p r o v i d e s active
and s y s t e m a t i c a l l y specialized motor a c t i v i t i e s d i r e c t e d at the
total e d u c a t i o n of the a t h l e t e ; including the a c q u i s i t i o n of a
w i d e r a n g e of special knowledge, h a b i t s and s k i l l s ; enhancement
of w o r k - c a p a c i t y ; t h e m a s t e r i n g of t e c h n i q u e and the art of com-
petitive struggles. All of this is acquired g r a d u a l l y during the
c o u r s e of m a n y - y e a r s training; along w i t h a specific order to the
resolution of s t a g i c tasks and a s e q u e n t i a l n e s s of the mastering
of n e w h e i g h t s of sport m a s t e r y .
Sport m a s t e r y is first and foremost, movement-skill. The
sportsman's education is c a r r i e d - o u t through specialized motor
activities. Therefore, the g r o w t h of m a s t e r y is secured and at
t h e same t i m e , the limit physical p o s s i b i l i t i e s of t h e organism,
i.e., the a b i l i t y to d i s p l a y the required level of force and to
maintain the training n e c e s s a r y for the p e r f e c t i o n i n g of this
ability. Consequently, pedagogical f u n d a m e n t a l s and methodical
principles of organizing training, along w i t h the educational
emphasis, ought to be c o n s i d e r e d the biological e s s e n c e of the
PASM. This by no m e a n s is a call to a biological theory and
method of sport t r a i n i n g , but to u n d e r s c o r e the specifics of
sport p e d a g o g i c s ; w h i c h is an educational p r o c e s s conducted at a
level of limit physical and p s y c h o l o g i c a l tension, and is a
m y s t e r i o u s and by no m e a n s none o t h e r than a pedagogical process.
And here, o n e cannot stand for a m a t e u r i s h n e s s and tolerate mis-
takes, because the p e r s o n ' s h e a l t h is at stake.

Thus, sport a c t i v i t y is a very complex socio-biological phe-

nomenon. It is in e s s e n c e s o c i a l , having c o n c r e t e pedagogical
contents and an e d u c a t i o n a l e m p h a s i s ; and in phenomenological
expression, its form of e x i s t a n c e and d e v e l o p m e n t has a b i o l o g i -
cal basis. Therefore, the biological aspect should play an
important role in the scientific search d i r e c t e d at solving the
problem of rational c o n s t r u c t i o n and programming of training;
while at the same t i m e , it should be o r i e n t e d and understood as
an aspect of the pedagogical tasks, e x p r e s s i n g the social essence
of sport a c t i v i t i e s .

H e n c e it is o b v i o u s that the solution to the problem of pro-

gramming t r a i n i n g , in the broad s e n s e , is only p o s s i b l e by com-
bining the efforts of the s p e c i a l i s t s with the appropriate
scientific profiles. However, this is only the nearest p e r s p e c -
tive. Therefore, in taking the first step of d e t e r m i n i n g general
theories and p r i n c i p l e s of programming training we are concerned
only w i t h those p a r t s w h i c h c h i e f l y c o n c e r n t h e physical perfec-
t i o n i n g of the sportsman and his skill to e f f e c t i v e l y realize his
m o t o r p o t e n t i a l s in training and c o m p e t i t i o n .

The c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r i m a r i l y on h i g h l y - q u a l i f i e d a t h l e t e s is
d i c t a t e d by practical necessity. E x p e r i e n c e has shown that the
preparation of m i d d l e and high class a t h l e t e s is significantly
different. In the first c a s e , the t r a d i t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s of con-
structing t r a i n i n g , w h i c h have taken form in the past ten years,
fully ensuring the p r o g r e s s of mastery, are already not so effec-
tive for the second. And what is m o r e , by not taking into
account the m o d e r n s p e c i f i c s of t r a i n i n g , high-class athletes
o f t e n do the o p p o s i t e a c t i v i t i e s they should, inhibiting the pro-
gress of mastery.

17 .
 Therefore, t h e urgent necessity a r i s e s to reveal the s p e c i -
fic p e c u l i a r i t i e s of p r e p a r i n g qualified a t h l e t e s , reinterpreta-
tion and d e v e l o p m e n t of traditional principles; and to d e v i s e new
methodical ways and appropriate forms of training them.
Finally, it is n e c e s s a r y to define the fundamental concepts
of principal significance, such as p r o g r a m m i n g , o r g a n i z a t i o n and
management of training. In works concerning the m a n a g e m e n t of
complex systems' dynamics, these concepts are usually used
synonomously. However, a p p l i c a b l e to sport t r a i n i n g , each has
their own fully specific and c o n c r e t e m e a n i n g .
Training is not an a r t i f i c i a l creation of a m a t e r i a l system
or a p h e n o m e n o n e x i s t i n g i n d e p e n d e n t l y in n a t u r e ; w h i c h can be-
come objectively managed influences, in c o n f o r m i t y with some
criteria of e f f e c t i v e n e s s or e x p e d i e n c y . It is n e c e s s a r y , first
of all, to r e c o n s t r u c t the training ideally, creatively re-
thinking its course and based on the special objectives, deter-
mine its contents. Then, one should implement the practical
realization of the p r o g r a m a d o p t e d ; and finally control the
course of its e x e c u t i o n and m a k e the necessary c o r r e c t i o n s .
So, programming is the p r e l i m i n a r y d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the
strategy, contents and form of t r a i n i n g ; o r g a n i z a t i o n is the
practical i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t h e program, taking into account the
concrete conditions and real potentials of the athlete; and
management is the control and r e g u l a t i o n of the c o u r s e of train-
ing a c c o r d i n g to the predetermined criteria of its effectiveness.
A number of p r o b l e m s of constructing training, examined in
this book are discussed repeatedly in the literature and are
resolved in accordance with today's theoretico-experimenta1
knowledge, when these problems are placed b e f o r e the specialists.
Therefore, let's t u r n to t h o s e p r o b l e m s , w h i c h a r e not raised for
novelty's sake.

V.
 Chapter 1
Theoretico-Methodical Attempts at
Programming and Organization of Training

Programming and o r g a n i z a t i o n of training requires multi-

faceted and in-depth k n o w l e d g e of the e s s e n c e of training; its
contents and structure; the r e g u l a r i t i e s d e t e r m i n i n g its con-
struction and changes in its emphasis w i t h the g r o w t h of sport
mastery. Such k n o w l e d g e should, first, include the a c h i e v e m e n t s
of p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e and the e n t i r e complex of s c i e n t i f i c data
dealing with the a f f e c t s of training on the a t h l e t e ' s body and
personality; and second, be s y s t e m a t i z e d such that it s e c u r e s the
working-out and r e a s o n i n g of t h o s e methodical principles and
tenets w h i c h d i r e c t l y d e t e r m i n e t h e practical r e s o l u t i o n of the
problem of p r o g r a m m i n g and o r g a n i z a t i o n of t r a i n i n g . This re-
q u i r e s an o b j e c t i v e a s s e s s m e n t of the p e c u l i a r i t i e s of the modern
stage of sport d e v e l o p m e n t and a d e t e r m i n a t i o n of those knotty
problems around w h i c h the a c c u m u l a t i o n of knowledge should be
concentrated.
1.1 P e c u l a r i t i e s of t h e Present Stage of Sport Development
A number of p e c u l i a r i t i e s are inherent to the p r e s e n t stage
of sport development. They have a s i g n i f i c a n t a f f e c t on the
o r g a n i z a t i o n of a t h l e t e s ' training and c o n f r o n t s c o a c h e s and a t h -
letes w i t h very complex t a s k s and r e q u i r e m e n t s w h i c h compel them
to search for a p p r o p r i a t e forms of training o r g a n i z a t i o n .
1. Raising further the high level of a c h i e v e m e n t s of modern
athletes requires cardinal p e r f e c t i o n i n g of b o t h the s y s t e m of
preparing highly-qualified athletes and the entire organizations-
methodical system of multi-year preparation.
2. The exceptionally high stress of c o m p e t i t i o n is a s s o c i -
ated w i t h the increasing c o m p a c t n e s s of t h e a c h i e v e m e n t s of par-
ticipants at crucial competitions; the extraordinarily high
requirements for q u a l i t y , stability and r e l i a b i l i t y of t e c h n i c a l
and tactical mastery, moral-volitional p r e p a r e d n e s s and the p s y -
chological stability of a t h l e t e s under c o n d i t i o n s of frequent and
crucial competitions.
 3. Qualified-sportsmen a c h i e v e d s u c h high l e v e l s of spe-
cial-physical-preparedness, that raising it further becomes a
very c o m p l e x t a s k . It is n e c e s s a r y to find r e s e r v e s for raising
the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of s p e c i a l - p h y s i c a l - p r e p a r a t i o n and associated
with this, to r a t i o n a l i z e t h e system of training c o n s t r u c t i o n as
a whole.
4. The significant increase in the volume of t r a i n i n g a c -
centuates the p r o b l e m of its rational distribution during the
y e a r l y c y c l e and its s e p a r a t e s t a g e s . Furthermore, t h e r e is the
obvious necessity to regard c r i t i c a l l y the "mechanical*' raising
of t h e v o l u m e as a way of increasing the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of train-
ing. It became n e c e s s a r y to s e a r c h , first, for t h e most effec-
tive ratio of loads of d i f f e r e n t e m p h a s i s ; and second, for new
forms of o r g a n i z i n g t r a i n i n g , providing optimal c o n d i t i o n s for
the full r e a l i z a t i o n of the sportsman's adaptational potential;
based on the rational i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e b e t w e e n the e x p e n d i t u r e and
r e s t o r a t i o n of e n e r g y r e s o u r c e s .
5. The g r o w i n g role of science in the m e t h o d i c s of train-
ing. The training of h i g h l y - q u a l i f i e d sportsmen is associated
w i t h very substantial i n f l u e n c e s on the life-preserving functions
of the organism's s y s t e m s and the i n t r o d u c t i o n of these in-
fluences at such a high w o r k i n g - l e v e l , that without scientific
knowledge (relying o n l y on common sense and intiution), it is
already impossible to solve the c o m p l e x problem of m o d e r n train-
ing.
If we w e r e to rely on t r a d i t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s and forms of
training c o n s t r u c t i o n , e s t a b l i s h e d many years a g o , then it is ob-
vious that they h a v e lost their (in the old days) progressive
significance and do not meet the requirements of preparing
today's q u a l i f i e d a t h l e t e s . P r o g r e s s i v e c o a c h e s u n d e r s t a n d this
well, and, in c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h their p u p i l s find new ways of
perfecting and raising the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of training; along with
the potential for p e r f e c t i o n i n g of traditional principles and
forms of training c o n s t r u c t i o n . That this s e a r c h is fruitful, is
indicated by the a t h l e t e s ' high a c h i e v e m e n t s .
Let's look at some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c (for the modern stage)
t e n d e n c i e s in the o r g a n i z a t i o n of t r a i n i n g , w h i c h as yet a r e not
principles, but a r e d e f i n i t e l y known and a r e well recommended.
The search for w a y s of i n t e n s i f y i n g training and enhancing c o m p e -
tition mastery was conditioned by the e x p e d i e n c y to utilize a
method e x t e n s i v e l y , w h i c h can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as "modeling the
competition activities under training conditions."
The essence of this method consists of the integral
e x e c u t i o n of the fundamental sport e x e r c i s e (in t r a i n i n g ) at a
high intensity and taking into account the c o n d i t i o n s and rules
of c o m p e t i t i o n . This method a d e q u a t e l y p r e p a r e s the o r g a n i s m for
competition and e n a b l e s one to e f f e c t i v e l y prepare the athlete
functionally, technically, t a c t i c a l l y and p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y . In
the not-too-distant past it w a s c o n s i d e r e d i n a p p r o p r i a t e to exe-
c u t e the fundamental sport e x e r c i s e at full strength in t r a i n i n g ,
for r e s u l t s or w i t h c o m p e t i t i o n e m p h a s i s . This was e x p l a i n e d as
an e x t r a o r d i n a r y e x p e n d i t u r e of n e r v o u s energy, a negative influ-
ence on t e c h n i q u e , unnecessary fatigue, etc. Therefore, in
speed-strength types of sports they recommended the use of a wide
r a n g e of special exercises, in cyclic sports — distances shorter
or longer t h a n the c o m p e t i t i o n ; and o v e r c o m i n g them faster or
slower than the competition.
However, the latest data shows that there is nothing more
special than the fundamental sport e x e r c i s e s , executed under con-
d i t i o n s c l o s e to t h e c o m p e t i t i o n c o n d i t i o n s . For example, the
results of three g r o u p s of c y c l i s t s doing e x p e r i m e n t a l training
on a s t a t i o n a r y bike at 1 km in the c o m p e t i t i o n period (May -
August). T h e g r o u p that u t i l i z e d the method o f m o d e l i n g c o m p e t i -
tion (1), showed the largest improvement (2.5 sec); displayed
lesser d i s p l a c e m e n t in c a r d i o - r e s p i r a t o r y s y s t e m s d u r i n g s t a n d a r -
dized loads and had higher functional indicators during maximum
loads (figure 1). The groups that trained according to
traditional methods (2 and 3) m a d e less improvement (2.1 and 0.3
sec respectively). G r o u p 3 having smaller c o m p e t i t i o n loading
than g r o u p 2, displayed lowered functional indicators.
Separate workouts for skiers, middle distance runners,
kayakers and c a n o e i s t s d e v o t e d to the regime of energy-securing
Figure 1. C h a n g e s in m a x i m u m c o n s u m p t i o n of 02 ( I ) , m a x i m u m O2
pulse (II), alactic (III), lactic (IV) and general a c i d i c (V)
debt in g r o u p s of c y c l i s t s (S. S. S e m a s h k o , 1 9 7 2 ) .

work that is nearest to c o m p e t i t i o n c o n d i t i o n s has been demon-

strated to be q u i t e a p p r o p r i a t e (T. M. Budykho, etal, 1978; A.
Yakimov, 1980; N. P. Chagovyets, etal, 1980). The e f f e c t i v e n e s s
of increasing the v o l u m e of training work for perfectioning
technical mastery under conditions c l o s e s t to competition (in
speed-strength types of sports), has been corroborated; for
example, e x e c u t i n g long jumps, pole v a u l t s or triple jumps w i t h a
full run-up (Y. V. V e r k h o s h a n s k y , 1967; V. M. Yagodin, 1975) or
hurdling at h i g h speed or d i s t a n c e s c l o s e to t h e competition (Z.
S. Struchkova, 1980; V. V. Balakhnichev, 1982).
In boxing, the most intense a e r o b i c e x c h a n g e is brought
a b o u t by s p e c i a l training means, c l o s e to c o m p e t i t i o n conditions,
— s h a d o w b o x i n g and s p a r r i n g (P. N. Repnikov, 1977). T h u s , no
selection of special and a s s i s t a n c e e x e r c i s e s can prepare the

4.
athlete for c o m p e t i t i o n as e f f e c t i v e l y as the fundamental sport
exercise. One should not confuse w a y s of m o d e l i n g competition
activities in training with previously accepted courses,
estimates, control of t r a i n i n g , etc. T h e latter w e r e intended as
t h e m a i n way of controlling technical m a s t e r y and checking on the
s p o r t s m a n ' s p r e p a r e d n e s s for c o m p e t i t i o n . However, they w e r e not
r e g a r d e d as a specialized form of preparing a t h l e t e s for competi-
tion .
In speaking of the a d v a n t a g e s of m o d e l i n g competition, in
training, it should be e m p h a s i z e d that this is only o n e method of
p r e p a r a t i o n and one of the w a y s of i n t e n s i f y i n g t r a i n i n g . It is
i m p o s s i b l e to o v e r e s t i m a t e its r o l e , but one can only utilize it
when working with h i g h l y - q u a l i f i e d a t h l e t e s and w i t h o u t losing
o n e ' s sense of p r o p o r t i o n , only w h e n the a t h l e t e has good t e c h n i -
cal and special physical-preparedness.
Lately, a t e n d e n c y to i n c r e a s e t h e portion of uni-direc-
tional training loads has been o b s e r v e d in the training of
highly-qualified athletes. In this c a s e , the training program
s t i p u l a t e s the m e a n s and m e t h o d s o r i e n t e d to resolving primarily,
one concrete task. For e x a m p l e , t h i s task is the p e r f e c t i o n i n g
of technical m a s t e r y or t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a certain m o t o r abil-
ity.
Uni-directional training loads as a m e t h o d i c a l way of train-
ing organization, previously did not further the traditional
complex preparation principle; in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h w h i c h , it is
considered appropriate to resolve s i m u l t a n e o u s l y (parallel) a
number of training tasks in o n e w o r k o u t as well as in the long-
term s t a g e s of t r a i n i n g . However, w i t h all of its advantages,
which have b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d in the training of m i d d l e and high
classification, the complex method (traditional meaning) is
already unsatisfactory.
T h e r e is a n o t i c e a b l e t e n d e n c y , in p r a c t i c e , to c o n c e n t r a t e
uni-directional training loads in certain stages of the yearly
cycle. This i n d i c a t e s that c o a c h e s , in searching for ways of
raising t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of training are overcoming established
traditions (especially, based on a formal u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the
p r i n c i p l e of c o m p l e x p r e p a r a t i o n ) and are finding m o r e rational
variants of training organization. There are as yet still
obvious errors in the organization of training of highly-
qualified sportsmen. The reasons for these e r r o r s are a s s o c i a t e d
with a lack of e x t e n s i v e , general, practical experience; and
coaches who are i n s u f f i c i e n t l y informed as to the a c h i e v e m e n t s of
sport science.
1.2 T r a i n i n g as an Object of M a n a g e m e n t
As already emphasized, programming and organization of
training require in-depth and c o m p r e h e n s i v e knowledge of the
essence of t r a i n i n g . It is a p p r o p r i a t e , t h e r e f o r e to examine
programming from the stand-point of management categories.
In the most g e n e r a l t e r m s , the e s s e n c e of m a n a g e m e n t is e x -
pressed in t h e c h a n g e s of state of t h e m a n a g e d object (systems,
processes) in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h some t a s k s ; the criterion of e f f e c -
tiveness is its f u n c t i o n i n g or d e v e l o p m e n t . Consequently, for
practical r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e idea of m a n a g e m e n t , it is first of
all necessary to c o n c r e t i z e n o t i o n s about the s t r u c t u r e of the
m a n a g e d o b j e c t and a b o u t t h e r e g u l a r i t i e s of transferring it from
o n e state to a n o t h e r . S a t i s f y i n g this r e q u i r e m e n t d e p e n d s on the
scientific, just p r o p o r t i o n of t h e theory of management; con-
creteness; a sense of the s t r i c t n e s s of the conceptual apparatus,
and finally, its p r a c t i c a l effectiveness.
Let's look at the logical scheme of training organization
for classifying and c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the object of m a n a g e m e n t in
sports (figure 2). T r a i n i n g is o r g a n i z e d in accordance with
specific, purposeful tasks, w h i c h are c o n c r e t e l y e x p r e s s e d by a
set increase in sport r e s u l t s ; and are conditioned by the
necessity for their r e a l i z a t i o n in the training p r o g r a m . Thus,
the amount of i m p r o v e m e n t in sport r e s u l t s is the criterion of
the e f f e c t i v e n s s of t r a i n i n g . Sport r e s u l t s a r e the product of
the o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e c o m p l e x of the sportsmen's external in-
fluences. In o t h e r w o r d s , this is the product of such an organi-
zation of m o v e m e n t s and d i s p l a c e m e n t s of the athlete, which
secures for h i m the e f f e c t i v e u t i l i z a t i o n of his strength and
motor potential for resolution of the specific m o t o r t a s k s .

6.
 An ordering of the external influences and an i n c r e a s e in
the portion of t h o s e f o r c e s w h i c h directly contribute to the
resolution of the m o t o r tasks is an important condition for the
progress of sport mastery; realized w i t h i n the confines of
technical and tactical preparation. Therefore, the complex of
the a t h l e t e ' s e x t e r n a l i n f l u e n c e s inherent to c o m p e t i t i o n , should
be c l a s s i f i e d as the first object of m a n a g e m e n t in the system of
sport training.
T h e h i g h e r the sportsman's motor potential, the m o r e e f f e c -
tively the c o m p l e x of external interactions can be organized.
That is to say, o v e r a period of m a n y - y e a r s t r a i n i n g , athletes
work at p e r f e c t i o n i n g their motor potential and increase their
specific work-capacity. Therefore, the a t h l e t e ' s s t a t e , as a
c u r r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of his m o t o r p o t e n t i a l , should be c l a s s i -
fied as t h e second o b j e c t of m a n a g e m e n t in t h e system of sport
training.*
The complex of e x t e r n a l i n t e r a c t i o n s and the sportsman's
state a r e e s t a b l i s h e d in the n e c e s s a r y d i r e c t i o n , as a result of
the s y s t e m a t i c s p e c i a l i z a t i o n of t h e m o t o r a c t i v i t i e s . T h e lat-
ter provides a number of s p e c i f i c training influences, organized

7.
in such a way as to s e c u r e the required a l t e r a t i o n s in the com-
plex of e x t e r n a l i n f l u e n c e s and the s p o r t s m a n ' s state. Conse-
quently, specialized motor activities, or as it is customary to
say, the training load, is the third object of m a n a g e m e n t in the
system of sport t r a i n i n g . Thus, the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d o b j e c t s in
their aggregate r e p r e s e n t an intricate, hierarchially organized
complex of o b j e c t s , u n d e r g o i n g d i r e c t e d c h a n g e s in the p r o c e s s of
sport t r a i n i n g . In t r a i n i n g , the ordered influences a d d r e s s all
three c o m p o n e n t s of t h e m a n a g e m e n t of a complex object simultane-
ously. However, t h e basis for c h a n g e s of state in the c o u r s e of
training is a s p e c i f i c , cyclical s e q u e n c e of e v e n t s . T h e dosage
of the t r a i n i n g load is a s s i g n e d , under the i n f l u e n c e of which,
changes in the s p o r t s m a n ' s state o c c u r ; w h i c h in t u r n , entails
c h a n g e s in the c o m p l e x of external i n t e r a c t i o n s of the athlete
and a c o r r e s p o n d i n g increase in sport results.

When t h e p l a n n e d r e s u l t s a r e a c h i e v e d , the subsequent m a g n i -

tude of increase and new, h i g h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the sports-
man's state are set. Based on t h i s , the program and the
organization of the loading a r e d e t e r m i n e d for the next stage of
training; and, the sequential execution of the aforementioned
conditions are repeated at h i g h e r q u a l i t a t i v e and quantitative
levels. T h e c y c l i c a l n e s s of this p r o c e s s in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h ac-
ceptable (in each type of sport J periodization, m a k e s - u p the con-
tents of the sportsman's preparation.

C o m p l e t i o n of the tasks, executed at the separate components

of the complex o b j e c t of m a n a g e m e n t level, gives rise to an
intricate d y n a m i c c o m p l e x of cause-effect relations b e t w e e n them;
which ought to be c o n s i d e r e d the s t r u c t u r e of t h e m a n a g e d object;
securing its functional integrity. Thus, the a g g r e g a t e of the
components of the c o m p l e x o b j e c t of m a n a g e m e n t , w i t h t h e cause-
effect c o n n e c t i o n s inherent to it, is represented as a managed
system (i.e., as a p h e n o m e n o n , possessing all of the features of
the w h o l e , existing and c h a n g i n g as a w h o l e ) .

As management begins -- the system w h i c h is the key to its

development is the t r a i n i n g program; consisting of all of the
tasks of t r a i n i n g , motivation, direction of the a t h l e t e ' s person-

8
ality and social factors, expressing (and u n i f y i n g ) the interests
of the a t h l e t e , coach, sport c o l l e c t i v e , as well as the practical
e x p e r i e n c e and theoretical knowledge refracted in the p r i n c i p l e s ,
methods and forms of training c o n s t r u c t i o n . In orienting the
c o u r s e of t r a i n i n g c o n c r e t e l y , model characteristics (quantita-
tive parameters) are a s s i g n e d , relating to the training load, the
athlete's state and t h e system of his external interactions (see
figure 2 ) .
The main idea of managing training c o n s i s t s of changing the
state of t h e system, i.e., in t h e uni-directional t r a n s f e r to a
n e w , higher (and p l a n n e d e a r l i e r ) , functional level. Control of
the course of this p r o c e s s is a c c o m p l i s h e d by a s s e s s m e n t s of the
effect, a c h i e v e d p r i m a r i l y at two levels of m a n a g e m e n t — at the
s t a t e of the a t h l e t e level (control of the affect of the loading
on s t a t e ) and at the external i n t e r a c t i o n s of t h e a t h l e t e level
(control of the c h a n g e in their c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as a result of
c h a n g e s of s t a t e ) . Based on a c o m p a r i s o n of e f f e c t s , a c h i e v e d at
the levels indicated w i t h model characteristics, suitable solu-
tions are begun to later tactically manage the course of
training.
Now let's sum up an a n a l y s i s of the c o n t e n t s and organiza-
tion of training.
1. First of a l l , the role of transmission of functions
between t h e c o m p o n e n t s of the complex m a n a g e d object is e x e c u t e d
by t h e t r a i n i n g p o t e n t i a l and the training effect of the loading.
The t r a i n i n g potential of the loading is understood to m e a n its
potential to p r o v o k e a functional a c c o m m o d a t i v e reaction from the
body, and c o r r e s p o n d i n g c h a n g e s in its state; and c o n s e q u e n t l y ,
in the c o m p l e x of its external interactions. The training poten-
tial of t h e loading is a r e l a t i v e c o n c e p t ; it should be e x a m i n e d
and assessed in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the sportsman's current state.
Assessment of the training e f f e c t of t h e loading means one
envisions that t r a i n i n g - e f f e c t , the loading can p r o d u c e in each
concrete case. The training-effect is identified w i t h relatively
s t a b i l e functional displacements within the o r g a n i s m , a c h i e v e d as
a result of any training p r o g r a m . T h e b a s i s for t h e training-
effect is the g e n e r a l i z e d (cumulative) traces within the organ-
ism, remaining from the e n t i r e c o m p l e x of training influences.
The substantive meaning, e n c o m p a s s e d by the concepts of
"training potential" and "training e f f e c t " of the loading has
principal s i g n i f i c a n c e for p r o g r a m m i n g training. This will be
examined in m o r e detail later.

2. The c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the e n t r a n c e and exit of m a n a g e -

ment s y s t e m s is an e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y complex m e d i a t i o n . T h e extent
of this c o n n e c t i o n is d e t e r m i n e d p r i m a r i l y by the effectiveness
of the o p e r a t i o n s at two i n t e r d e p e n d e n t o u t l i n e s of regulation
(see figure 2): "the t r a i n i n g load — the training potential of
the loading — the sportsman's state" (outline A) and "the
sportsman's state — the training effect of the loading — the
e x t e r n a l i n t e r a c t i o n s o f the a t h l e t e " (outline B ) . Assessment of
the prognostical r e l i a b i l i t y and the p r o b a b i l i t y of success of
regulation at each o u t l i n e , s h o w s o n e can be c e r t a i n that the
lower the first ones (A), the w e a k e r the link in the m a n a g e m e n t
system.

3. Necessity in m a n a g e m e n t a r i s e s w h e n there is a selection

problem. In such s i t u a t i o n s s u c c e s s d e p e n d s on t h e degree of
probability of a d o p t i n g t h e o p t i m a l from the m u l t i t u d e of p o s s i -
ble solutions.
T h e coach is c o n f r o n t e d w i t h the n e c e s s i t y to t a k e a number
of important s t r a t e g i c steps, relative to programming training,
its organization, method of c o n t r o l and in c a s e the necessity
arises, c o r r e c t i n g its c o u r s e . He has to o b j e c t i v e l y a s s e s s the
specific situation, analyze everything in-depth, and, based o n
innumerable variables, foresee t h e p o s s i b l e o u t c o m e of each and
to select the most u s e f u l . It is easy to p r e s e n t the complex
responsibility of a d o p t i n g s o l u t i o n s a c c o r d i n g to the positions
indicated; each of w h i c h , in its turn s u g g e s t s the a c c e p t a n c e of
a complex of m o r e p a r t i a l solutions.
T h e complexity of a c c e p t i n g s o l u t i o n s is a s s o c i a t e d first of
all with the very w e a k basis that the coach is disposed to
a n a l y z e all of the p o s s i b l e v a r i a n t s . Therefore, frequently he
needs to accept a s o l u t i o n based on vague a s s e s s m e n t s of the

10.
situation; and t h e low p r o b a b i l i t y of prognosing its outcome;
which naturally, has a very low g u a r a n t e e of success. To o v e r -
come this d i f f i c u l t y it is necessary for the coach to be armed
w i t h a c o m p l e x of k n o w l e d g e w h i c h should be o r i e n t e d first of all
to solving the p r o b l e m of programming training.
1.3 Scientific P r e r e q u i s i t e s of Programming and Organiza-
tion of Training
Our o u t l i n e of the general t r a i t s of the c o n c r e t e sphere of
requirements for theoretical knowledge, w h i c h is an obligatory
condition for a successful solution to the problem of programming
and organization of training, cannot be secured only by the
synthesis of a c h i e v e m e n t s of v a r i o u s scientific disciplines or
the results of individual, f r a g m e n t s of research. A uni-direc-
tional, c o m p l e x s e a r c h is required, o r i e n t e d to the c r e a t i o n of
concepts about PASM (the P r o c e s s of Attaining Sport Mastery,
Ed.), and the elucidation of those objective, necessary condi-
tions, which determine its d e v e l o p m e n t .
A p r e l i m i n a r y e x a m i n a t i o n of the problem, which arises in
connection with programming and o r g a n i z a t i o n of training, already
enables one to d e t e r m i n e the goal of the task and the fundamental
direction of the n e c e s s a r y s c i e n t i f i c search; as well as the
s p e c i f i c s o f the k n o w l e d g e required (figure 3).
We will not d e s c r i b e the scheme in m i n u t e d e t a i l . Its mean-
ing and contents are s u f f i c i e n t l y clear and their analysis is
another m a t t e r . We e m p h a s i z e only that in the vertical sections
of the s c h e m e , the fundamental d i r e c t i o n of the s c i e n t i f i c search
(programming, o r g a n i z a t i o n and m a n a g e m e n t ) in the a r e a of train-
ing construction, c o r r e s p o n d s to those s c i e n t i f i c s e c t i o n s and
the s e c t i o n s on t h e o r y of training c o n s t r u c t i o n , require study.
The disposition of these directions along the horizontal,
reflects a certain logical s e q u e n t i a l n e s s and c o n t i n u i t y in the
study and the p r a c t i c a l solution of the p r o b l e m . As a w h o l e it
foresees the f o r m u l a t i o n of general theories of training con-
struction, its c o n c r e t i z a t i o n , in view of partial c o n c e p t i o n s for
different types of sports; and p r i n c i p l e s of i n d i v i d u a l i z i n g the
t r a i n i n g of athletes.

11.
 It is important to point-out that the d i r e c t i o n s of the
scientific search represented by this scheme require other, in
c o m p a r i s o n w i t h the p a s t , "visions" of o b j e c t i v e research and the
correct methodical o r i e n t a t i o n to study. Such o b j e c t s a r e the
unity of the integral c o r e of r e g u l a r i t i e s of the process of
a t t a i n i n g sport m a s t e r y in all of its individual e x p r e s s i o n s ; as
d e t e r m i n e d by the s p e c i f i c type of s p o r t . As a r e s u l t , new pro-
blems and tasks confront the s p e c i a l i s t s , emanating from the
necessity to reveal the factors which d e t e r m i n e the integrity of
this p r o c e s s and the causual c o n d i t i o n s d e t e r m i n i n g it. All of
this requires a complex approach to the o r g a n i z a t i o n of research,
without allowing those methodical errors which, unfortunately
w e r e the a s s u m p t i o n s of the p r e c e d i n g 10-years.
In sport p h y s i o l o g y e s p e c i a l l y , a certain d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of
professional interests of specialists takes-place, which divides
the human o r g a n i s m into two p a r t s . Some of these specialists
limit their study p r i m a r i l y to the n e u r o - m u s c u l a r a p p a r a t u s and
the m e c h a n i s m of its regulation from the s t a n d - p o i n t of the C N S ;
s e l e c t i n g as a model object s p e e d - s t r e n g t h and complex-technical
types of s p o r t s . Others focus their interests on the v e g e t a t i v e
s y s t e m s and m e t a b o l i c p r o c e s s e s c o n d i t i o n i n g success in primarily
c y c l i c types of sports.
Such specialization is q u i t e natural for science, but is
effective and accessible only in the presence of unified
theoretical-methodical conceptions, w h i c h first, organize and
orient the s c i e n t i f i c search and second, assess, summarize and
integrate the factors o b t a i n e d . The lacking of such c o n c e p t i o n s
and independent activities in the organization of research
strongly u n i f i e s the a c h i e v e m e n t s in the area of sport physiology
and not a l w a y s s t a t i s f i e s p r a c t i c e , e s p e c i a l l y in those instances
w h e r e general methodical p r i n c i p l e s or r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s are formed
based on the r e s u l t s of partial or fragments of research.
More than a n y t h i n g , the scientific-methodical fundamentals
of the d e v e l o p m e n t of e n d u r a n c e s u f f e r . On o n e s i d e , attention
is c e n t e r e d on the m e c h a n i s m of e n e r g y - a c q u i s i t i o n , ignoring the
specific morpho-functional s p e c i a l i z a t i o n inherent t o t h e muscle

13.
apparatus (as the immediate e x e c u t o r of work); and endurance
results are c o n s i d e r e d e x c l u s i v e l y as a function of the r e s p i r a -
tory potential of the organism. Therefore, physiologists
experienced some c o n f u s i o n when i n f o r m a t i o n was revealed about
the d e c r e a s e in MOC (Maximum Oxygen C o n s u m p t i o n ) d u r i n g the com-
petition period; and the astonishingly low MOC levels in repre-
s e n t a t i v e s of c y c l i c s p o r t s . However, this would not h a v e been
u n a n t i c i p a t e d if in the w o r d s of N. A. Bernstein, they "stepped
down to the e n g i n e room" and c a r e f u l l y examined what h a p p e n s with
the c o n t r a c t i l e and m e t a b o l i c q u a l i t i e s of an a t h l e t e ' s muscles
who specializes in e n d u r a n c e sports.
The methodical area of sport training t h e o r y a l s o is not
without superfluous expenditures. Here there is a similar
division in the i n t e r e s t s of specialists, who give preference
primarily to s p e e d - s t r e n g t h or c y c l i c types of s p o r t s . Such a
professional (but nevertheless justified) s p e c i a l i z a t i o n cannot
be condemned, unless those and o t h e r s p e c i a l i s t s limit their
theoretico-methodical generalizations to "their" types of sport.
However, s i n c e only they d e c i d e to form general training princi-
ples, the o n e - s i d e d n e s s of this a p p r o a c h a f f e c t s those to whom it
is addressed.
A definite weakness in the m e t h o d i c s area of modern sport
training t h e o r y is t h e result of an u n d e r e s t i m a t i o n of undoubted-
ly important information, obtained as result of p h y s i o l o g i c a l and
biochemical research in sport; as well as the result of the
little scientific volume, low i n f o r m a t i v e n e s s and r e l i a b i l i t y of
that factual material, from w h i c h is drawn the b a s i s for g e n e r a l -
ization and formation of m e t h o d i c a l principles. Up to now this
was the chief way of a n a l y z i n g the v o l u m e s and the dynamics of
training. This w a s called g e n e r a l i z e d practical e x p e r i e n c e and
up until now such w o r k s u n d o u b t e d l y played an important role in
furthering the d e v e l o p m e n t of e s t a b l i s h e d p r i n c i p l e s and training
methods; as well as for s t i m u l a t i n g the c r e a t i v i t y of coaches.
However, since the r e g u l a r i t i e s of training construction were
d e v e l o p e d solely from this material, the scientific significance
of the p r i n c i p l e s and recommendations issuing from this w e r e sig-
nificantly underestimated.
Methodological e r r o r s are a p p a r e n t l y , natural in the forma-
tion of such a c o m p l e x a p p l i e d - s c i e n c e as the t h e o r y of sport
training. However, in the future and especially when t h e o r i e s
and m e t h o d s of p r o g r a m m i n g training are being developed, errors
are not p e r m i t t e d . Therefore, the best way to avoid such e r r o r s
in t h e future is to study t h e causes for them.
1.4 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of Sports
The working-out of p r i n c i p l e s and rules of programming
training requires a clear-cut d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the limits of
g e n e r a l i t y and s p e c i f i c i t y w i t h respect to individual sport dis-
c i p l i n e s or their h o m o g e n e o u s g r o u p s . To do this it is necessary
to classify types of sports based on established p r i n c i p l e s in
o r d e r to solve the problem of p r o g r a m m i n g c r i t e r i a .
A t h l e t i c s is a s s o c i a t e d first of a l l , with the n e c e s s i t y of
rational s p a t i a l - t i m e o r g a n i z a t i o n of the athlete's movements,
which is d e t e r m i n e d by the rules and c o n d i t i o n s of c o m p e t i t i o n on
the one hand and by t h e n e c e s s i t y to e f f e c t i v e l y utilize one's
motor potential for e x e c u t i n g the motor t a s k s . In all cases,
this r e q u i r e s t h e p e r f e c t i o n i n g of t h e c e n t r a l - n e u r a l mechanism
controlling movement, a raising of the functional potential of
the muscles and t h e system of energy-acquisition. Since the
c h a r a c t e r of sport a c t i v i t i e s is e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y d i v e r s e w i t h re-
spect to t h e o r g a n i s m ' s w o r k r e g i m e , it is a p p r o p r i a t e to seek
for the c r i t e r i a for t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of sports in t h e parti-
cular organization of the a t h l e t e ' s m o v e m e n t s and the primary
role of those or any of t h e o r g a n i s m ' s functional systems in
securing their working-effect.
The more p r o l o n g e d and the lesser the intensity of m u s c u l a r
work, the g r e a t e r t h e r o l e of the a e r o b i c p r o c e s s e s ; the g r e a t e r
the functional specialization of the muscles to more fully
utilize o x y g e n . T h e role of the g l y c o l y t i c m e c h a n i s m s of energy
a c q u i s t i o n g r o w s as the length of w o r k d e c r e a s e s and the p o w e r of
muscular work increases. The m u s c l e s adapt to work c o n d i t i o n s of
an inadequate supply of o x y g e n and to the rapid removal of
lactate d u r i n g t h e e x e c u t i o n of this w o r k .
 The o v e r l o a d i n g of the s u p p o r t - a p p a r a t u s and t h e power of
"explosive" effort i n c r e a s e s i g n i f i c a n t l y d u r i n g brief acyclic
work. U n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f high, dynamic-overload, a t h l e t e s must
overcome significant external resistance; which they must accom-
p l i s h in only a very s h o r t t i m e (tenths and even h u n d r e t h s of a
second). This complicates movement coordination significantly
and at the same time r e q u i r e s t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of a rational and
reliable biodynamic structure. Under these conditions, the
neuro-muscular apparatus improves intra-muscular r e g u l a t i o n and
i n c r e a s e s t h e power of a n a e r o b i c s o u r c e s of energy-acqusition.
Thus, o n e can d i v i d e types of s p o r t s into t w o large g r o u p s ;
w h i c h combine a c y c l i c and cyclic l o c o m o t i o n . The first is char-
acterized by a c o m p l e x o r g a n i z a t i o n of m o t o r c o m p o n e n t s and a
high concentration of working-effort, displayed b r i e f l y under
competition conditions. Such sports have an inherently stabile
biodynamic movement s t r u c t u r e and a d e f i n i t e morpho-functional
s p e c i a l i z a t i o n of the neuro-muscular apparatus, which encompases
the p e r f e c t i o n i n g of its a b i l i t i e s to d i s p l a y p o w e r f u l explosive-
e f f o r t and the e n h a n c e m e n t of anaerobic power; p r i m a r i l y through
the alactic mechanism of energy-acqusition.
The second g r o u p is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by multiple (prolonged)
repetition of stereotypic work cycles of relatively simple
organization and not r e q u i r i n g limit muscular tension. The
energy acquired for s u c h w o r k comes p r i m a r i l y from the oxygen
required d u r i n g the w o r k and the r e s t o r a t i o n of e n e r g y r e s o u r c e s ,
r e l a t i v e to t h e i r e x p e n d i t u r e . One of the most important c o n d i -
tions for increasing m a s t e r y in t h i s g r o u p of sports is the
morpho-functiona1 s p e c i a l i z a t i o n of t h e m u s c l e s , aimed at p e r f e c -
tioning the ability to oxidize metabolites, as well as to
increase the c a p a c i t y of t h e m e t a b o l i c p r o c e s s e s and economical-
n e s s o f e n e r g y s u b s t r a t e e x p e n d i t u r e during w o r k .
One should s u b d i v i d e t y p e s of s p o r t s in each g r o u p , having
specific p e c u l i a r i t i e s of movement o r g a n i z a t i o n and e n e r g y - a c q u i -
sition. Thus, in the acyclic g r o u p — this type of sport
requires powerful, brief, e x p l o s i v e - e f f o r t s or a fine dosing of
e f f o r t s and s p a t i a l l y p r e c i s e m o v e m e n t s . In the cyclical group
there a r e t y p e s of s p o r t s w h e r e the w o r k is executed under con-
ditions of full o x y g e n satiation or inadequate oxygen acquisi-
tion .
And finally, o n e should d e s i g n a t e a third g r o u p of sports,
characterized by c h a n g i n g c o m p e t i t i o n s i t u a t i o n s and the neces-
sity to p r e s e r v e a h i g h w o r k - c a p a c i t y - l e v e l under c o n d i t i o n s of
compensatory fatigue. T h e s e types of s p o r t s are combined accord-
ing to the p e c u l i a r i t i e s of the o r g a n i z a t i o n of motor a c t i v i t i e s
and e n e r g y - a c q u s i t i o n , p r i m a r i l y inherent t o t h e aforementioned
two groups. The d e t e r m i n i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of these are the
b i o d y n a m i c s t r u c t u r e of the t e c h n i c a l m e a n s and at the s a m e t i m e ,
their wide variability; c r e a t i n g the necessity of extensive
a d a p t a t i o n of the e n t i r e t e c h n i q u e arsenal to constantly changing
situations. With respect to the shifting intensity of the com-
petition activities, as well as the s e q u e n c i n g of high motor
activeness with full rest p a u s e s , e n e r g y - a c q u i s i t i o n is of a
mixed a e r o b i c - a n a e r o b i c c h a r a c t e r , w i t h the g r e a t e r part secured
by glycolytic reactions.
So, we come to c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , dividing types of s p o r t s into
three g r o u p s as a l r e a d y o u t l i n e d by V. S. Farefel (1969):
-- a c y c l i c , in w h i c h t h e p e r f e c t i o n i n g of the m o t o r - a p p a r a -
tus for precise r e g u l a t i o n of m o v e m e n t s and the ability to
e x e c u t e w o r k i n g - e f f o r t s of great power have the p r i m a r y r o l e ;
-- cyclic (primarily submaximal and of moderate power),
primarily associated with the achievement of muscular work
t h r o u g h o x y g e n - a c q u s i t i o n (aerobic, Ed.);
-- combined (complex), w h e r e there is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y a
h i g h v a r i a b i l i t y of m o t o r actions under c o n d i t i o n s of compensa-
tory fatigue and s h i f t i n g i n t e n s i t y of work; basically sport
g a m e s and single-combat (boxing, e t c . , E d . ) .
W h e n c l a s s i f y i n g t y p e s of sports it is n e c e s s a r y to consider
the specifics of c o m p e t i t i o n as well as training activities.
This is i m p o r t a n t , b e c a u s e in a number of cases the latter con-
sist of work regimes that a r e far removed from those which are
i n h e r e n t to c o m p e t i t i o n c o n d i t i o n s . This is d u e to the necessity
of multiple and qualitative reproduction of the competition
regime in t r a i n i n g . In p r a c t i c e , they speak of special {speed,
jumping, strength) e n d u r a n c e in such c a s e s . For e x a m p l e , the
shortest s p r i n t e r s ' d i s t a n c e in track and field (100 m e t e r s ) is
c o v e r e d in 10 s e c o n d s , or as they say, in o n e b r e a t h . T h e effort
expended to do this d o e s not result in a high o x y g e n debt, and
oxygen-acqusition is not a factor. However, in o r d e r for a
sprinter to p r e p a r e himself to e f f e c t i v e l y d i s p l a y s u c h effort,
he should execute training loads that d e v e l o p his aerobic and
expecially, anaerobic potential. W e will examine g e n e r a l tenets
and principles of programming training in c o n f o r m i t y with the
a f o r e m e n t i o n e d g r o u p s of sport types later o n .

Chapter 2
R e g u l a r i t i e s of the Process of
Attaining Sport Mastery

E l a b o r a t i o n of theories and practical m e t h o d s of programming

training, as h a s a l r e a d y been said, a r e only p o s s i b l e w i t h know-
ledge about the r e g u l a r i t i e s of t h e p r o c e s s of attaining sport
mastery (PASM) and the c o n d i t i o n s securing the uni-directional,
conscientious realization of these regularities. Therefore, re-
turning to the scheme p r e s e n t e d in figure 3, let's e x a m i n e the
general regularities of the l o n g - t e r m a d a p t a t i o n of the human
o r g a n i s m to intense m u s c u l a r w o r k , as well as some q u a n t i t a t i v e -
time characteristics of the a d a p t a t i o n p r o c e s s ; having direct
relevance to the p r o b l e m of programming training. Then we'll
look at the specific regularities of the morpho-functional
specialization of the o r g a n i s m as a c o n c r e t e e x t e r n a l expression
of the organism's l o n g - t e r m a d a p t a t i o n t o intense m u s c u l a r work.
Finally, we'll look at some of the r e g u l a r i t i e s of the formation
of s p o r t - t e c h n i c a l m a s t e r y in d i f f e r e n t types of sport, charac-
terizing the process whereby the a t h l e t e m a s t e r s t h e skill to
r a t i o n a l l y utilize h i s m o t o r potential in a t h l e t i c e v e n t s .
2.1 General R e g u l a r i t i e s of the A t h l e t e ' s Adaptation to
Intense M u s c u l a r W o r k

18.
 In a broad s e n s e , a d a p t a t i o n is understood as the o r g a n i s m ' s
a c c o m m o d a t i o n to n a t u r a l , production, d o m e s t i c and other c o n d i -
tions. T h e s e general term d e s i g n a t e s all types of a c c o m m o d a t i v e
a c t i v i t i e s o c c u r r i n g at the c e l l u l a r , organ, system and o r g a n i s m
levels; c o m m e n s u r a b l e by the p r o l o n g e d , w i t h the e x i s t a n c e of a
number of generations, life of the individual or its separate
periods (F. 2. M e e r s o n , 1 9 7 3 ; G. I. T s a r e g o r o d t s e v , 1975; A. G.
Kuznyetsov, etal, 1979; V. P. K a z n a c h e y e v , 1980).
Adaptation, as a p h e n o m e n o n of a c c o m m o d a t i o n , characterizes
the o r g a n i s m ' s e n t i r e reaction, reflecting the specific features
of the e x t e r n a l influences. However, along with t h e d i f f e r e n c e s
resulting from specific influencing factors (cold, hypoxia,
intense muscular work, etc.), the m e c h a n i s m o f adaptation is
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by an e x p r e s s e d g e n e r a l i t y (F. Z. Meerson, 1973; V.
P. Kaznacheyev, 1980). This g e n e r a l i t y is as f o l l o w s ; one and
the same d i s p l a c e m e n t arises in the cells of many physiological
systems — a deficit of energy rich p h o s p h o r u s c o m p o u n d s and an
increased potential for p h o s p h o r y l a t i o n . This activates the
genetic a p p a r a t u s of t h e cells and c a u s e s a s t r e n g t h e n i n g of the
s y n t h e s i s of n u c l e i c acids and p r o t e i n . As a result of t h e in-
creased p o w e r of the m i t o c h o n d r i a l systems, the m a n u f a c t u r e of
adenosinetriphosphate (ATP) increases and the d e f i c i t of ATP is
eliminated.
Later on, biogenic activation of all the cells of the
physiological systems develops, which leads to a d e c r e a s e in the
intensity of their functioning, i.e., a decreased c o n s u m p t i o n of
ATP by the unity of cell m a s s e s . A stabile a d a p t a t i o n d e v e l o p s
as a result of structural alterations; which provides an increase
in the power of the t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s , u t i l i z a t i o n of o x y g e n and
r e s y n t h e s i s of A T P . The chain of e v e n t s d i s c u s s e d is presented
as a fundamental, g e n e r a l - l i n k - m e c h a n i s m of a d a p t a t i o n to the
basic factors of t h e external surroundings. A d a p t a t i o n has its
own "cost", s i n c e the s y n t h e s i s of nucleic acids and proteins,
comprising the f o u n d a t i o n of a d a p t a t i o n ; means there is a s i g n i -
ficant expenditure of the organism's structural resources.
Therefore, to control the a d a p t a t i o n a l processes the correct

19
dosage of f a c t o r s to w h i c h the o r g a n i s m a d a p t s is of principal
s i g n i f i c a n c e (F. Z. M e e r s o n , 1 9 7 3 ) .
The c h a r a c t e r of t h e " u n f o l d i n g " a d a p t i v e p r o c e s s has its
own p e c u l i a r i t i e s , w h i c h can be d e s c r i b e d by t w o e x t r e m e v a r i a n t s
(V. P. K a z n a c h e y e v , 1980). In o n e of t h e s e v a r i a n t s , the o r g a n -
ism is capable of powerful physiological reactions in r e s p o n s e to
significant, but brief, f l u c t u a t i o n s in t h e e x t e r n a l s u r r o u n d -
ings. The regeneration-synthesis processes (the restoration
reaction) will join in after "freeing" the organism from the
extreme influences. However, physiological r e a c t i o n s can be
maintained at such a high level only a relatively short time.
Such organisms adapt p o o r l y t o p r o l o n g e d p h y s i o l o g i c a l overload
of e v e n m o d e r a t e m a g n i t u d e , w i t h respect to external factors. In
p e o p l e w h o m such an a d a p t a t i o n s t r a t e g y p r e d o m i n a t e s , the simul-
taneous combination of t h e w o r k and restoration processes are
expressed w e a k e r and a sharper rhythmicity is required for the
processes indicated (breaking-down o v e r t i m e ) .
In the o t h e r c a s e t h e o r g a n i s m is less stable to b r i e f , sig-
n i f i c a n t f l u c t u a t i o n s of the s u r r o u n d i n g s , but has the q u a l i t i e s
to maintain the p h y s i o l o g i c a l loading for a long time. The
organism's adaptive reconstruction is d e t e r m i n e d by the timely
joining in of t h e r e g e n e r a t i o n - s y n t h e t i c p r o c e s s e s , their e x p r e s -
s i v e n e s s and d u r a t i o n . In p e o p l e w i t h such a d a p t i v e strategies
the work processes combine easier with the r e s t o r a t i o n p r o c e s s e s ,
which permits prolonged loading.
A person's affinity for a c e r t a i n t y p e of adaptive strategy
is p r e d e t e r m i n e d by g e n e t i c s , c l i m a t o - g e o g r a p h i c s and other fac-
tors. For e x a m p l e , a t h l e t e s from the Siberian and far eastern
r e g i o n s w i t h s t a n d brief and prolonged physical loading different-
ly than European athletes; apparently, this is due to the
d i f f e r e n t types of e n e r g y e x c h a n g e s peculiar to them (D. S. Timo-
feyev, 1974).
Our own d a t a (1979) on the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d types of adaptive
strategies, typical of a t h l e t i c s , indicates they are d e t e r m i n e d
by the a t h l e t e ' s q u a l i f i c a t i o n and the specific type of sport.
Thus, we find the first type of s t r a t e g y primarily in h i g h l y -

20.
qualified a t h l e t e s and c h i e f l y in s p e e d - s t r e n g t h types of sports
(figure 4, A). As a result of using load volumes requiring
i n t e n s e m o b i l i z a t i o n of e n e r g y r e s o u r c e s (figure 4, d a r k a r r o w s ) ,
a lengthy and e x t e n s i v e d i s r u p t i o n of homeostasis occurs, and as
a c o n s e q u e n c e a p r o l o n g e d d e c r e a s e in functional indicators (f).
Then after the v o l u m e has been d e c r e a s e d , and as a result of
a c t i v a t i o n of the p l a s t i c r e s o u r c e s (figure 4, broken arrows)
they (functional indicators) should rise sharply.

Figure 4. T w o t y p e s of t h e o r g a n i s m ' s a d a p t a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s to
loading d e p e n d i n g on its time o r g a n i z a t i o n .

21
 The second type of adaptation stretegy is typical of
a t h l e t e s of m i d d l e - q u a l i f i c a t i o n and c h i e f l y for c y c l i c types of
sports, single-combat and sport games (figure 4, B ) . In this
case, w i t h the g r a d u a l i n c r e a s e in the loading, there is a p l a c e
for p e r i o d i c , brief d i s t u r b a n c e of h o m e o s t a s i s w h e r e t h e r e is an
alternation in the a c t i v a t i o n of energy and plastic resources.
T h e current e x p e n d i t u r e of energy resources is c o m p e n s a t e d for by
some excess from the initial level; and the o r g a n i s m ' s functional
potential gradually increases.
Thus, in general terms, the chief biological m e c h a n i s m of
a d a p t a t i o n has b e e n g i v e n e n o u g h space. There is s u f f i c i e n t rea-
son to assume that this mechanism is the basis for the
d e v e l o p m e n t of trainability, over the course of m a n y - y e a r s train-
ing. Specialists, studying man's long-term a d a p t a t i o n t o v a r i o u s
factors of the external e n v i r o n m e n t and extreme influences, often
turn to a t h l e t i c s as m o d e l s of specific activities, associated
w i t h intense m u s c u l a r w o r k (F. Z. M e e r s o n , 1973; Y. A. M o t o r i n ,
1971; D. S. T i m o f e y e v , e t a l , 1 9 7 4 ; I. D. Postov, 1979; V. P. K a z -
nacheyev, 1980, and others). However, since this is not
surprising, the p r o b l e m of long-term a d a p t a t i o n , in e s s e n c e , is
still not a subject of special study in the area of a t h l e t i c s .
True, the view of sport training as a p r o c e s s of a d a p t a t i o n
to physical loading has been d e v e l o p e d in the s c i e n t i f i c - m e t h o d i -
cal literature repeatedly, but c h i e f l y in an e x p l a n a t o r y c o n t e x t .
It is a s s u m e d , that the e x h a u s t i o n of e n e r g y r e s o u r c e s brought
on by p h y s i c a l loading (disturbing h o m e o s t a s i s ) is a causual con-
dition of the s u r p l u s r e s t o r a t i o n of energy resources and the
transfer of the o r g a n i s m to a new, higher level of special w o r k -
capacity (N. N. Y a k o v l e v , 1 9 5 3 , 1 9 5 8 , 1971; S. P. L e t u n o v , 1966;
L. Y. Y e v g e n y e v a , e t a l , 1975; A. A. V i r u , 1 9 7 7 , 1 9 6 0 ; A. N. V o r o -
byev, 1977). However, the s p e c i f i c p e c u l i a r i t i e s of the a d a p t a -
tion p r o c e s s o v e r m a n y - y e a r s t r a i n i n g , its c o n c r e t e q u a n t i t a t i v e -
time characteristics, dynamics and primary emphasis, still
require their own explanation.

In athletics, e x t e n s i v e e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a has b e e n accumu-

lated, concerning the nature of the restoration processes and the
organism's functional reaction after brief training influences
(the "urgent" training effect). It has been shown that the
after-effect of large loading is not limited to the restoration
of expended-energy-potential, but leads to super-restoration,
quantitatively exceeding the initial level. This phenomenon
(Weigert's law of super-compensation) originated with G. V.
Folbrot (1941, 1952, 1958), and has been studied by v a r i o u s s p e -
cialists. A principal and in s e p a r a t e cases a quantitative
connection between the p r o c e s s e s of e x h a u s t i o n and restoration
provoked by individual or a s e r i e s of physical (training or com-
petition) loads has been e s t a b l i s h e d (N. N. Yakovlev, 1955, 1975;
M. Y. G o r k i n , e t a l , 1973; N. I. Volkov, 1975; V. M. V o l k o v , 1975;
V. D. M o n o g a r o v , V. N. Platonov, 1975; Y. P. S e r g e y e v , 1981).
As a result of the popular p r a c t i c e of correlating the
training times (in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h which loading is repeated
after the super-compensation phase from t h e preceding w o r k which
has not y i e l d e d a t r a i n i n g - e f f e c t ) under c o n d i t i o n s of incom-
plete restoration, w h i c h leads to a lowering of the functional
level and w h i c h only increases as a result of super-restoration.
Use of the third v a r i a n t w a s considered to be a rational form of
organizing training; t h e second variant was considered unaccept-
a b l e (N. N . Y a k o v l e v , 1 9 5 5 ) .
However, in all fairness, this p r a c t i c e and its subsequent
moderizations (N. I. V o l k o v , 1969; V. D. M o n o g a r o v , V. N. P l a t o -
nov, 1975; L. P. M a t v e y e v , 1977) did not c o n t r i b u t e to e x p o s u r e
of the o r g a n i s m ' s long-term-adaptation mechanism. Furthermore,
this practice reduces the m e t h o d i c a l r e s o l u t i o n of the problem of
training c o n s t r u c t i o n to a n a r r o w f r a g m e n t , limited to one or
several micro-cycles. Thus, keeping w i t h i n the limits of a
micro-cycle, all p o s s i b l e v a r i a n t s of organizing training with
large loads are d r a w n - u p , but t h e i n d i s p e n s a b l e c o n d i t i o n s of
preserving or even r a i s i n g the level of special-work-capacity
b e g i n s in the next m i c r o - c y c l e . This kind of a p p r o a c h leads us
to t a k e for g r a n t e d the following m e t h o d i c a l premises:
— it is n e c e s s a r y for the a t h l e t e to p r e s e r v e such a state
during the c o u r s e of t r a i n i n g , so that it is p o s s i b l e to e x e c u t e

23.
the fundamental sport e x e r c i s e s e f f e c t i v e l y ;
— repetition of t r a i n i n g loads w h e n the o r g a n i s m is in a
state of i n s u f f i c i e n t r e s t o r a t i o n is u n d e s i r a b l e , a l t h o u g h this
is p e r m i s s i b l e in c e r t a i n i n s t a n c e s ;
— special-work-capacity should rise steadily during the
c o u r s e of t r a i n i n g ; a d e c r e a s e in s p e c i a l - w o r k - c a p a c i t y at cer-
t a i n s t a g e s of training is i n d i c a t i v e that training is incorrect-
ly organized.
Undoubtedly, all of these m e t h o d i c a l premises were, in t h e i r
time, progressive. To a certain extent they are still true
today. However, modern training requirements point to the
n e c e s s i t y of a l t e r i n g the m a i n a p p r o a c h to solving t h e problem of
training construction. P r a c t i c e and common sense i n d i c a t e that
the fundamental unit of t r a i n i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n should be t h e large
(prolonged) stage of t r a i n i n g and not the m i c r o - c y c l e . An e x t e n -
sive study of the r e g u l a r i t i e s of t h e long-term a d a p t a t i o n of the
o r g a n i s m is r e q u i r e d for t h i s . T h e practical usefulness of this
study will be felt o n l y if o n e can see the c o n c r e t e d e p e n d e n c e of
the dynamics of the s p o r t s m a n ' s state on the training loads
executed; and one can d e t e r m i n e the q u a n t i t a t i v e and time char-
acteristics of the adaptation process.
T h e initial r e s u l t s of this r e s e a r c h a l r e a d y has c o n v i n c i n g -
ly demonstrated its s c i e n t i f i c and p r a c t i c a l value. This is
especially applicable to material r e l a t e d to group types of
sports, r e q u i r i n g the d i s p l a y of explosive-effort.
General ideas about the development of the long-term
adaptation p r o c e s s a r e an o u t c o m e of o b s e r v a t i o n s of t h e d y n a m i c s
of an a t h l e t e ' s s p e c i a l - p h y s i c a l - p r e p a r e d n e s s i n d i c a t o r s o v e r the
c o u r s e of m a n y - y e a r s training.
T h e data presented is an e x a m p l e of two-year o b s e r v a t i o n s of
athletes using t w o - c y c l e (long jumping, figure 5) and u n i c y c l i c
(decathlon, figure 6) p e r i o d i z a t i o n of yearly t r a i n i n g , as well
as the t e n d e n c i e s in the d y n a m i c s of s p e e d - s t r e n g t h i n d i c a t o r s of
middle-qualified jumpers (triple jump), who become masters of
sport in the third year of t r a i n i n g (figure 7 ) . The training
loads w e r e r e c o r d e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y in all the examples presented.
 One can a r r i v e at t h e following c o n c l u s i o n s , based on the
research d a t a of the t e n d e n c i e s in t h e d y n a m i c s of the athletes*
state:
1. The absolute and m e a n level of special-strength-pre-
paredness increases from year to y e a r .
2. T h e initial level of speed-strength in e a c h y e a r l y cycle
is lower t h a n at t h e end of t h e preceding y e a r ' s , but higher than
at its b e g i n n i n g .
3. The rise in s p e e d - s t r e n g t h from year to y e a r is larger
for a t h l e t e s of m i d d l e - q u a l i f i c a t i o n than that of highly-quali-
fied athletes.
4. One can trace a d e f i n i t e t e n d e n c y in the dynamics of
special-strength-preparedness in the yearly c y c l e ; w h i c h is de-
termined by the traditional p e r i o d i z a t i o n of training for the
type of sport and c o m p e t i t i o n c a l e n d a r . O n e can c l e a r l y trace a
two-peak disposition in the d y n a m i c s of speed-strength with two
competition stages; because the special-strength preparedness is
higher in the second c o m p e t i t i o n stage t h a n in the first. In
types of s p o r t s w i t h one c o m p e t i t i o n season the speed-strength
d y n a m i c s a r e of a uniform, ascending nature.
Thus, the p o s s i b i l i t y of drawing c o n c l u s i o n s about some,
especially quantitative, c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the o r g a n i s m ' s long-
term adaptation to intense m u s c u l a r w o r k in a t h l e t i c s has impor-
tant practical significance for programming training.
The e x t e r n a l s i d e of the a d a p t a t i o n p r o c e s s , expressed by
the d y a n m i c s of special-work-capacity, can be p r e s e n t e d schema-
tically in the form of several conjugate graphics (figure 8).
Graphics B and C reflect t h e nature of the current dynamics of
the a t h l e t e ' s s p e c i a l - w o r k - c a p a c i t y in the y e a r l y c y c l e s (for two
and unicyclical p e r i o d i z a t i o n of training r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . Graphic
A characterizes the t e n d e n c i e s in t h e dyanmics of relatively
stabile, long-term adaptational r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e organism
over a time period of many y e a r s .
T h e current a l t e r a t i o n s of the functional indicators (graph-
ics B and C) in the y e a r l y c y c l e a r e temporary, u n s t a b i l e and to
a certain extent reversable. T h e basis for t h e s e a l t e r a t i o n s a r e
the s o - c a l l e d c o m p e n s a t o r y m e c h a n i s m s , i.e., priority reactions,
d e s i g n e d to m a i n t a i n the necessary level of functioning for brief
periods during inadequate conditions, sufficient for the d e v e l o p -
ment of the s t a b l e forms of the a d a p t a t i o n p r o c e s s . The compen-
satory mechanisms are dynamic physiological means of repairing
the o r g a n i s m d u r i n g e x t r e m e c o n d i t i o n s and g r a d u a l l y fade a c c o r d -
ing to the d e v e l o p m e n t of the a d a p t a t i o n p r o c e s s . In so far as
these mechanisms p r e c e d e the latter, they should be designated
pre-adaptation phenomena (A. G. Kuznyetsov, 1979).

Figure 8. D y n a m i c s of A d a p t a t i o n in S p o r t s C o n d i t i o n s .

Thus, compensatory adaptation is a p r e - r e q u i s i t e condition

for the d e v e l o p m e n t o f long-term, stabile adaptation {graphic A ) .
The latter can be p r o g r e s s i v e if the functional r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of
the organism, d u r i n g the c o u r s e of c o m p e n s a t o r y a d a p t a t i o n , is
sufficient such that there is a n o t i c e a b l e affect on the e x t e r n a l
interactions of the o r g a n i s m and the t r a n s f e r r i n g of it to a
higher level of special-work-capacity.
 One should a d d , that the e s s e n c e of a d a p t a t i o n in a t h l e t i c s
c o n s i s t s not only of increased motor p o t e n t i a l , but the e n h a n c e -
ment of the a t h l e t e ' s s k i l l s to e f f e c t i v e l y , i.e., m o r e fully,
utilize this potential for coping w i t h concrete motor tasks
(graphic D ) .
In light of contemporary ideas, a d a p t a t i o n cannot be consid-
ered an equilibrium process. Adaptation is the active
maintenance of a definite level of d i s e q u i l i b r i u m between the
organism and the e n v i r o n m e n t w h i c h is the fundamental reason for
the origin and d e v e l o p m e n t of a c c o m m o d a t i v e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n within
the o r g a n i s m (E. B a u e r , 1935; N. A. B e r n s t e i n , 1966).
F i g u r e 8, as a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , contains quantitative-time
characteristics of the changes in special-preparedness; and
therefore, r e f l e c t s only the g e n e r a l a s p e c t s of the d y n a m i c s of
the long-term adaptation process. In reality, changes in
special-work-capacity are secured by an e x t e n s i v e complex of
accommodative reconstruction, encompassing, without exception,
all of the o r g a n i s m ' s life-preserving systems. T h e rate of per-
fectioning of these systems and the moments of accelerated
development, can be d i f f e r e n t . This " h e t e r o - c h r o n i c i t y " of adap-
tational reconstruction is d e t e r m i n e d by: the importance of
c e r t a i n functional systems in e s t a b l i s h i n g the e m p h a s i s of long-
term adaptation, d i f f e r e n c e s in their r e a c t i v e n e s s (or a d a p t a -
tional inertness) and f i n a l l y , c h a n g e s in the role of certain
functional s y s t e m s at d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s of long-term a d a p t a t i o n .
In endurance types of s p o r t s a clear picture of the "un-
folding" of long-term adaptation, as in "explosive e f f o r t " types
of s p o r t s , has not been o b s e r v e d . And h e r e , it is not a matter
of s o m e specific d i f f e r e n c e s in the a d a p t a t i o n p r o c e s s , but the
a b i l i t y to o b s e r v e it, or m o r e p r e c i s e l y , in the functional c h a r -
acteristics utilized for o b s e r v a t i o n . The indicators of aerobic
and a n a e r o b i c o u t p u t a r e a r e f l e c t i o n of the d y n a m i c s of the g e n -
eral (external) level of the organism's special-work-capacity
(endurance); but they do not e x p r e s s a l t e r a t i o n s in its internal
relationships, associated with a d a p t a t i o n t o intense cyclical
work. Based on a v a i l a b l e d a t a (N. N. Yakovlev, 1975; A. A. Viru,

28.
1977, 1981; N. V. S u s m a n , 1978; V. S. F i n o g e n o v , 1979), one
should look for these a l t e r a t i o n s at the e n d o c r i n e system level,
and at n e u r o - h o r m o n a l m e c h a n i s m s and p s y c h o - p h y s i o l o g i c a l indi-
cators. The c o r r e c t n e s s of this s u p p o s i t i o n will be revealed in
the near future. Until then one can a s s u m e that long-term a d a p -
tation to e n d u r a n c e w o r k is d e v e l o p e d by the same, aforementioned
chief mechanisms, but at a n o t h e r level of the physiological
systems. It is easy to offer a rich p r o s p e c t i v e "cut-out" for
p e r f e c t i o n i n g training m e t h o d s in c y c l i c s p o r t s , when specialists
study this mechanism.
Compensatory adaptation, with respect to the long-term,
cannot continue indefinitely. The affect of compensatory
a d a p t a t i o n on the s p e c i a l - w o r k - c a p a c i t y d i m i n i s h e s w i t h e a c h rep-
etition; therefore, the dynamics of compensatory adaptation
d e s c r i b e a m o n o t o n o u s l y d i m i n i s h i n g parabola o v e r time {see fig-
ure 8, graphic A ) . This i n d i c a t e s that a n athlete's general
adaptation reserves have a limit, that is d e t e r m i n e d by g e n e t i c
preconditions. O n e can judge the limits of c o m p e n s a t o r y a d a p t a -
tion by the p r e s e n c e of w a v e s in the d y n a m i c s of special-work-
capacity (graphics B and C ) . One of the reasons for the a p p e a r -
ance of t h e s e w a v e s is t h e traditional p e r i o d i z a t i o n of training
(one or t w o - c y c l i c p e r i o d i z a t i o n ) . A m o r e important reason is
the exhaustion of the so-called "current" adaptation reserves
(CAR) of the o r g a n i s m .
O n e can assert that at any one i n s t a n t , the o r g a n i s m has a
definite reserve potential, i.e., a c a p a b i l i t y to respond to
external influences with accommodative reconstruction and
transfer itself to a new functional level. T h e capacity of t h e s e
adaptational r e s e r v e s is limited by definite, appropriate re-
s t r i c t i o n s and to a significant degree, these restrictions deter-
mine the absolute level of t h e o r g a n i s m ' s adaptational recon-
struction. Hence, the strength, volume and d u r a t i o n of the
training influences are necessities for the full realization of
the o r g a n i s m ' s CAR, as well as h a v i n g their own corresponding,
quantitative significance. If they a r e below t h e n e c e s s a r y m a g -
nitude, the o r g a n i s m will not r e a l i z e its CAR; if they exceed it.

29.
exhaustion of r e s e r v e potential will o c c u r . And in that, and
other cases, t h e t r a i n i n g - e f f e c t will be low.
Assumptions about the p r e s e n c e of a definite adaptational
r e s e r v e w i t h i n t h e human o r g a n i s m and t h e e x p e d i t i o u s n e s s of c o n -
structing t r a i n i n g by t a k i n g into a c c o u n t its realization, were
discussed earlier. T h e a d a p t a t i o n p r o c e s s was d i v i d e d into three
phases, based on o b s e r v e d c h a n g e s in a number of functional indi-
c a t o r s and the c o r r e s p o n d i n g d y n a m i c s of sport a c h i e v e m e n t s : a)
t h e g r o w t h of t r a i n a b i l i t y , b) sporting form, c) loss of train-
a b i l i t y (S. P. Letunov, 1952) and a) a d a p t a t i o n , b) the highest
sport w o r k - c a p a c i t y and c) r e a d a p t a t i o n (L. P r o k o r , 1959). In
the latter c a s e , r e a d a p t a t i o n is u n d e r s t o o d as the loss of the
highest work-capacity w i t h respect to e x c e e d i n g the limits of
adaptability, i.e., expending adaptational energy.*
So, o n e can c o n s i d e r this training o r g a n i z a t i o n effective,
when it p r o v i d e s t h e fullest r e a l i z a t i o n of the o r g a n i s m ' s CAR,
by m e a n s of the n e c e s s a r y v o l u m e of loading. Hence, alluring
prospects w i t h respect to p r o g r a m m i n g and o r g a n i z a t i o n of train-
ing appear — by d i v i s i n g w a y s of a s s e s s i n g the o r g a n i s m ' s CAR in
each c o n c r e t e c a s e and the a p p r o p r i a t e criteria for determining
t h e c o n t e n t s and the v o l u m e of t h e training influences, necessary
for its r e a l i z a t i o n . This is quite a w o r k a b l e task a l t h o u g h it
requires great effort. T h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a q u a n t i t a t i v e ap-
p r o a c h t o d e t e r m i n e the o r g a n i s m ' s "reserve s t r e n g t h " has a l r e a d y
been discussed in the l i t e r a t u r e for q u i t e some time. It is
based, in p a r t i c u l a r , on a s s e s s m e n t s of a number of biochemical
i n d i c a t o r s of the e x c h a n g e p r o c e s s e s (E. L. B e c k m a n , e t a l . , 1961;
N. N. Yakovlev, 1977). R e s e a r c h in our laboratory used the e x -
haustion of the o r g a n i s m ' s CAR as a criterion of departure for
the specific-work-capacity to p l a t e a u ; under t h e i n f l u e n c e of
s y s t e m a t i c training i n f l u e n c e s (Y. V. V e r k h o s h a n s k y , 1973, 1978).

*Subsequent m e t h o d i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s d e s i g n a t e d t h e s e p h a s e s as
acquisition, p r e s e r v a t i o n and brief loss of sporting form (L. P.
Matveyev, 1 9 6 4 ) .

30.
 Two forms of compensatory adaptation, associated with the
realization of the o r g a n i s m ' s CAR, as a result of systematic
influences, differing in v o l u m e and in t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of the
training loads, have been revealed and studied; w i t h respect to
the aforementioned criterion, in "explosive e f f o r t " types of
sport (figure 9 ) . The first form is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a gradual
increase in functional i n d i c a t o r s and is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a m o d e r -
ate v o l u m e of c o n t i n u o u s loading. In this case p e r i o d i c brief
d i s t u r b a n c e s of the o r g a n i s m ' s h o m e o s t a s i s occur and t h e current
e x p e n d i t u r e of energy resources is compensated, during the course
of training, through some p r e d o m i n e n c e in the supplying of lost
energy. This form of c o m p e n s a t o r y a d a p t a t i o n c o n f o r m s to t r a d i -
tional ideas about t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t r a i n a b i l i t y and is typical
for s p o r t s m e n of m i d d l e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n in modern training condi-
tions .
The second form of c o m p e n s a t o r y a d a p t a t i o n is associated
w i t h the use of a large (concentrated) v o l u m e of s p e c i a l - p h y s i -
cal-preparation means, concentrated in the first half of the
training s t a g e . T h e s e large v o l u m e s provoke a p r o f o u n d and pro-
longed disturbance of the organism's homeostasis, which is
e x p r e s s e d by t h e s t a b l e d e c r e a s e of the functional i n d i c a t o r s and
then, a f t e r t h e volume of the load is d e c r e a s e d , their i n c r e a s e
is accelerated, and they exceed the level achieved during the
first form of c o m p e n s a t o r y a d a p t a t i o n . This way of organizing
loading in the large p r e p a r a t i o n stage has been devised for
highly-qualified athletes (Y. V. Verkhoshansky, 1977) and as s u b -
sequent research showed, is e f f e c t i v e for all types of s p o r t s .
The methodical a s p e c t s of u t i l i z i n g this form of conpensa-
tory a d a p t a t i o n in actual training c o n d i t i o n s will be d e a l t with
later. Let's dwell h e r e on some p r a c t i c a l r e s u l t s of r e s e a r c h ,
the purpose of w h i c h was to study compensatory adaptation and
search for methodical a p p r o a c h e s to full realization of the
o r g a n i s m ' s CAR in the big training stage.
First of a l l , the optimal d u r a t i o n of the training influ-
ences was determined; an o b j e c t i v e n e c e s s i t y for full realization
of the organism's CAR. It is w i t h respect to t h i s , that the

31 .
F i g u r e 9: T w o forms of the a t h l e t e ' s c o m p e n s a t o r y a d a p t a t i o n in
the large p r e p a r a t i o n s t a g e : Po - a b s o l u t e , I - explosive, Q -
starting strength, Fmax - m a x i m u m e x p l o s i v e - e f f o r t , V - speed of
movement.

the question as to what is an a c c e p t i b l e length of continuous

training was answered — 5-6 w e e k s , and with a concentrated
loading — 3-4 weeks; after which a rehabilitation period is
necessary for a c t i v a t i o n of the c o m p e n s a t o r y p r o c e s s e s . It was
r e v e a l e d as w e l l , that the t r a i n e d a t h l e t e is able to withstand
three (3) such s e q u e n t i a l " p o r t i o n s " of loading, separated by
short (7-10 d a y s ) rehabilitational pauses. Then a longer reha-
bilitation period is necessary, a s s o c i a t e d with s t a b i l i z a t i o n at
the new level of functional reconstruction. Thus, the time

32.
intervals necessary for e x h a u s t i o n of t h e organism's CAR is
within the range o f 18-22 w e e k s (see figure 9 ) . These periods
coincide with o b s e r v a t i o n a l data (in natural conditions), of
highly-qualified athletes, training in d i f f e r e n t types of sports,
including c y c l i c (S. V . Zhikharevich, 2976; V. A. Sirenko, 1980).
In o r d e r to apply the data p r e s e n t e d , it is necessary to
examine it in the following w a y : t h e o r g a n i s m cannot respond to
training influences positively with adaptive reconstruction in-
definitely. There a r e d e f i n i t e time l i m i t s , during w h i c h the
organism is able to react p o s i t i v e l y to c o n t i n u o u s t r a i n i n g loads
of large v o l u m e . O n e can d e s i g n a t e three such limits which are
n e c e s s a r y to take into account for p r o g r a m m i n g t r a i n i n g .
The first limit is d e t e r m i n e d by the "single-moment portion"
of c o n t i n u o u s (following e a c h o t h e r ) training and is restricted
by that v o l u m e and length of loading, the exceeding of which
a l r e a d y d o e s not ensure the rise in functional c a p a b i l i t y and can
lead to n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s . The second limit is d e t e r m i n e d by the
optimal d u r a t i o n of t h e training stage, providing full realiza-
t i o n of the o r g a n i s m ' s C A R . T h e c o n t e n t s of this stage should be
restricted to a s e r i e s of t h r e e "single-moment p o r t i o n s " of con-
tinuous training influences; separated by rehabilitation inter-
vals. The third limit is d e t e r m i n e d by an a c c e p t a b l e series,
including "single-moment portions" of training influences. There
can be two such intervals (taking into a c c o u n t the rehabilitation
invertal between). A long r e h a b i l i t a t i o n period is required
after this.
It is necessary to bear in mind that the aforementioned
limits, are r e s t r i c t e d by t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e training influ-
ences, and relate only to c o n d i t i o n s in w h i c h a large volume of
loading is u n d e r t a k e n . The l i m i t a t i o n s , w i t h respect to the
length and q u a n t i t y of r e p e t i t i o n s and series of "single-moment
p o r t i o n s " of t r a i n i n g l o a d s , are based c h i e f l y on the c r e a t i o n of
optimal conditions for sequencing training i n f l u e n c e s , and not
from t h e o r g a n i s m ' s potential limits. T r a i n e d a t h l e t e s are able
to maintain a significantly larger volume and duration of
loading. However, it is i n a p p r o p r i a t e to subject the o r g a n i s m to
extreme energy exhaustion. This requires a longer rehabilitation
and has a n e g a t i v e a f f e c t on the subsequent s t a g e s of adaptation.
In r e s e a r c h , o r i e n t e d to r e v e a l i n g rational ways of realiz-
ing the organism's CAR, we found visual corroboration and
received practical elaboration of o n e of the most important
r e g u l a r i t i e s of adaptation; associated w i t h the e x t e n s i v e d i s t u r -
bance of the o r g a n i s m ' s h o m e o s t a s i s . T h e more extensive and
longer the e x h a u s t i o n of the o r g a n i s m ' s e n e r g y r e s o u r c e s due to
concentrated loading in the large stages of training (naturally,
within reasonable limits), the higher their subsequent r e s t o r a -
tion, the longer the new functional level is m a i n t a i n e d .
Presented in figure 10 are the dynamics of explosive-
strength for a 5-month t r a i n i n g stage of six highly-qualified
women athletes (long jumpers). It is q u i t e o b v i o u s that the
larger the d r o p in e x p l o s i v e - s t r e n g t h during the s t a g e of concen-
trated strength loading (November), the higher it s u b s e q u e n t l y
increased (February). In another e x p e r i m e n t for a period of
four-weeks, on 5-groups of highly-qualified athletes, the e f f e c -
tiveness of d i f f e r e n t programs of special-strength-training was
verified (figure 11), G r o u p f i v e ' s program was the most e f f e c -
tive; it caused a m o r e e x t e n s i v e d i s t u r b a n c e of h o m e o s t a s i s and
provided a hgher level of subsequent compensation of energy re-
sources. It is important to point out that g r o u p f o u r ' s program
was not sufficiently intense for the a t h l e t e s and this caused a
disturbance in the a d a p t a t i o n p r o c e s s .
Indispensable conditions of training organization which pro-
vide extensive and r e l a t i v e l y p r o l o n g e d d i s t u r b a n c e of homeosta-
sis, are the precise d o s a g e of loading, as well as r e h a b i l i t a t i o n
stages n e c e s s a r y for triggering a compensatory reaction, elimina-
tion of the hetero-chronicalness phenomenon in t h e d y n a m i c s of
the various functional indicators and stabilization of the
o r g a n i s m at the new functional level. T h e general volume of the
load should be d e c r e a s e d at this time and GPP (general physical
preparation) m e a n s introduced in t r a i n i n g , which c o n t r i b u t e s to
the intensity of the compensatory reaction. The m o r e e x t e n s i v e
and prolonged the d i s t u r b a n c e of h o m e o s t a s i s the m o r e p r o l o n g e d
the r e h a b i l i t a t i o n stage should b e . T h e concept of CAR and the
peculiarities of the organism's compensatory adaptation have
great practical significance for programming training and
especially for rational p e r i o d i z a t i o n of yearly training.
2.2 General Regularities of M o r p h o - F u n c t i o n a l Specializa-
tion in the P r o c e s s A t t a i n i n g Sport M a s t e r y
Morpho-functional specialization is understood to be those
stable, accommodative a c q u i s i t i o n s that a r e c o n d i t i o n e d b y the
specifics and c o n d i t i o n s of a t h l e t i c s . The qualitative charac-
teristics and quantitative significance of such acqusitions
graphically express the a d a p t a t i o n a l p r o c e s s w h i c h is the basis
for t h e physical p e r f e c t i o n i n g of m a n . At t h e same time they
characterize the s p e c i f i c s of a d a p t a t i o n , conditioned by the
types of sport a c t i v i t i e s , as well as the p e c u l i a r i t i e s of its
development over time.
All of t h e l i f e - p r e s e r v i n g s y s t e m s of the organism, without
exception, take on a d a p t i v e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n . However it is not
difficult to notice that those systems that are of chief
importance for success in a t h l e t i c s undergo an a c c e l e r a t e d rate
of functional p e r f e c t i o n i n g . In this circumstance there is a
convenient p o s s i b l i t y for studying the general and s p e c i f i c r e g u -
larities of the development of the adaptational process in
athletics.
We noted (1977) already, that the specifics and the d y n a m i c s
of the a t h l e t e ' s a c c o m m o d a t i v e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n is d e t e r m i n e d pri-
marily by two factors — the work-regime in sports and the
gradual, but steady c o m p l i c a t i o n of the organism's external
i n t e r a c t i o n s a c c o m p a n y i n g the r i s e in sport m a s t e r y .
For example, improvement of t h e triple jump r e q u i r e s per-
fectioning of the a b i l i t y of the support-motor apparatus to
display w o r k i n g - e f f o r t of g r e a t p o w e r . Increasing jumping d i s -
tance (which is a c c o m p l i s h e d first of all by increasing running
speed) is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a s i g n i f i c a n t c o m p l i c a t i o n of the a t h -
lete's interaction w i t h the support at e a c h of the "take-offs";
this requires s i g n i f i c a n t improvement of r e a c t i v e ability, as
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the p o w e r of w o r k (figure 1 2 ) .
 Cyclic locomotion, to a great e x t e n t , requires perfectioning
of the power and the c a p a c i t y of the o r g a n i s m ' s s y s t e m s , crucial
for e n e r g y - a c q u s i t i o n of m u s c u l a r w o r k . Energy e x p e n d i t u r e in-
creases proportionally to the square of work-power and even
greater with the i n c r e a s e in m o v e m e n t speed. For e x a m p l e , oxygen
requirements increase during running, c o n s e q u e n t l y e n e r g y expen-
diture is almost proportional to the fourth p o w e r , of running
speed (Sargent, 1926). Such a "rising cost" of running speed is
associated with a s t r e n g t h e n i n g of the portion of the anaerobic
reactions for the general e n e r g y of w o r k (F. Henry, 1951; R.
Margaria, 1963).
We d i s t i n g u i s h e d between t w o forms of functional perfection-
ing of the organism in the PASM — organ s p e c i a l i z a t i o n and abil-
ity s p e c i a l i z a t i o n (1971). The most e x p r e s s i v e o r g a n and ability
specialization a p p e a r s w h e n comparing the functional perfection-
ing of the o r g a n i s m in different types of s p o r t s . In one of
them, one observes a functional hypertrophy of the m o t o r a p p a r a -
tus (mainly in a c y c l i c l o c o m o t i o n s ) w i t h the e m p h a s i s on perfec-
tioning of t h e e n e r g y - a c q u s i t i o n s y s t e m s , w i t h the emphasis on
aerobic or a n a e r o b i c p r o d u c t i v i t y . In t h e third (combined)
t h e r e is an intense functional p e r f e c t i o n i n g of b o t h the support-
motor apparatus and the e n e r g y - a c q u s i t i o n system.
However, it is important to emphasize that in the first two
cases one is not t a l k i n g about a o n e - s i d e d n e s s , but about the
chief emphasis of t h e o r g a n i s m ' s functional specialization. One
can successfully develop a high level of explosive-strength in
acyclic locomotion only w h e n one p o s s e s s e s sufficiently high
aerobic productivity. At the same t i m e , p e r f e c t i o n i n g of the
energy-acqusition systems in c y c l i c l o c o m o t i o n should be based on
highly developed muscular-strength and local muscular-endurance.
Let's turn now to a number of c o n c r e t e e x a m p l e s , illustrat-
ing the d y n a m i c s of the organism's functional specialization
d u r i n g many years of sport training. Presented in figure 13 are
alterations in s p e e d - s t r e n g t h of decathletes accompanying the
growth of sport mastery. Absolute-strength (Po and Fmax)
increased linearly at the same time as the e x p l o s i v e - s t r e n g t h (I
and Q ) ; and t h e i r i n c r e a s e accelerated along w i t h the rise i n
sport mastery. This can be e x p l a i n e d as the result of the rise
in the intensity of m u s c u l a r c o n t r a c t i o n s w i t h the growth of
sport achievements, as well as an increasing portion of intense
strength w o r k in t h e g e n e r a l v o l u m e of the training load.

Figure 14. Changes in ergometric work-capacity indicators accompanying the growth

of mastery (I- sprinters, II- hurdlers; A.A. Vankov, 1978):
Wo- anaerobic power, a- anaerobic capacity, b^- aerobic criteria of power, b - 2

maximum anaerobic power

38.
 Accelerated growth of s p e c i f i c - w o r k - c a p a c i t y at the high
mastery level is a l s o t y p i c a l for cyclic t y p e s of sports. The
dynamics in various types of s p o r t s are a p p r o x i m a t e l y equivalent
although t h e r e are some q u a l i t a t i v e and q u a n t i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s
associated w i t h s p e c i f i c t y p e s of s p o r t s . Thus, swimmers (sprin-
ters) have higher rates and d e v e l o p m e n t a l levels of anaerobic
productivity, w h e r e a s the same is t r u e for aerobic productivity
of d i s t a n c e swimmers (figure 14). This is d e t e r m i n e d by the
emphasis of the t r a i n i n g .
In the m u l t i - y e a r t r a i n i n g of sprinters, up to class I-CMS,
the chief emphasis is on the d e v e l o p m e n t of general (aerobic)
e n d u r a n c e and s p e e d ; w h e r e a s at the M S - M S I C level the emphasis is
on p e r f e c t i o n i n g speed (anaerobic) endurance. In the training of
distance people of all q u a l i f i c a t i o n l e v e l s , the chief emphasis
is on the d e v e l o p m e n t of a e r o b i c p r o d u c t i v i t y ; and at the M S - M S I C
level, t h e e m p h a s i s is on the p e r f e c t i o n i n g of a n a e r o b i c p r o d u c -
tivity (A. A. V a n k o v , 1 9 7 8 ) .
Presented in figure 15 are the g e n e r a l t e n d e n c i e s of the
m u l t i - y e a r d y n a m i c s of the functional i n d i c a t o r s of skaters; it
is i n d i c a t i v e of the a c c e l e r a t e d i n c r e a s e in functional indica-
tors at the h i g h - s p o r t - m a s t e r y l e v e l . L i k e w i s e with swimmers,
the magnitude and rate of increase of aerobic and a n a e r o b i c p r o -
d u c t i v i t y are d i f f e r e n t d e p e n d i n g on the a t h l e t e ' s q u a l i f i c a t i o n .
The largest m a g n i t u d e s and rates of the 0 2 - c o n s u m p t i o n are typi-
cal for m u l t i - e v e n t a t h l e t e s and d i s t a n c e p e o p l e ; the least are
for s p r i n t e r s . Furthermore, 1500 m e t e r runners and s p e e d - s k a t e r s
had the largest i n c r e a s e in m a x i m u m 0 2 - d e b t . Multi-event dis-
tance a t h l e t e s w e r e d i s c o v e r e d to have the lowest m a x i m u m 0 2 - d e b t
(V. S. Ivanov, 1970). ]T

The comparable differences among s p e e d - s k a t e r s depend on the

distance of s p e c i a l i z a t i o n and w e r e found to be in the speed-
strength indicators (table 1). S p r i n t e r s d i f f e r from distance
people by a more expressive a b i l i t y to d e v e l o p power in leg
extension. M u l t i - e v e n t a t h l e t e s a r e in between the t w o .
 Table 1

Speed-Strength C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Speed-Skaters
for Leg E x t e n s i o n

Specialization Speed-Strength Characteristics

strength, Fmax - m a x i m u m e x p l o s i v e effort and t h e t i m e (tmax) of

its a c h i e v e m e n t , time of d e v e l o p i n g force e q u i v a l e n t to the ath-
lete's bodyweight (tp) and p o w e r d e v e l o p e d ( N ) .
Strength-preparedness, expressed c h i e f l y by the so-called
strength-endurance, plays an important role in cyclic types of
sports. A v a i l a b l e e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a indicates that w i t h a rela-
tively moderate i n c r e a s e in m u s c u l a r strength, along w i t h the
rise in the a t h l e t e ' s qualification, dynamic-strength-endruance
(T) and power of w o r k (N), a c c e l e r a t e t h e i n c r e a s e in strength
(figure 1 6 ) .
T h e p r o c e s s of functional specialization is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
one important peculiarity; there is a d e f i n i t e sequentialness
(heterchronicity) in the d e v e l o p m e n t of a c c o m m o d a t i v e r e c o n s t r u c -
tion; the n e c e s s i t y of w h i c h a r i s e s according to the complexity
of the a t h l e t e ' s e x t e r n a l i n f l u e n c e s and the rise in the training
intensity a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e g r o w t h of sport mastery. In other
words, the o r g a n i s m r e s p o n d s to external influences w i t h accommo-
dative r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s only w h e n they b e c o m e o b j e c t i v e l y neces-
sary for the further growth of sport m a s t e r y , and only those
s y s t e m s w h o s e f u n c t i o n s s a t i s f y all the ensuing requirements.
Research e n a b l e s us to d e f i n e t h r e e b a s i c t e n d e n c i e s in the
dynamics of special-physical-preparedness, relative to sport
results (figure 1 7 ) . T h e first (A) is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a linear

40.
c o n n e c t i o n to sport r e s u l t s . T h e integral indicators of s p e c i a l -
work capacity, a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e first t e n d e n c y , h a v e a high
c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h sport a c h i e v e m e n t s . T h e second t e n d e n c y (B) is
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by an e n h a n c e d rate of improvement in t h e f u n c t i o n -
al i n d i c a t o r s along w i t h t h e s h a r p i n c r e a s e in their correlation
with results, w i t h respect to the improvement of r e s u l t s . These
functional changes c h i e f l y e n h a n c e the growth of the athlete's
special-work-capacity (A) at the high stages of sport m a s t e r y .
And f i n a l l y , t h e third t e n d e n c y (C) is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a m o n o t o -
nously slow increase in the functional indicators along w i t h a
gradual w e a k e n i n g of t h e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h sport results. These
functional changes began by r e n d e r i n g a s i g n i f i c a n t affect on t h e
g r o w t h of sport a c h i e v e m e n t s ; then they play a role in acceler-
ating the i n c r e a s e in t h e s p e c i f i c i n d i c a t o r s of the athlete's
special-work-capacity (B).

Figure 17. Dynamics of Functional Indicators, R e l a t i v e t o Sport

Results
S- sport results

42
 The multi-year functional s p e c i a l i z a t i o n of the o r g a n i s m is
closely connected with its corresponding morphological recon-
structions. T h e s e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s leave t r a c e s of the training
influences on the o r g a n i s m for long p e r i o d s of t i m e and are the
material foundation of its functional perfectioning. These
traces have been studied s u f f i c i e n t l y at the muscle tissue,
cardiac muscle, skeletal bone s t r u c t u r e , c a r d i o - v a s c u l a r levels
and o t h e r s y s t e m s . Exhaustive information concerning this, can
be found in the special literature. Further study of the m u l t i -
year r e g u l a r i t i e s of m o r p h o - f u n c t i o n a l specialization in c o n c r e t e
types of sports has important practical significance for the
formation of p r i n c i p l e s of programming training.
2.3 S t r u c t u r e of Special-Physical-Preparedness
The aforementioned r e g u l a r i t i e s of functional specialization
d u r i n g the c o u r s e of m a n y - y e a r s t r a i n i n g are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s p e -
c i f i c a c c o m m o d a t i v e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s at the v e g e t a t i v e s y s t e m s and
neuro-muscular levels and w i t h t h e p e r f e c t i o n i n g of the central
mechanisms that regulate their a c t i v i t i e s . Therefore it is
natural, that the c o n c e p t s c o n c e r n i n g the e m p h a s i s of functional
specialization and p e c u l i a r i t i e s of the i n t e r a c t i o n between the
o r g a n s and s y s t e m s , crucial for t h e steady rise in s p e c i a l - w o r k -
capacity, are of g r e a t importance for p r o g r a m m i n g t r a i n i n g . With
respect to t h i s , let's e x a m i n e , first of a l l , t h e q u e s t i o n of the
s o - c a l l e d physical qualities of a person and their physiological
nature.
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of man's m o t o r a b i l i t i e s (strength, speed,
endurance, etc.), established through practice, w e r e convenient
for classification and r e g u l a t i o n of all the diverse training
means and for p l a n n i n g t r a i n i n g . However, there w a s a g r a d u a l
turn t o w a r d s , as if, inherent to man, "physical q u a l i t i e s " , based
on the criteria of the q u a l i t a t i v e m o t o r f u n c t i o n s of strength,
speed and e n d u r a n c e . T h e second a s s u m p t i o n followed the first,
which acknowledged that a special p h y s i o l o g i c a l m e c h a n i s m secured
e a c h o f these q u a l i t i e s . From here, clearly logical, speculative
conclusions about the synthetic nature of the structure of
physical p r e p a r e d n e s s w e r e a l r e a d y not far o f f . It was assumed

43 .
that o n e could d e v e l o p each "quality" separately, then synthesize
each of them or o t h e r a b i l i t i e s and o b t a i n some d e r i v a t i v e from
them. Unfortunately, at that t i m e p h y s i o l o g y and b i o c h e m i s t r y
unreservedly interpreted similarly established notions and
restricted, r e l a t i v e t o them, explanatory functions; furthering,
the very same a n a l y t i c o - s y n t h e t i c methodical c o n c e p t i o n s of the
physical p e r f e c t i o n i n g of m a n , which were held, up to now. At
the same t i m e , the foremost practical and scientific achievements
in recent years all the m o r e p e r s i s t a n t l y p e r s u a d e one that such
t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e p t s are slightly a n t i q u a t e d . Therefore, in the
interests of r e s o l v i n g t h e problem of programming training it is
n e c e s s a r y to e x a m i n e this q u e s t i o n from several different posi-
tions .
In reality, we find those end characteristics of the
working-effect of sport m o v e m e n t s c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y reflect the
resulting sum of t h e functional m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of the o r g a n i s m ' s
systems. T h e s e will o b v i o u s l y b e , in any c a s e , such c h a r a c t e r -
istics as the speed of m o v e m e n t r e a l i z a t i o n or the speed of the
athlete's movement. R e g a r d l e s s of w h e t h e r one is a sprinter or
distance runner, a boxer t h r o w i n g a p u n c h or a thrower a c c e l e r a -
ting his apparatus, s p o r t i n g s u c c e s s d e p e n d s upon the speed of
execution. Nevertheless, this does not m e a n , by a long shot,
that some speed q u a l i t y is the b a s i s for their success. In
"pure" forms, speed is d i s p l a y e d in s i m p l e , unloaded s i n g l e - j o i n t
movements (for e x a m p l e tapping and swinging the arms and legs in
different planes) and is e x p r e s s e d in such r e l a t i v e l y i n d e p e n d e n t
forms as m o t o r reaction t i m e , individual m o v e m e n t time, ability
to begin a m o v e m e n t q u i c k l y and m a x i m u m m o v e m e n t frequency (F.
Henry, e t . a l . , 1 9 6 0 - 1 9 6 8 ; N . V . Z i m k i n , 1965; M . A . G o d i k , 1 9 6 6 ) .
However, the speed of similar, simple acts has nothing in
common with the speed of e x e c u t i n g sport m o v e m e n t s . T h e lack of
a c o r r e l a t i o n between c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , elementary forms of speed
and the speed of movement in cyclic sport locomotion is
especially i n d i c a t i v e of this (V. S. Gorozhanin, 1976). Im-
measurably more complex neuro-physiological mechanisms of
regulation and the metabolic processes providing their

AA.
realization, a r e the basis for speed of m o v e m e n t in cyclic sport
locomotion. For example, a number of qualities determine
sprinting ability; they include: explosive-strength of the
muscles extending the body; q u i c k a c c e l e r a t i o n ability at the
start; the d e v e l o p m e n t and m a i n t e n a n c e of m a x i m u m running speed
as well as r e s i s t a n c e to fatigue (F. Henry, J. T r a f t o n , 1951; V.
G. Semyonov, 1966; Y. N. P r i m a k o v , 1969; V. I. L a p i n , 1 9 7 1 ) . The
speed with which one overcomes longer distances is secured
through expanding the o r g a n i s m ' s e n e r g y r e s o u r c e s and the e f f e c -
t i v e n e s s of their u t i l i z a t i o n (U. S. Farfel, 1939, 1949; N. I.
Volkov, 1966; V. V. M i k h a i l o v , 1967; R. M a r g a r i a , 1963; P. 0.
Astrand, 1956). T h e speed of execution of a c y c l i c locomotion is
determined by the muscles' ability to overcome significant
external resistance (U. S. F a r f e l , 1939; N. V. Z i m k i n , 1955; D.
D. Donskoi, 1960).
Speed in sport m o v e m e n t s comes p r i m a r i l y from s t r e n g t h and
endurance, a l t h o u g h this is c o n c l u s i v e it does not r e p u d i a t e the
presence of " q u i c k n e s s " as a functional q u a l i t y of man's organ-
ism. The latter is as inherent to man as is strength and
endurance, but is d i s p l a y e d fully, only in t h o s e i n s t a n c e s w h e r e
the external r e s i s t a n c e of the m o v e m e n t does not exceed 15% of
t h e limit s t r e n g t h (Y. V. V e r k h o s h a n s k y , 1973).
In c o m p a r i s o n w i t h strength and e n d u r a n c e , theoretical ideas
concerning speed, and c o n s e q u e n t l y , m e t h o d i c a l a s p e c t s of its
development have undergone significantly less d e v e l o p m e n t . This
is e s p e c i a l l y true of the a t t e m p t s to c o r r e l a t e speed of m o v e m e n t
with the lability of t h e neural p r o c e s s e s (lability of the
nervous s y s t e m ) ; and the r e a s o n s why it s t a b i l i z e s at so-called
"speed b a r r i e r s " (dynamic s t e r e o t y p i n g ) , w h i c h o c c u r s as a result
of monotonous r e p r o d u c t i o n of movement w i t h m a x i m u m e f f o r t ; for
which they h a v e not found convincing e x p e r i m e n t a l corroboration
nor practical, useful resolution.
However, experimental data has accumulated which
characterizes g e n e t i c and p h y s i o l o g i c a l factors w h i c h determine
and limit speed and its potential realization due to t r a i n i n g .
Therefore, based on d a t a from the study of the neuro-dynamic
mechanisms determining the speed of cyclic locomotion of animals
(G. N. Orlovsky, 1970), and their general similarity to man's
striding m o v e m e n t s (with respect to a n g u l a r a m p l i t u d e s , speed and
a c c e l e r a t i o n of joint m o v e m e n t s ) the a s s u m p t i o n is m a d e that very
fast s p r i n t e r s are d i s t i n g u i s h e d by a m o r e e f f e c t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n
of the s y s t e m s of locomotion management. This is expressed
principally by the connection ("rigidity") between neuro-
reticulo-spinal s y s t e m s and their high impulsation frequency (U.
S. Gorozhanin, 1973, 1977).
Man's speed of m o v e m e n t is to a large extent a s s o c i a t e d with
the fast and slow fiber c o m p o s i t i o n of the muscles, which possess
different c o n t r a c t i l e and m e t a b o l i c q u a l i t i e s (P. 0. Astrand, K.
R. R o d a h l , 1 9 7 7 ; P. V. K o m i , 1 9 7 9 ) . It has been e s t a b l i s h e d (H.
Rusko, 1976; D. L. C o s t i l l , et a l . , 1976; A. F o r s b e r g , et a l . ,
1976; P. V. K o m i , et a l . , 1977) that people w h o p o s s e s s a large
q u a n t i t y of fast f i b e r s in their m u s c l e s , under equal conditions,
display greater movement speed and ability to generate force
(figure 18). It h a s b e e n s h o w n that s p r i n t e r s ' m u s c l e s contain
more (up to 75%) fast-contractile fibers (P. D. Gollnick, 1972;
A. Thortensson, et a l . , 1977) and that l o n g - d i s t a n c e r u n n e r s have
m o r e (up to 9 0 % ) slow c o n t r a c t i l e fibers (D. L. C o s t i l l , 1973).
And finally, available i n f o r m a t i o n i n d i c a t e s that strength
of the nervous system is a factor determining and limiting
individual speed level (B. I. Teplov, 1961; V. D. Nebylitsyn,
1966; V. I. Rozhdestvensky, et al., 1969; V . M . R u s a l o v , 1972).
It has been shown that p e o p l e w i t h low strength of the nervous
system (i.e., easily excitable, i m p u l s i v e ) a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d by
great speed of m o v e m e n t (V. S. G o r a z h a n i n , 1977; N. A. S u l t a n o v ,
1979; Y. B. Ilin, A. V. M a l c h i k o v , 1979; B. I. T a b a c h n i k , et a l . ,
1978).
So, speed, as a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of man's m o t o r potential has
a level that is to a great e x t e n t , p r e d e t e r m i n e d by g e n e t i c s , and
its p e r f e c t i o n i n g in t r a i n i n g is restricted to the limits of this
level. Therefore, the p r e p a r a t i o n of h i g h - c l a s s s p r i n t e r s is
associated not so much w i t h the a b s o l u t e d e v e l o p m e n t of speed as
it is with the selection of g e n e t i c a l l y gifted p e o p l e and the
 % FAST MUSCLE
Figure 18. A - F ( t ) curve of the v e r t i c a l jump take-off of ath-
letes w i t h d i f f e r e n t m u s c l e fiber r a t i o s .
B-ratio between t h e power of t h e take-off and % of fast muscle
f i b e r s during the take-off (P. V. K o m i ' s d a t a . 1 9 7 9 ) .

rational o r g a n i z a t i o n of t r a i n i n g , such that it e n a b l e s o n e to

e f f e c t i v e l y utilize one's natural a b i l i t y . T h e halt in i m p r o v e -
ment of r e s u l t s in sprinting is not d u e to a "speed b a r r i e r " but
an e x h a u s t i o n of the individual l i m i t s of a p e r s o n ' s speed poten-
tial .
New experiments are n e c e s s a r y before all of the factors
determining man's speed of m o v e m e n t are ascertained. However,
based on available data, it is n e c e s s a r y to be critical of
unjustified hypothesis that for many years forged the creative
i n i t i a t i v e of scientific search to s p o r t - p h y s i o l o g y , and mislead
sport-practice.

47.
 It is important to point out that m a x i m u m speed can be
realized only if t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g movement has sufficient energy
for its e x e c u t i o n . Consequently, in those types of sport where
man a c h i e v e s h i g h s p e e d s , needs to o v e r c o m e s i g n i f i c a n t external
r e s i s t a n c e or resist f a t i g u e , it is necessary to look not so much
at the development of speed, but the p e r f e c t i o n i n g of those
functional s y s t e m s of t h e organism, which, in each c o n c r e t e case,
make it p o s s i b l e to e x e c u t e t h e m o t o r task with the greatest
speed possible. It is a q u e s t i o n of the strength potential of
the muscles and t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the metabolic processes
determining their c a p a b i l i t y to do e n d u r a n c e work. In those
exclusive instances w h e r e speed of m o v e m e n t does not require
strength or e n d u r a n c e , it is necessary to approach this quality
cautiously (if it e x i s t s ) and not ruin it with e n o r m o u s volumes
of useless work. With respect to t h i s , it is not without
interest to look at the surprisingly low training volumes which
a r e typical of d i s t i n g u i s h e d sprinters.

So, quickness and speed are different c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of

man's motor functions. Q u i c k n e s s is a general q u a l i t y of the
CNS; it is displayed to the fullest measure during motor
r e a c t i o n s and the r e a l i z a t i o n of the simplest unloaded m o v e m e n t s .
The individual c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of q u i c k n e s s in all of t h e forms
in w h i c h it is d i s p l a y e d a r e conditioned by g e n e t i c f a c t o r s , and
t h e r e f o r e the p o t e n t i a l for its d e v e l o p m e n t is limited.

Speed of m o v e m e n t or d i s p l a c e m e n t is a function of quick-

ness, strength, endurance as well as the a t h l e t e ' s skill to
rationally c o o r d i n a t e his m o v e m e n t s , d e p e n d i n g upon the external
conditions under which the motor task is to be executed (figure
19). Unlike q u i c k n e s s , there is unlimited potential to perfect
speed of m o v e m e n t .

Now it is important to turn one's attention to the fact that

different conditions in sport r e q u i r e a w o r k i n g - e f f e c t of move-
ment secured by the same chief organ (the support-motor
apparatus) and the same r e g u l a t o r y c e n t e r s , during the active
participation of all the f u n c t i o n i n g systems of the organism.
E v o l u t i o n has not p r o v i d e d man a c o l l e c t i o n of narrow-specialized

48.
mechanisms intended to s a t i s f y all motor requirements. Evolution
selected a way of c r e a t i n g universal systems of life-preserva-
tion, within a w i d e range of functional possibilities, and a
large supply of "strengths" r e l a t i v e to external influences. The
organism's r e m a r k a b l e a d a p t a b i l i t y to unusual conditions in the
environment comes about by m e a n s of functional hypertrophy of
those of its o r g a n s and systems which directly resist extreme
factors. Sport a c t i v i t i e s a r e perfect e x a m p l e s .

Consequently, some-sort-of special m e c h a n i s m s , crucial only

for speed, strength or e n d u r a n c e , do not e x i s t . Any sport a c t i v -
ity is p r o c u r e d by t h e same functional s y s t e m s of t h e organism.
However, as a result of s y s t e m a t i c t r a i n i n g , these s y s t e m s s p e -
cialize in c o n f o r m i t y to the chief e m p h a s i s of the m o t o r regime,
which is inherent to the sport a c t i v i t y . Thus, e n h a n c e m e n t of
the athlete's special-work-capacity is a s s o c i a t e d , not w i t h the
development of "qualities", but w i t h the functional specializa-
tion of the organism in that direction necessary for the
displaying of a high d e g r e e of s t r e n g t h , speed or endurance.
This c o n c l u s i o n is t h e basis w h i c h p e r m i t s o n e to alter, with

49.
respect t o e s t a b l i s h e d , traditional methods, the s p e c i a l - p h y s i c a l
p r e p a r a t i o n of sportsmen.
Functional s p e c i a l i z a t i o n of the o r g a n i s m , conformable to
sport conditions, chiefly requires strength and e n d u r a n c e , begin-
ning with the peripheral neuro-muscular apparatus. It is
expressed in t h e w o r k i n g - h y p e r t r o p h y of the m u s c l e s , a perfec-
t i o n i n g of the regulation (intra-muscular and inter-muscular) of
their activities and a s t r e n g t h e n i n g of the m e t a b o l i c processes.
A raising of the m u s c l e s 1
e n e r g e t i c potential results in: an
increase in their a b s o l u t e - s t r e n g t h , the m e c h a n i c a l power of
explosive-effort and the a b i l i t y to e x e c u t e w o r k for a prolonged
period of t i m e .
The w o r k i n g h y p e r t r o p h y of m u s c l e is a m a n i f e s t a t i o n of an
increase in the p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i a m e t e r of the m u s c l e d u e to a
thickening of the fibers and an increase in the number of
c a p i l l a r i e s to the m u s c l e . When m a x i m u m or e x p l o s i v e - e f f o r t are
required, w o r k i n g h y p e r t r o p h y is associated w i t h an increase in
myofibril volume (i.e., the c o n t r a c t i l e a p p a r a t u s proper of the
muscle fibers) and p r i m a r i l y , an i n c r e a s e in t h e h i g h - t h r e s h o l d
(large) motor u n i t s . H o w e v e r , m u s c l e volume may i n c r e a s e insig-
nificantly because of increased m y o f i b r i l - l a y e r d e n s i t y in the
muscle tissue.*
Thickening of the m u s c l e f i b e r s , as a result of endurance
work, o c c u r s through an i n c r e a s e in c a p i l l a r y volume (i.e., the
non-contractile parts of m u s c l e f i b e r s ) , which results in an
i n c r e a s e in the m u s c l e s ' m e t a b o l i c reserves (glycogen, creative
phosphate, myoglobin, etc.) and improvement o f the muscles'
oxidizing qualities.
Training for s t r e n g t h or e n d u r a n c e can result in selective
h y p e r t r o p h y of the fast or slow fibers (B. Saltin, 1973; J. S.
S k i n n e r , T. H. M c L e l l a n , 1980). H o w e v e r , the p e r c e n t a g e ratio of

* A v a i l a b l e data indicates that an i n c r e a s e in m u s c l e m a s s occurs

not only through h y p e r t r o p h y of m u s c l e f i b e r s , but as a result of
an increase in the q u a n t i t y of fibers by m e a n s of splitting of
hypertrophied m u s c l e fibers and the d e v e l o p m e n t of m u s c l e fibers
from m u s c l e "buds" and c e l l u l a r - s a t e l l i t e s (V. Z. G u d z , 1968,
1976).

50.
both fiber types and their c o n t r a c t i l e q u a l i t i e s do not change
d e s p i t e the m u s c l e s ' enhanced oxidizing capabilities (P. D. Goll-
nick, et a l . , 1973). However, d i s c u s s i o n of the p o s s i b i l i t y or
impossibility to alter the individual differences in the fast and
slow fiber ratio as a result of t r a i n i n g , indicates that there is
a predilection for the second position (D. L. Costill, et a l . ,
1976; P. 0. A s t r a n d , K. R. R o d a h l , '77; P. V. K o m i , et a l . , '77).
Increased strength is conditioned by improvement of the
intra-muscular regulatory mechanism — an increase in the number
of motor units i n v o l v e d in m u s c u l a r t e n s i o n , increased motor-
neuron impulsation frequency and its time synchronization. This
is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a s t r e n g t h e n i n g of the intensity of the ex-
citatory influences, to w h i c h the m o t o r - n e u r o n s are e x p o s e d from
the n e u r o n s and r e c e p t o r s of the higher m o t o r levels (the motor
cortex, subcortical motor centers, i n t e r m e d i a t e n e u r o n s of the
spinal c o r t e x ) .
M a x i m u m strength is increased chiefly by involving large
(high-threshold) m o t o r units in the c o n t r a c t i o n ; and w h e n doing
e n d u r a n c e w o r k small (low-threshold) units. In the latter case
it is p o s s i b l e to a l t e r n a t e their a c t i v i t y , w h i c h e n a b l e s one to
maintain work-capacity longer. Explosive-strength, is m a n i f e s t e d
by a rapid i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of w o r k i n g t e n s i o n ; and to a s i g n i f i -
cant extent is d e t e r m i n e d by the nature of the motor-neuron
impulsation activating the m u s c l e s . It is c h i e f l y the motor-
neuron's initial impulsation frequency and d e g r e e of synchroniza-
tion that results in a faster m o b i l i z a t i o n of t h e m o t o r units.
It has been shown that the F ( t ) curve of explosive-effort
has three c o m p o n e n t s (Y. V. Verkhoshansky, 1963, 1970) and is
determined by such q u a l i t i e s of the n e u r o - m u s c u l a r a p p a r a t u s a s :
absolute-strength, the a b i l i t y to q u i c k l y g e n e r a t e e x t e r n a l force
at the b e g i n n i n g of w o r k i n g - t e n s i o n (starting-strength) and the
a b i l i t y to intensify working-force at the beginning of movement,
i.e., muscle contraction (acceleration-strength). T h e correct-
ness of isolating starting and a c c e l e r a t i o n - s t r e n g t h has been
corroborated by e l e c t r o - m y o - g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h ; which revealed dif-
ferences in the m o t o r - n e u r o n a l ensemble inherent to them; and
recruitment of motor-units and impulsation frequency of the
motor-neurons d u r i n g the d e v e l o p m e n t of e x p l o s i v e - f o r c e (N. A.
Masalgin, 1980). This c o n f i r m s the assumption that starting-
strength is to a c e r t a i n extent c o n d i t i o n e d by the innate quali-
ties of the neuro-muscular apparatus, and in particular, the
ratio of fast to s l o w fibers in the m u s c l e s (figure 2 0 ) .

Figure 20. Ratio between % of slow m o t o r units and time of

a c h i e v i n g 3 0 % of Po force (I. T. V u t a s a l o , P. V. K o m i , 1 9 7 8 ) .

The specialization of the neuro-muscular apparatus to

primarily develop absolute, starting and a c c e l e r a t i o n - s t r e n g t h is
conditioned c h i e f l y by the m a g n i t u d e of the e x t e r n a l resistance
the athlete overcomes. Thus, as the m o m e n t of inertia of a
rotating mass increases, resisting movement; in a factoral
structure of e x p l o s i v e - s t r e n g t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , the roles of
s t a r t i n g - s t r e n g t h and speed of m o v e m e n t d e c r e a s e ; and v i c e - v e r s a ,
the roles of a b s o l u t e and a c c e l e r a t i o n strength increase (table
2). Thus, the g r e a t e r the external r e s i s t a n c e , t h e larger the
role of a b s o l u t e - s t r e n g t h ; its c o n n e c t i o n to body d i m e n s i o n s and
stage of training h a s been c o n f i r m e d indirectly.

Table 2
A l t e r a t i o n s in Factor S t r u c t u r e of S p e e d - S t r e n g t h
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of E x p l o s i v e - E f f o r t (Thigh E x t e n s i o n ) of
D i s c u s T h r o w e r s , w i t h Increasing R e s i s t a n c e
(in %, I. M. D o b r o v o l s k y )

The functional s p e c i a l i z a t i o n of t h e organism, over many-

years of t r a i n i n g , is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p e r f e c t i o n i n g of the
metabolic p r o c e s s e s p r o v i d i n g the e n e r g y for m u s c u l a r work, by
m a i n t a i n i n g the ATP b a l a n c e . Thus, in e x p l o s i v e - e f f o r t types of
sports or s p o r t s w h e r e there is r e l a t i v e l y brief w o r k of high
intensity, energy-acquisition by the functioning muscles is
improved by raising the power of the m e t a b o l i c processes, i.e.,
the speed of energy l i b e r a t i o n and r e s t o r a t i o n of ATP balance.
chiefly b y a n a e r o b i c m e a n s (phospho-creatinase r e a c t i o n s ) . Dur-
ing prolonged w o r k of submaximum power, more capacious metabolic
p r o c e s s e s are u t i l i z e d and p e r f e c t e d , the basis of w h i c h is the
anaerobic o x i d a t i o n of c a r b o h y d r a t e s (glycolisis). This method
of r e s y n t h e s i s of ATP is not as powerful as the p h o s p h o - c r e a t i n i -
zation reactions, but in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the g r e a t e r s u p p l y of
oxidizing substances (carbohydrates) it has a g r e a t e r c a p a c i t y .
And finally, d u r i n g p r o l o n g e d w o r k of m o d e r a t e intensity, the
highest (aerobic) r e s y n t h e s i s of ATP capacity is u t i l i z e d , where
in a d d i t i o n to c a r b o h y d r a t e s , lipids can be used.
The correct concepts concerning energy-acquisition for
muscular w o r k , play an important role in resolving the m e t h o d i c a l
q u e s t i o n s of t r a i n i n g . It has a l r e a d y been pointed out (see 1.4)
scrutiny of the functional s p e c i a l i z a t i o n of the o r g a n i s m at the
vegetative and m o t o r s y s t e m s level is unacceptable, especially
knowledge of the physiological mechanisms of endurance with
respect to the "respiratory" functions and m a x i m u m oxygen con-
sumption (MOC). And, s i n c e existing v i e w p o i n t s of e n d u r a n c e are
still based on such n o t i o n s , improvement of m o d e r n methods of
e n d u r a n c e d e v e l o p m e n t is n o w , particularly urgent. Let's look at
this q u e s t i o n in d e t a i l .
First, a t h l e t e s w h o have e q u i v a l e n t MOC levels show d i f f e r -
ent results, and v i c e - v e r s a , a t h l e t e s w i t h d i f f e r e n t levels of
a e r o b i c p r o d u c t i v i t y d e m o n s t r a t e t h e same r e s u l t s . For e x a m p l e ,
top m i d d l e - d i s t a n c e runners of the 40's had the same MOC indices
as today's athletes, d e s p i t e significant d i f f e r e n c e s in sport
results (J. Faulkner, 1968). T h e r e are no r e l i a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s
b e t w e e n a t h l e t e s of d i f f e r e n t qualification, in the development
of aerobic potential; however, these d i f f e r e n c e s are reliable
w i t h respect to a n a e r o b i c p r o d u c t i v i t y (M. Y. Nabotnikova, 1972;
B. S. S e r a f i m o v a , 1 9 7 4 ; H. R u s k o , 1976 and o t h e r s ) .
Second, the MOC levels in highly-qualified athletes
stabilizes, but r e s u l t s c o n t i n u e to improve. For e x a m p l e , over a
4-5 year period the MOC levels of the best Soviet and Swedish
skaters stabilized, a l t h o u g h their results improved from year to
year (V. A. Orlov, T. L. Sharova, 1977). MOC levels remained
practically unchanged in q u a l i f i e d c y c l i s t s (road-racers) over
many-years training, w h i l e r e s u l t s improved (G. V. Melenberg, et
al., 1972).
Third, a r e l i a b l e d e c r e a s e in MOC levels has been observed
in the competition period, especially in cyclists (V. A.
B a k h v a l o v , 1 9 7 4 ; V. M. Z a t s i o r s k y , et a l . , 1 9 7 4 ) , swimmers (B. S.
Serafimov, 1974; V. M. Volkov, et a l . , 1974; V. I. N a u m e n k o ,
1 9 7 8 ) , s k i e r s (V. V. V a s i l i e v , V. V. T r u n i n , 1 9 7 4 ; A. G. Z i m a , et
al., 1975), skaters (B. A. Stenin, 1973; Y. N. Vavilov, 1977),
middle-distance runners (S. A. Loktyev, 1978, E. P. Borisov,
1979; V. A. Sirenko, 1981) and h o c k e y p l a y e r s (V. M. Koloskov,
1976). There is a d e c r e a s i n g c o r r e l a t i o n between MOC and sport
results. This correlation is r = 0.7 in the p r e p a r a t i o n period
and it is r = 0.4 in the c o m p e t i t i o n period (V. V. Vasiliev, V.
V. Trunin, 1974; G. V. Melenberg, 1 9 8 1 ) .
So, the data p r e s e n t e d indicates that MOC, in-and-of-itself
is no g u a r a n t e e of h i g h sport results. Apart from a e r o b i c p o w e r ,
other f a c t o r s play a r o l e , in the o p i n i o n s of specialists; such
as the a b i l i t y to p e r f o r m w o r k for a prolonged period of time at
a level of o x y g e n c o n s u m p t i o n , c l o s e to the MOC and the ability
to e f f e c t i v e l y u t i l i z e a v a i l a b l e e n e r g y potential under c o m p e t i -
tion c o n d i t i o n s . This c o n c e r n s the d e c r e a s e in MOC in the c o m p e -
tition period; this p h e n o m e n o n was explained as the d e t r a i n a b i l -
ity of the a e r o b i c f u n c t i o n s or the a n t a g o n i s m inherent to the
a e r o b i c and a n a e r o b i c p r o c e s s e s (V. M. Zatsiorsky, et a l . , 1974;
N. I. Volkov, 1975).
Practical improvement of the m e t a b o l i c p r o c e s s e s in endur-
ance sports is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e x p a n s i o n of the potential to
utilize aerobic sources of e n e r g y - a c q u s i t i o n by raising the
Threshold of Anaerobic Exchange (TANE), i.e., that level of
oxygen consumption at w h i c h the a n a e r o b i c processes are acti-
vated. Anaerobic work is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50% as effective as
aerobic, therefore it is to the a t h l e t e ' s a d v a n t a g e to execute
prolonged, i n t e n s e work w i t h o u t the p r e l i m i n a r y a c c u m u l a t i o n of
lactic acid and to include a n a e r o b i c energy-production (E. H.
Christensen, P. Hogberg, 1950).
 Since TANE d e p e n d s on M O C , it is c o n s i d e r e d e x p e d i t i o u s to
strive to raise M O C ; and in p a r t i c u l a r , to create s o m e " r e s e r v e "
of a e r o b i c power at the end of the p r e p a r a t o r y period in order to
avoid a d e c r e a s e in M O C in the c o m p e t i t i o n period (in c o n n e c t i o n
with increasing the portion of anaerobic glycolytic loading) and
render a n e g a t i v e a f f e c t on the a t h l e t e ' s specific w o r k - c a p a c i t y .
Considering that a s i g n i f i c a n t portion of the energy-acquisition
of intense m u s c u l a r w o r k is realized by d r a w i n g in t h e g l y c o l y t i c
mechanism of ATP resynthesis, it is a d v i s a b l e to execute a
specific part of the training load w i t h a high lactate c o n c e n t r a -
tion in the blood.
However, recent data indicates that an increase in e n d u r a n c e
is a s s o c i a t e d m o r e w i t h enhancing the m u s c l e s ' a b i l i t y to utilize
a higher percentage of the o x y g e n in the blood t h a n w i t h increas-
ing the amount of oxygen in the blood stream and improving the
o x y g e n s u p p l y to the working muscles (B. Ekblom, 1969; L. B.
Rowel 1, 1 9 7 1 ; B. Saltin, 1974 ). C o n s e q u e n t l y , it is not the m a g -
nitude of MOC, but intra-muscular factors, conditioning the
a d a p t a t i o n of the m u s c l e s to p r o l o n g e d intense w o r k , which d e t e r -
m i n e the s p o r t s m a n ' s e n d u r a n c e . A rise in intra-muscular energy
potential, the power of the oxidation processes and the
contractile (strength) q u a l i t i e s of the muscles, decrease the
speed of g l y c o l i s i s (E. A. N e w s h a l m e , P. Y. R a n d l e , 1 9 6 4 ; B. S a l -
tin, J. K a r l s s o n , 1 9 7 1 ; P. P a u l , et a l . , 1966; G. G r i m b y , et a l . ,
1967). At the same t i m e , t h e r e is a s i g n i f i c a n t d r o p in the end
products of metabolism, including the speed of oxidation of
lactate in the w o r k i n g m u s c l e s (T. J o r f e l d t , 1970). It is in the
skeletal muscles and not in the liver and myocardium, as has
a l w a y s been b e l i e v e d , w h e r e there is a d r o p in lactate d u r i n g and
a f t e r work (T. J o r f e l d t , 1970; H. G. K n u t t e n , 1971; P. D. G o l l -
nick, L. Hermansen, 1 9 7 3 ) .
So, the development of e n d u r a n c e is a s s o c i a t e d with the
functional specialization of the skeletal muscles -- the
enhancement of their s t r e n g t h and o x i d a t i o n q u a l i t i e s ; and not
w i t h improvement of respiratory abilities. Well t h e n , the funda-
mental emphasis in the d e v e l o p m e n t of e n d u r a n c e should be to
decrease the p o r t i o n of glycolisis in supplying t h e energy for
work and improvement of the m u s c l e s ' ability to o x i d i z e lactate
during w o r k ; and not trying to get "accustomed" to high l e v e l s of
lactate c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in the b l o o d . In other w o r d s , the d e v e l -
opment of endurance should be oriented c h i e f l y to the e l i m i n a t i o n
of the n o n - c o n f o r m i t y between the m u s c l e s ' g l y c o l y t i c and oxida-
tional abilities, w h i c h is the m a i n reason for the h i g h concen-
tration of lactate; and, to m a x i m u m u t i l i z a t i o n of the aerobic
p a t h w a y of energy-acquisition for the o r g a n i s m .
Recently, hemo-dynamic factors have been shown to play an
important role in the functional s p e c i a l i z a t i o n of the organism
during e n d u r a n c e w o r k (V. V. V a s i l i e v , 1970, 1974; P. P. O z o l i n ,
E. B. P a r t s i k , 1970; M. S. D a n i l o v , 1980; G. G. K u r b a n o v , 1977;
L. B. Rowel 1, 1 9 7 1 ; L. K a i j s e r , 1 9 7 0 ; J. K a r l s s o n , 1 9 7 1 ; P. D.
Gollnick, et a l . , 1975). The r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of blood and an in-
crease in circulation to the w o r k i n g muscles contributes to
satisfying the muscles' oxygen requirements and the removal of
anaerobic metabolites.
D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of the v e s s i c u l a r reaction p r o v i d i n g effec-
tive r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of b l o o d - f l o w and an o p t i m a l b l o o d - s u p p l y to
the w o r k i n g m u s c l e s t a k e s p l a c e in the competition period, as a
result of the significant aerobic loading executed during the
preparatory period. For e x a m p l e , improvement of cyclists' re-
sults (in 25 km r o a d - r a c i n g ) were accompanied by a d e c r e a s e in
MOC in the c o m p e t i t i o n p e r i o d ; and just the o p p o s i t e , the peak
b l o o d - f l o w to the lower e x t r e m i t i e s increased (figure 21). At
the same t i m e , c a r d i a c o u t p u t d e c r e a s e d in the c o m p e t i t i o n period,
which is i n d i c a t i v e of the e c o n o m i z a t i o n of t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of
the c a r d i o - v a s c u l a r system (N. A. S t e p o c h k i n , et a l . , 1970). The
very same conditions creating economy of a e r o b i c e n e r g y - a c q u i s i -
tion, decrease the volume of glycolytic reactions and, conse-
quently, lessen the o r g a n i s m ' s d e p e n d e n c e on MOC for its work-
capacity. In this way, it is p o s s i b l e to e l i m i n a t e the basic
reason for the d e c r e a s e in MOC during the c o m p e t i t i o n period; and
if this is s o , t h e n the a s s u m p t i o n c o n c e r n i n g the e x i s t a n c e of an
antagonism between the d e v e l o p m e n t of the aerobic and anaerobic
m e c h a n i s m s can be placed in doubt (G. V. M e l l e n b e r g , M. U. Khvan,
1982 ) .

Figure 21. 2 5 - k i l o m e t e r c y c l i n g r e s u l t s (1) and a l t e r a t i o n s in

its correlation w i t h MOC (2) and peak blood flow to the lower
e x t r e m i t i e s (3) i n d e p e n d e n t of the v o l u m e of the t r a i n i n g load in
the year c y c l e (G. V. M e l l e n b e r g , 1 9 8 1 ) :
I - P r e p a r a t o r y Period
II - C o m p e t i t i o n Period

One should c o n s i d e r the fact that T A N E and MOC levels can

c h a n g e independent of e a c h o t h e r ; w h i l e there is some d e c r e a s e in
MOC during the c o m p e t i t i o n p e r i o d , T A N E can increase (V. M.
Z a t s i o r s k y , et a l . , 1974; V. A. S i r e n k o , 1979; A. A. N u r m e k i v a n ,
1974). Research indicates that lactate c o n c e n t r a t i o n in the
blood can i n c r e a s e , as a result t r a i n i n g , by 1 6 % , but the MOC

58.
level in the blood i n c r e a s e s by only 7% (C. G. W i l l i a m s , et a l . ,
1967). It has also been shown, that if t h e mean percentage
change in MOC of q u a l i f i e d s k a t e r s is 5-10% in the competition
period, then the reaction of regional b l o o d - f l o w is a l t e r e d more
significantly (50-250%) [G. V . M e l l e n b e r g , 1981). This also cor-
roborates the fact that the e f f e c t of training does not consist
of raising MOC, but in p e r f e c t i n g t h e h e m o - d y n a m i c function of
oxygen transport; which s a t i s f i e s the o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s of the
tissues and is c o n d i t i o n e d by a d e c r e a s e in the c o n t r i b u t i o n of
anaerobic metabolism.
Consequently, along w i t h the rise in strength and oxidation
qualities of the m u s c l e s , the r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of blood flow and
improved local vessicular reaction are important conditions for
d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e s o - c a l l e d local-muscular-endurance. Sport e x -
e r c i s e s a r e p e r f o r m e d by specific muscle g r o u p s . And, in-so-far-
as the metabolic processes in these muscles are especially
intense, then it is w i t h i n them that the p r o d u c t s of anaerobic
exchange accumulate; resulting in fatigue and decreased work-
capacity. Therefore, the m u s c l e s ' a d a p t a t i o n t o a n a e r o b i c work
is clearly, selectively local in n a t u r e . For e x a m p l e , if one
trains different muscle groups, then one can achieve an a p p r o x i -
mately equivalent functional e f f e c t at the vegetative systems
level. However, it is d i s p l a y e d only in specific situations,
i.e., w h i l e w o r k i n g those same m u s c l e g r o u p s (J. Clausen, et a l . ,
1970; J. H o l m e r , P.-O. A s t r a n d , 1972). With skiers, running and
imitation skiing without poles r a i s e s the general functional
level in the p r e p a r a t o r y period, including MOC; however they
do not d e v e l o p that s p e c i f i c physical preparedness that is neces-
sary for speed of m o v e m e n t on skis. Whereas imitation skiing and
"skiing" on r o l l e r s w i t h poles c o n t r i b u t e to the d e v e l o p m e n t of
local muscular endurance and the formation of a vessicular
r e a c t i o n in t h e m u s c l e s of the upper e x t r e m i t i e s ; which lead to a
rational r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of blood flow and an i n c r e a s e in special-
work-capacity a p p l i c a b l e t o skiing (V. D. Yevstratov, et al.,
1975).

59.
 Local muscular endurance is t h e a t h l e t e ' s ability to d i s p l a y
the strength component of m o v e m e n t for a prolonged period of
time. This can be d e m o n s t r a t e d by the example of 400 m e t e r r u n -
ning, e s p e c i a l l y in t h e a l t e r a t i o n s in the stride length (L), and
t h e tempo (T) ratio, w i t h the i n c r e a s e in sport m a s t e r y (figure
22). It is not hard to c o n c l u d e that stride length is m a i n t a i n e d
during some d e c r e a s e in t e m p o , at the h i g h - m a s t e r y level, by
local strength-endurance. In all cases, w i t h a t h l e t e s of d i f f e r -
ent sex and q u a l i f i c a t i o n (in t h e fatigue s t a t e ) , stride length
decreases to a greater e x t e n t than tempo, but the d e c r e a s e in
speed is due e x c l u s i v e l y to the role of the strength factor.

So, the r o l e of local m u s c u l a r e n d u r a n c e in s p o r t s requiring

prolonged maintenance of a specific work-capacity, is quite
obvious. However, methodical ways of emphasizing the d e v e l o p m e n t

60.
of local m u s c u l a r e n d u r a n c e still need serious e x p e r i m e n t a l work.
Undoubtedly, one should look for ways to intensify m u s c u l a r work
in t h o s e r e g i m e s , inherent to the specific sport and as means of
such intensification -- to utilize special-strength exercises (Y.
V. Verkhoshansky, 1977).
With respect to what has just b e e n d i s c u s s e d , one should
look at the e x p e r i m e n t a l data that shows strength-training, to a
greater extent than endurance-training, leads to a rise in
hemoglobin content (Y. A. Petrov, V. I. L a p c h e n k o v , 1978) and
myoglobin (P. K. P a t t e n g a l e , I. 0. Holloszy, 1 9 6 7 , H. Hemmingsen,
1963); and that s t r e n g t h - t r a i n i n g , even in the b e g i n n i n g stages
of t r a i n i n g , c o n t r i b u t e s m o r e to the largest i m p r o v e m e n t s in d i s -
t a n c e s p o r t s than a e r o b i c training (G. P. Neminushchii, V. P.
Filin, 1972; V. M. Gavrilenko, V. V. Mikhailov, 1 9 8 1 ) . Research-
ers p o i n t e d - o u t the i m p o r t a n c e of local (strength) e n d u r a n c e for
c y c l i c types of s p o r t s long a g o (H. R e i n d e l , 1962; F. F e t z , 1965;
T. N e t t , 1 9 6 4 ; E. A s m u s s e n , 1969; B. C o o k , P. B y r n s t o n , 1973; M.
S i m r i , 1 9 7 4 ; A. A. N u r m e k i v i , 1974). U n f o r t u n a t e l y , in our t i m e ,
its role has not b e e n g i v e n its d u e . Methodical conceptions con-
cerning e n d u r a n c e d e v e l o p m e n t w e r e o r i e n t e d chiefly t o improving
the v e g e t a t i v e f u n c t i o n s ; m a i n l y by d i s t a n c e w o r k , w h i c h are a
factor in making progress in c y c l i c s p o r t s ; especially middle
distance events in r u n n i n g .
Furthermore, the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d data justifies the important
s i g n i f i c a n c e of solving t h e m e t h o d i c a l problem of e n d u r a n c e , from
the standpoint of w h e r e it is c o n s i d e r e d a c o m p l e x of m o t o r a b i l -
ities (H. R e i n d e l , 1 9 6 2 ; H. Roskamm, et a l . , 1 9 5 2 ; Y. B r o g l i , N.
Antonov, 1969; L. A. L a r s o n , P. D. Yocom, 1 9 5 2 ; S. P o s k e r , I.
Steblo, 1 9 6 7 ; F. W i l t , 1970). In a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h i s , t h e c h a r -
a c t e r i s t i c s of e n d u r a n c e are d e f i n e d as the v e g e t a t i v e functions,
p r o v i d i n g t h e o x y g e n t h e o r g a n i s m needs and t h e functional state
of the neuro-muscular apparatus. From this standpoint, the
development of e n d u r a n c e should be c a r r i e d - o u t in a c o m p l e x way,
based on t h e i n t e r - c o n f o r m i t y of improvement in v e g e t a t i v e func-
tions and t h e m o t o r o r g a n s and a b a l a n c e d r e g u l a t i o n of their
functions.

61.
 These characteristics of e n d u r a n c e a r e in a c c o r d a n c e with
the c o n c e p t i o n s of t h e m o t o r - v i s c e r a l reflexes (M. R. Mogendo-
vich, 1962) and the e n e r g y p r i n c i p l e of the skeletal musculature
(I. A. A r s h a v s k y , 1 9 6 7 ) ; in c o n f o r m i t y with w h i c h , the e f f e c t i v e -
ness of muscular work is d e t e r m i n e d by the interdependence
b e t w e e n the e x t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e of the m o t o r act, the t o p o g r a p h y ,
s e q u e n t i a l n e s s and the w o r k regime of the m u s c l e s taking part on
the one h a n d ; and the respiratory, c i r c u l a t o r y and e n e r g y reac-
tions forming w i t h i n the organism, on the o t h e r . W i t h respect to
the i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e of t h e v e g e t a t i v e and motor functions, the
latter plays the key role i n - s o - f a r - a s the locomotor apparatus
and the s p e c i f i c s of its a c t i v i t i e s d e t e r m i n e the state of the
vegetative systems, the character and emphasis of their
functional p e r f e c t i o n i n g . It is n e c e s s a r y to point out that the
functional unity and inter-amplifying role of the vegetative
s y s t e m s and the m o t o r a p p a r a t u s are important for improving w o r k -
capacity not only in e n d u r a n c e type sports but in all types of
sports. Therefore, to m a k e a d i s t i n c t i o n between them, w h i c h is
q u i t e typical in t h e m e t h o d i c s of s p e c i a l - p h y s i c a l - t r a i n i n g , is a
flagrant error.
So, r e t u r n i n g to t h e p r o c e s s of functional s p e c i a l i z a t i o n of
the organism over many-years training; its most general features
a r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e p y r a m i d t y p e of scheme (figure 2 3 ) . Man is
endowed w i t h an u n l i m i t e d a b i l i t y to resolve any motor task and
to quantitatively perfect t h i s a b i l i t y . Nature has g i v e n him
universal mechanisms of c o o r d i n a t i o n , regulation and energy-
acquisition for m o t o r function; and a c c o m m o d a t i o n for the reali-
zation of m o v e m e n t s requiring the d i s p l a y of speed, strength, or
endurance. These m e c h a n i s m s fully e n s u r e the s u c c e s s of man's
activities in the c o n d i t i o n s of daily living and have extensive
adaptive possibilities (first tier of t h e p y r a m i d ) . Alterations
in e v e r y d a y living c o n d i t i o n s , brought about by sport a c t i v i t i e s ,
activates the m o t o r function. The m o t o r function specializes
chiefly by e m p h a s i z i n g the d e v e l o p m e n t of the a b i l i t y to display
explosive force and specific endurance (the second tier of the
pyramid); independent of t h e type of sport. Then the in-depth
stage of functional s p e c i a l i z a t i o n of the o r g a n i s m f o l l o w s , which
along w i t h improving further its life-protection mechanisms, it
forms the s t r u c t u r e of the a t h l e t e ' s special-physical-prepared-
ness (the third tier of the p y r a m i d ) . T h e latter p r e s e n t s its
own rational form with respect to the interaction of the
vegetative and motor systems, which secure the a t h l e t e ' s high
w o r k - c a p a c i t y in s p o r t s . W i t h i n the c o n f i n e s of such s t r u c t u r e s ,
the functional systems unify in c o r r e l a t i o n a l and s u b o r d i n a t i o n a l
relationships. In the first case (a c o r r e l a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p )
the form of their r e l a t i o n s h i p is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e effective
i n t e r a c t i o n of all the s y s t e m s r e s p o n s i b l e for securing the w o r k -
ing r e q u i r e m e n t s of the o r g a n i s m ; in the second case (subordina-
tional relationship) the p r o d u c t i v i t y of o n e system is enhanced
by the functional p o t e n t i a l s of the o t h e r s . The structure of
special-physical-preparedness is d e f i n i t i v e , i n - s o - f a r - a s it is
d e t e r m i n e d by the o r g a n i s m ' s s p e c i f i c work regime, and does not
conform to c o n d i t i o n s , inherent to other types of sport a c t i v i -
ties .

Methodical study of the s t r u c t u r e of special-physical-pre-

paredness is realized w i t h the help of complex statistical
analysis of a w i d e range of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , which assess the
various a s p e c t s of the a t h l e t e ' s w o r k - c a p a c i t y . Results of a
factor analysis are especially informative in those instances
when o n e of the c o m p o s i t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s s e s s e s t h e prepared-
ness (state) of a t h l e t e s of d i f f e r e n t q u a l i f i c a t i o n or the same
a t h l e t e at d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s of preparation.

63.
 This type of m a t e r i a l , o b t a i n e d in many types of sports,
indicates that there a r e essential alterations in the structure
of an a t h l e t ' s p h y s i c a l - p r e p a r e d n e s s w i t h t h e g r o w t h of m a s t e r y .
T h e s e a l t e r a t i o n s h a v e been o b s e r v e d in a t h l e t e s of high and low
qualification; but at the high m a s t e r y level, they appear in t w o
forms. One of them a p p e a r s in the f i r s t - g r o u p i n g of composite
factors and t h e e x p a n d i n g p o r t i o n of contributions in the g e n e r -
a l i z a t i o n of d i s p e r s i o n e x c e r p t s ; from which a c q u i r e p r i m a r y sig-
n i f i c a n c e w i t h the g r o w t h of m a s t e r y . T y p i c a l l y the formation of
qualitatively new factors for the second form, replace one,
usually a general factor or unify t w o "old" factors.
The data presented in table 3 shows that athletes (high
jumpers, class I-MS), along w i t h t h e g r o w t h of m a s t e r y , form the
specific ability to g e n e r a t e powerful force d u r i n g t h e take-off
in jumping e x e r c i s e s (factor I) and perfect the a b i l i t y to p o w e r -
fully extend the body w i t h the a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of the back
muscles (factor I I I ) . The a b i l i t y of the e x t e n s o r - m u s c l e s of the
take-off leg to d i s p l a y e x p l o s i v e force under isometric condi-
tions (factor II) acquires important significance. This ability
forms from the f o u n d a t i o n of f a c t o r s IV and V, inherent to the
s t r u c t u r e of class II and III a t h l e t e s . At the same t i m e , indi-
cators, c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the e x p l o s i v e c a p a b i l i t i e s of the plantar
flexors, shift from factor II (class II and III a t h l e t e s ) to fac-
tor IV (class I a t h l e t e s and M S ) ; the contribution of which
diminishes significantly. On the w h o l e , t h e role of s p e c i a l -
p h y s i c a l - p r e p a r e d n e s s of jumpers increases, about which the rise
in the g e n e r a l d i s p e r s i o n of e x c e r p t s from 79.2 to 8 1 . 1 % is i n d i -
cative .
As an important practical consequence emanating from the
data presented, o n e needs to take n o t e that the c o n t r i b u t i o n of
isometric strength in the formation of the specific ability to
generate explosive force in the take-off a c q u i r e s great signifi-
cance for a t h l e t e s of h i g h - q u a l i f i c a t i o n . This is d u e to the
large loading t h e m u s c l e s e x p e r i e n c e in the take-off of jumping;
w h e r e the support (take-off) leg a c t s as a lever, and c o n v e r t s
the angular v e c t o r speed of the body, acquired in t h e r u n . Pur-

64 .
thermore, t h e p l a n t a r flexors play a d i m i n i s h i n g role, because
under enormous overloading the m u s c l e s of t h e support leg are
a l r e a d y u n a b l e to m a k e a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n to the d y n a m i c s
of t h e t a k e - o f f .

Table 3

Factor S t r u c t u r e of S p e c i a l - P h y s i c a l - P r e p a r e d n e s s of
H i g h J u m p e r s (in %, S. V. N i k i t i n )

The n a t u r e of t h e a l t e r a t i o n s in an a t h l e t e ' s s t r u c t u r e of
special-preparedness in c y c l i c types of s p o r t s is p r e s e n t e d in
t a b l e 4. One should note t h e s h a r p rise in the role of e n e r g e t i c
effectiveness of executing special work and the multi-sided
technical p r e p a r e d n e s s of a t h l e t e s , c o n c e r n i n g w h i c h these fac-
tors m a k e an increasing contribution in the g e n e r a l d i s p e r s i o n of
excerpts. O n e should a l s o p o i n t out t h e unity of the first two
factors (power and a e r o b i c c a p a c i t y of c l a s s I a t h l e t e s ) in o n e
(aerobic p r o d u c t i v i t y ) and for MS its role d e c r e a s e s in the g e n -
eral s t r u c t u r e of an a t h l e t e ' s s p e c i a l - p r e p a r e d n e s s . At t h e same
t i m e the s i g n i f i c a n c e of anaerobic power increases somewhat (fac-
tor I I I ) . T h e r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d i n d i c a t e that t h e p r e s e n c e of a
high level of a e r o b i c p o t e n t i a l is still q u i t e i n s u f f i c i e n t for
achieving h i g h r e s u l t s in s k a t i n g . In order to r a t i o n a l l y and
economically realize a high level of aerobic power, it is
necessary to have perfect m o v e m e n t t e c h n i q u e and a high level of
anaerobic (glycolytic) productivity; expanding the athlete's
tactical possibilities.

Table 4

Factor S t r u c t u r e of Special P r e p a r e d n e s s of S k a t e r s
(in %, E. A. S h c h i r k o v y e t s , A. N. R o s o v t s y e v , 1977)

The r e s u l t s of factoral research is in itself a statistical

model of the s t r u c t u r e of t h e athlete's special-physical-pre-
paredness. I n d i v i d u a l l y this s t r u c t u r e can have d i f f e r e n t forms
which are determined by the q u a l i t a t i v e peculiarities of the
motor qualities, inherent to the individual and the o r g a n i z a t i o n
of t r a i n i n g . T h e r e f o r e , w h e n p r o g r a m m i n g training it is n e c e s -
sary to take into c o n s i d e r a t i o n the general tendencies in the
alterations of the structure of special-physical-preparedness
w i t h t h e g r o w t h of m a s t e r y in the g i v e n t y p e of sport; as well as
the individual peculiarities of a s p e c i f i c athlete and those
alterations in the level and the r e l a t i o n s h i p of the functional
characteristics, w h i c h a r e for him, an o b j e c t i v e n e c e s s i t y .
 2.4 R e g u l a r i t i e s of A t t a i n i n g Sport-Technical Mastery
T h e p e r f e c t i o n i n g of technical mastery is the most important
c o m p o s i t e part of the l o n g - t e r m p r o c e s s of the o r g a n i s m ' s a d a p t a -
t i o n t o sport a c t i v i t i e s . T h e e s s e n c e o f p e r f e c t i o n i n g technical
mastery, r e v o l v e s around the a t h l e t e ' s skill t o fully u t i l i z e his
constantly rising m o t o r potential for e x e c u t i n g the m o t o r tasks
confronting him. T h e general a s p e c t s of t h i s are i l l u s t r a t e d by
figure 2 4 .

Figure 2 4 . T e n d e n c i e s i n the d y n a m i c s o f a t h l e t e ' s s p e c i a l - p h y s -

ical (A) and technical (B) p r e p a r e d n e s s .
S- sport results

I m p r o v e m e n t in sport results (S) is produced by c h i e f l y two

factors: a n i n c r e a s e i n the a t h l e t e ' s s p e c i a l - p h y s i c a l - p r e p a r e d -
ness (A) and his a b i l i t y to r e s t r i c t his m o v e m e n t s such that he
c a n fully r e a l i z e his g r o w i n g m o t o r potential (B). Consequently,
sport t e c h n i q u e is a c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g i n g , perfectioning element
of sport m a s t e r y . T h i s p e r f e c t i o n i n g can be fruitful and e f f e c -
tive only if it p r o v i d e s the f o r m a t i o n of a bio-mechanically

67
expeditious movement structure, conforming to the athlete's
actual level of physical preparedness. Ideally, present-day
technique work should take into account the subsequent rise in
this level and t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s y s t e m a t i c s e q u e n c e of improving
its e l e m e n t s .
Study of the p r o b l e m of attaining sport-technical-mastery
over many-years training r e q u i r e s that one look at two fundamen-
tal g r o u p s of q u e s t i o n s . T h e first g r o u p is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the
psycho-physiological m e c h a n i s m s of t h e r e g u l a t i o n of m a n ' s motor
functions and the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of a chaotic c o l l e c t i o n of m o v e -
ments, p e c u l i a r to n o v i c e a t h l e t e s , into a b i o m e c h a n i c a l l y a p p r o -
priate and an e n e r g e t i c a l l y e f f e c t i v e system of movement. The
second g r o u p is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the a t h l e t e ' s m o t o r potential, as
a necessary condition for the formation, p e r f e c t i o n i n g and e x p a n -
sion of the m o v e m e n t system's working potential.
The first g r o u p of questions has already been examined in a
number of special w o r k s (D. A. Donskoi, 1968; V. M. Diachkov,
1969; I. P. R a t o v , 1974), I will touch on them, only s u p e r f i -
cially. In the i n t e r e s t s of e x a m i n i n g the p r o b l e m s , in monograph
form, it is far m o r e important to consider t h e second g r o u p of
questions. Therefore, let's a d d r e s s the p e c u l i a r i t i e s of at-
taining sport-technical-mastery in some types of sports.
Types of Sports Requiring Powerful, Brief, Explosive
Efforts. The basic feature in these types of sports is the
athlete's skill to display a powerful, concentrated working
effort at the d e c i s i v e p h a s e of the sport a c t i o n . The chief p r e -
condition for this is the formation of a stable and steady (to
the d i s r u p t i n g f a c t o r s ) b i o d y n a m i c s t r u c t u r e of m o v e m e n t , as well
as a rational o r g a n i z a t i o n of the p r e p a r a t o r y p h a s e s c o n t r i b u t i n g
to its e f f e c t i v e r e p r o d u c t i o n . There is a constant perfectioning
of the b i o d y n a m i c s t r u c t u r e w i t h the growth of sport m a s t e r y ; a
l e n g t h e n i n g of the s e g m e n t s of the w o r k i n g - e f f o r t w h i c h directly
contributes to the e x e c u t i o n of the motor task and a shortening
of the s e g m e n t s of inhibiting forces. T h i s is reflected (in the
external c o m p o s i t i o n of the sport a c t i o n ) in an i n c r e a s e in the
working amplitude and speed of m o v e m e n t , and their rational

68.
harmony in time and s p a c e .
The athlete's e n h a n c e d motor potential and t h e a b i l i t y to
display powerful, e x p l o s i v e effort w i t h i n a s p e c i f i c t i m e frame
is the foremost c o n d i t i o n c o n t r i b u t i n g to the improvement of the
biodynamic s t r u c t u r e and an i n c r e a s e in the w o r k i n g - e f f e c t of a
sport act.
The data p r e s e n t e d in figure 25 c h a r a c t e r i z e s the m u l t i - y e a r
p r o c e s s of p e r f e c t i o n i n g sport m a s t e r y in the high jump. Let's
turn our attention first of all to the a c c e l e r a t e d increase in
speed-strength (Graph III and IV, where Po — is absolute-
strength, Fmax — is t h e m a x i m u m power of e x p l o s i v e - e f f o r t and N
-- is the power of e x p l o s i v e - e f f o r t ) . An increase in speed-
strength c o n t r i b u t e s to an i n c r e a s e in running speed (V, Graph
II) and a p e r f e c t i o n i n g of the m o v e m e n t system d u r i n g the take-
off (Graph I). T h e r e is an i n c r e a s e in the depth of squating of
the p r e - t a k e - o f f s t r i d e s , w h i c h is i n d i c a t i v e of a d e c r e a s e in
the knee a n g l e of the rotating leg in the last stride (KJrl).
Simultaneously, the take-off leg is placed on the support at a
s t r a i g h t e r knee a n g l e (KJtl) -- at a larger angle to the surface
sector (TL) and w i t h a lesser b e n d i n g in the knee joint during
the a m o r t i z a t i o n phase (KJtlAP).
So, the a f f e c t on the c e n t e r of the body's m a s s in the t a k e -
off increases, but the take-off leg is u t i l i z e d as a lever more
effectively for the r o t a t i n g speed v e c t o r , attained in t h e run.
Alteration of the nature of the i n t e r a c t i o n of jumping from the
s u p p o r t (Graph I I ) : shortens duration ( t ) ; there i s a n increase
in the v e r t i c a l m a k e - u p of t h e w o r k i n g force (Fy) and a decrease
in its horizontal composition (Fx), c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the "stopping"
forces segment. The c o r r e l a t i o n s between the speed-strength
abilities, presented in g r a p h s III and IV, increase.
In sport exercises associated w i t h t a k e - o f f s from a s u p p o r t ,
the n a t u r e of the i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h the latter (the s u p p o r t ) is
determined, to a great e x t e n t , by the a t h l e t e ' s speed-strength
development. The data (obtained in our l a b o r a t o r y ) presented in
figure 26 c o n c e r n i n g the c o r r e l a t i o n between a b s o l u t e (Po) and
explosive (I) s t r e n g t h from some p a r a m e t e r s of the F ( t ) curve.
was r e c o r d e d d u r i n g the take-off of the long jump (athletes of
different qualification, n = 40). Without doing a detailed
analysis of this d a t a , look only at that c i r c u m s t a n c e where Po
and I are c l o s e l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h the factors most essential for
assessment of take-off t e c h n i q u e , and furthest from the jump
p a r a m e t e r s of the F ( t ) curve.
Speed-strength preparedness plays a d e c i s i v e role in the
perfectioning of technical m a s t e r y of other types of sports
r e q u i r i n g the d i s p l a y of explosive-force, such as weightlifting
(A. A. Lukashev, 1972; B. A. Podlivayev, 1975; V. I. Frolov,
1976; V. N. Deniskin, 1979); track and field t h r o w e r s (K. K.
Metsur, 1975; Y. E. L a n k a , 1 9 7 7 ; B. I. S e l i v e r s t o v , 1 9 7 7 ) ; gym-
n a s t i c s (I. M . L e v o d y a n s k y , Y . V . M e n k h i n , 1 9 7 8 ) , and o t h e r s .
So, technical m a s t e r y , in t h o s e s p o r t s requiring the display
of explosive-force, is d e t e r m i n e d first and foremost by speed-
strength preparedness and the a t h l e t e ' s skill to fully utilize
it. The rise in the s p e e d - s t r e n g t h p r e p a r e d n e s s is the deter-
m i n i n g factor in the p r o g r e s s of t e c h n i c a l m a s t e r y . However the
requirements of technique and the s e q u e n t i a l n e s s of its perfec-
tioning over many-years training must conform strictly to the
athlete's potential, s i n c e those t e c h n i q u e e l e m e n t s and methods
which are available to an a t h l e t e at a high level of speed-
strength p r e p a r e d n e s s a r e beyond the c a p a b i l i t i e s o f p o o r l y p r e -
pared a t h l e t e s . Therefore an increase in special-strength-pre-
p a r e d n e s s o u t s t r i p s t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o m a s t e r i n g new, more complex
e l e m e n t s or v a r i a n t s of t e c h n i c a l m a s t e r y . Ignoring this c o n d i -
tion c r e a t e s i n s u r m o u n t a b l e i m p e d i m e n t s in the a t h l e t e ' s training
and extraordinarily c o m p l i c a t e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y to utilize the
principles of p r o g r a m m i n g and o r g a n i z a t i o n of training, to be
examined later.
Types of S p o r t s R e q u i r i n g a Precise Dosage of Force and
Spacially Precise M o v e m e n t s . P e c u l i a r i t i e s of these s p o r t s are
the c o - o r d i n a t i o n of force and the d i s p l a y of the right a m o u n t of
muscular tension n e c e s s a r y for e x e c u t i n g the motor task. In
order for technical m a s t e r y to p r o g r e s s in these types of sports
it is necessary to c r e a t e a "power r e s e r v e " of m o t o r p o t e n t i a l ,
i.e., the d e v e l o p m e n t of m o t o r a b i l i t i e s to a level w h i c h e x c e e d s
that which is n e c e s s a r y for e x e c u t i n g the motor task. This
"power reserve" p e r m i t s some v a r i a b i l i t y in the execution of
sport m o v e m e n t s w i t h o u t the d a n g e r of e x c e e d i n g the limits of the
available motor potential.
For example, in a r c h e r y technical m a s t e r y is c h a r a c t e r i z e d
by the p r e c i s e n e s s of r e p r o d u c i n g a given e f f o r t , reflecting an
ability to control muscular tension; and the ratio of the
strength of the b o w to m a x i m u m m u s c u l a r strength. An almost
linear d y n a m i c s b e t w e e n t h e s e i n d i c a t o r s and the g r o w t h of the
a t h l e t e s ' q u a l i f i c a t i o n , has been d i s c o v e r e d (figure 2 7 ) .

Figure 27. A l t e r a t i o n s in technical and physical p r e p a r e d n e s s of

a r c h e r s w i t h the r i s e i n q u a l i f i c a t i o n (B. I. Struck, 1975):
Sport r e s u l t s - - i n p o i n t s , a r e i n d i c a t e d o n the h o r i z o n t a l .
 Thus, errors in t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n of a given force (AFb) is
six times less for a m a s t e r of sport international c l a s s than for
a novice; and t h e force a p p l i e d to the bow-string (Fb/Fmax), is
approximately 1/2 of their (MSIC) maximum strength, while the
novices are using 3/4 of their s t r e n g t h . It is i n t e r e s t i n g to
o b s e r v e that the m a s t e r of sport can hold the b o w - s t r i n g in a
tension state a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4-times longer than a n o v i c e (Tmax);
although the release time (tr) has little to do w i t h qualifica-
tion. T h e r a t i o of release time to maximum holding t i m e d e p e n d s
to a s i g n i f i c a n t e x t e n t on the archer's qualification. The
release time of a m a s t e r of sport is about 1/5 of the maximum
h o l d i n g t i m e , w h e r e a s it is m o r e than 1/3 for n o v i c e s .
We e n c o u n t e r e d an interesting inter-dependence between the
technical and physical p r e p a r e d n e s s of t h e a t h l e t e s in t h e a f o r e -
mentioned case. The h i g h e r their m a s t e r y , the faster t h e rise in
such indicators of p h y s i c a l preparedness as absolute-strength
(Fmax) and s t a t i c - s t r e n g t h - e n d u r a n c e (Tmax). T h e s p e c i f i c fea-
tures of s p o r t s r e q u i r i n g p r e c i s e , s t r i c t l y dosed e f f o r t s , makes
t h e creation of an o r i g i n a l "power r e s e r v e " n e c e s s a r y ; the range
of w h i c h can g u a r a n t e e that one r e c e i v e s t h e necessary a m o u n t of
force d e s p i t e a l t e r a t i o n s of external forces.
There is yet a n o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c peculiarity. In the
preceding examples there was a rise in the c o r r e l a t i o n between
technical mastery (or sport results) and physical preparedness;
in the g i v e n c a s e , the reverse is t r u e , the correlation between
muscular strength and strength-endurance accompanying sport
results, decreases w i t h the growth of m a s t e r y . T h i s indicates
that physical preparedness is not fully u t i l i z e d , by far, and
that the limits of the "power r e s e r v e " do not h a v e a definitive
significance.
T y p e s of S p o r t s C h a r a c t e r i z e d by C h a n g i n g C o m p e t i t i o n C o n d i -
tions and R e q u i r i n g S p e c i f i c Endurance. Single-combat, sport
g a m e s and all-around s p o r t s b e l o n g to this g r o u p . A distinguish-
ing feature of technical m a s t e r y in these types of sport is the
presence of an e x t e n s i v e c o m p l e x of intricate motor actions,
requiring a h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d a b i l i t y to d i s p l a y explosive-force

74.
and the p o s s e s s i o n of a definite accommodative variability to
changing competition conditions. They are c h a r a c t e r i z e d a l s o by
a highly d e v e l o p e d a b i l i t y to resist fatigue without a decrase in
technique effectiveness, tactical a c t i o n s and m e t h o d s .
These peculiarities can be illustrated by using w r e s t l i n g as
an example. Thus, observations of athletes at the world
wrestling championships (Freestyle) showed that technical actions
clearly decreased by t h e end of the third period. The time
periods with the most t e c h n i c a l a c t i o n s w e r e at 1, 4 and 7
minutes, i.e., athletes are more active immediately after
resting. A l t h o u g h they w e r e prompted to do this by the rules of
competition, nevertheless, their specific e n d u r a n c e played an
important role.
In a laboratory experiment modeling competition matches (135
throws, 45 in e a c h p e r i o d ) , it was e s t a b l i s h e d that time of e x e -
cution of t e c h n i q u e m o d e s increased r e l i a b l y ; t h e r e was a r e d i s -
tribution of t h e time p a r a m e t e r s of the phasic s t r u c t u r e and a
d e c r e a s e in the q u a l i t y of its e x e c u t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y in the third
period. It was e s t a b l i s h e d a l s o that an a t h l e t e ' s ability to
display maximum force without time restriction decreases,
although insignificantly. S t r e n g t h - e n d u r a n c e d e c r e a s e d the most;
explosive and e s p e c i a l l y s t a r t i n g - s t r e n g t h d e c r e a s e also. So,
the q u a l i t y of technical m a s t e r y is, to a significant extent,
determined by strength-endurance. Strength-endurance increases
c o n s t a n t l y along w i t h the rise in the q u a l i f i c a t i o n of wrestlers,
which makes it possible for them to p r e s e r v e t e c h n i c a l activeness
in t h e p r e s e n c e of f a t i g u e for a longer period of time (A. P.
Khrenov, 1973). T h e p e r f e c t i o n i n g of the a e r o b i c m e c h a n i s m s of
e n e r g y - a c q u i s i t i o n is the basis for the d e v e l o p m e n t of a wrest-
ler's s t r e n g t h - e n d u r a n c e (A. A. S h e p i l o v , V. P. K l i n m i n , 1 9 7 7 ) .
A similar p i c t u r e is observed in b o x i n g . A boxer p e r f e c t s
technical m a s t e r y by m a s t e r i n g an a r s e n a l of striking a c t i o n s and
by individualizing the m a n n e r in w h i c h the blows a r e delivered.
The force and rate of the blows i n c r e a s e w i t h the g r o w t h of m a s -
tery. N o v i c e s a r e a b l e to d e l i v e r about 400 blows in 100 seconds
but h i g h l y - q u a l i f i e d boxers are a b l e to do about 1,500 (V. V.
Kim, 1976). T h e functional basis of the t e c h n i c a l - t a c t i c a l m a s -
tery of b o x e r s is e x p r e s s e d in the increased absolute-strength
and the d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e a b i l i t y to execute e x p l o s i v e - f o r c e of
high power (V. V. Filimonov, 1 9 7 9 ) , as well as in the p e r f e c t i o n -
ing of aerobic and a n a e r o b i c p r o d u c t i v i t y (P. N. Repnikov, 1977;
A. Mabruk Khedr, 1979). Thus, a comparison of t h e functional
preparedness of v i c t o r s and v a n q u i s h e d in boxing m a t c h e s indi-
cates that the v i c t o r s exceeded their r i v a l s in all p a r a m e t e r s of
m a x i m u m aerobic p r o d u c t i v i t y (P. N. R e p n i k o v , 1977). It w a s a l s o
established that energy-acquisition for boxing is realized
through t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of g l y c o l y s i s and the b o x e r s ' special
endurance is to a s i g n i f i c a n t e x t e n t d e t e r m i n e d by their body's
stabiliby to the p r o d u c t s of a n a e r o b i c e x c h a n g e {I. P. Degtyar-
ev, et a l . , 1979 ) .
The a t h l e t e ' s functional p r e p a r e d n e s s also plays a d e t e r m i n -
ing role in t h e g r o w t h of technical m a s t e r y in sport g a m e s . With
the rise in q u a l i f i c a t i o n , t h e i n c r e a s e in s p e c i a l - s t r e n g t h - p r e -
p a r e d n e s s (figure 2 8 ) , w h i c h is q u i t e s p e c i f i c , s e c u r e s a rise in
the sum of the indicators (TS.) of technical m a s t e r y of volley-
ball p l a y e r s (ability to lower both a r m s , throw the ball upward
w i t h two h a n d s , spiking, b l o c k i n g and s e t t i n g ) . Thus, if the
muscles' explosive abilities, as displayed in the vertical jump
(h), increase linearly, but the sum of the strength of 10 m u s c l e
groups (F 2 ) - e v e n slow d o w n , jumping e n d u r a n c e ( h £ ) clearly
accelerates. T h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n this indicator (jumping e n -
durance) and the t e c h n i c a l m a s t e r y of m a s t e r s of sport, rises
significantly (V. P. Filin, etal., 1977). The p e r f e c t i o n i n g of
a basketball player's technical-tactical arsenal is a l s o associ-
ated with the g r o w t h of their functional preparedness and the
rise in the s t a b i l i t y of t h e s p e c i f i c m o t o r h a b i t s towards the
developing fatigue, during the intense c o n d i t i o n s of competition.
Q u a l i f i e d a t h l e t e s are playing 5 7 % of the general length of
a game (about 70 m i n u t e s ) . They e x e c u t e an average of about 4
jumps per minute during playing time. T h e length of highly
a c t i v e playing p e r i o d s (substitutions, arguments, brief interrup-
tions, entering the game w i t h o u t a t i m e - o u t , etc.) in h i g h - c l a s s

76.
teams is about 30 s e c o n d s . T h e s e p e r i o d s are r e p e a t e d on the
average, about every 20 s e c o n d s (I. N. Preobrazhensky, 1976). In
order to p r e s e r v e t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t e c h n i c a l m a s t e r y under
such c o n d i t i o n s , a high development of m a x i m u m a n a e r o b i c power is
necessary; which is t h e f o u n d a t i o n of a basketball players'
speed-strength preparedness and the anaerobic-glycolytic
abilities which provide a basketball player's specific speed-
endurance. At t h e same t i m e , along w i t h the g r o w t h of mastery
the c o n t r i b u t i o n of the a e r o b i c processes in e n e r g y a c q u i s i t i o n
rises; this permits m u l t i p l e r e p e t i t i o n s of periods of high
a c t i v e n e s s d u r i n g t h e course of a game (V. M. Koryagin, 1973; B.
N. Kalyunov, 1976; V. A. Danilov, 1 9 7 7 ) .

77.
 Cyclic T y p e s of S p o r t s . As a l r e a d y e m p h a s i z e d , the motor
components of c y c l i c e x e r c i s e s a r e viewed as somewhat simpler
than in acyclic locomotion. Cyclic locomotion consists of
m u l t i p l e r e p e t i t i o n of stereotypical cyclic movements not r e q u i r -
ing powerful muscular effort. However, the e x t e r n a l l y simple
k i n e m a t i c s c h e m e of cyclic locomotion conceals an e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y
precise bio-dynamic s t r u c t u r e and its o r g a n i z a t i o n is of exclu-
sive s i g n i f i c a n c e . In o r d e r to understand this s i g n i f i c a n c e and
to see t h e role physical p r e p a r e d n e s s plays in securing technical
mastery, one should look at the o b j e c t i v e of t h e c o m p o n e n t motor
task and chief e m p h a s i s of the a t h l e t e ' s m o v e m e n t s , which deter-
m i n e t h e successful e x e c u t i o n of the t a s k .
A general m o t o r task for all t y p e s of c y c l i c s p o r t s involves
moving a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e as fast as p o s s i b l e and c o v e r i n g it in
the shortest possible time. In a c c o m p l i s h i n g this the chief
emphasis of t h e m o v e m e n t s y s t e m s is to effectively cover the
distance with the maximum economicalness, w i t h respect to muscu-
lar e f f o r t and e n e r g y . So, t e c h n i c a l m a s t e r y in c y c l i c types of
sport is determined by t h e a t h l e t e ' s strength, capacity and
e c o n o m i c a l n e s s of e n e r g y e x p e n d i t u r e and the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of re-
storing expended energy under competition conditions.
Economization in the e x p e n d i t u r e of t h e organism's energy
resources is a s p e c i f i c f e a t u r e of technical m a s t e r y in cyclic
sports. For e x a m p l e , q u a l i f i e d s k a t e r s require less oxygen in
executing a standard training load. And, since MOC increases
along with the rise in mastery, consequently the athlete's
percent utilization of a e r o b i c p o t e n t i a l decreases during this
loading (G. M. P a n o v , 1 9 7 0 ) .
It has a l s o been e s t a b l i s h e d that along w i t h the rise in
trainability (with respect to m o v e m e n t at a standard s p e e d ) , the
ratio of the r a t e and length of the d i s t a n c e overcome in one
motor cycle changes. M o r e q u a l i f i e d a t h l e t e s e x e c u t e the task
with longer s t r i d e s or s t r o k e s , but at a lesser movement rate
w h i c h is further e v i d e n c e of t h e e c o n o m i z a t i o n of e n e r g y - e x p e n d i -
ture p h e n o m e n o n (V. V. M i k h a i l o v , 1971; N. A. L e v e n k o , 1977).
Of great significance for rational and e c o n o m i c a l expendi-

78.
ture of energy is the s o - c a l l e d c o n s e r v a t i o n of strength or the
tactic of "passing" d i s t a n c e . It has been established that
uniform running is m o r e economical than v a r i a b l e (F. Henry, 1954;
V. V. M i k h a i l o v , 1971). V a r i a t i o n of the running speed of q u a l i -
fied athletes, within a r e l a t i v e l y small range — from 6 to 6.5
M/sec, causes sharp changes in the e n e r g y - a c q u i s i t i o n mechanism.
A sharply i n c r e a s i n g m a x i m u m oxygen debt and its alactate frac-
tions result in significant d i s p l a c e m e n t to the blood's acid-
base balance and the accumulation of sub-oxydized exchange
products (A. A. K o r o b o v a , et a l . , 1975). It has a l s o been shown
that a variable work tempo, associated with increasing the power
of the w o r k , c a u s e s a rise in t h e a n a e r o b i c p o r t i o n of energy-
expenditure, due to t h e a c t i v a t i o n of g l y c o l y s i s . As a r e s u l t ,
the v a r i a b l e w o r k b e c o m e s "energetically" less e f f e c t i v e , in com-
parison w i t h the uniform w o r k (Y. K. Dravniek, I. V. Akulik,
1977). However, it is not a l w a y s practical to cover distances
uniformly. Modern sport is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by intense tactical
struggles at d i s t a n c e s w h i c h are d i s t i n g u i s h e d by changes in
speed, p r o t r a c t e d a c c e l e r a t i o n and a "stormy" finish; the earlier
it is b e g u n the more successful it is likely to b e . In this in-
stance one is a l r e a d y not speaking of e c o n o m i z a t i o n of energy-
e x p e n d i t u r e but a b o u t t h e skill to fully and e f f e c t i v e l y utilize
the energy potential that should be attained through special
preparation during the c o u r s e of training.
So, in s u m m a t i o n o n e can single-out a number of principal
tendencies and c o n d i t i o n s of the formation of sport-technical
mastery, w h i c h a r e of g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e for programming and o r g a n -
ization of training.
1. As has a l r e a d y been e m p h a s i z e d t h e p e r f e c t i o n i n g of sport-
technical mastery is one of the c o m p o s i t e parts of m a n ' s long-
term adaptation process to sport training. Sport-technical
m a s t e r y is not a s t a t e one can a c h i e v e in one day, but t h e cur-
rent result of the continuous and unending p r o c e s s of movement
from a state of lesser p e r f e c t i o n to a state of g r e a t e r perfec-
tion. Therefore, the essence of p e r f e c t i n g technical-mastery
over m a n y - y e a r s t r a i n i n g is in effect a c o n s t a n t s e a r c h for and
mastering of rational motor modes, e n a b l i n g o n e to best utilize
o n e ' s current m o t o r potential in specific sport a c t i v i t i e s . Con-
sequently, the steady rise in motor potential and the
perfectioning of the ability to p u r p o s e f u l l y and effectively
utilize it by m e a n s of a c o n c r e t e m o v e m e n t system represents a
key invariant of training; and the d e g r e e of full u t i l i z a t i o n of
m o t o r potential is o n e of the criteria of its e f f e c t i v e n e s s .
2. D e p e n d i n g o n t h e s p e c i f i c c o m p e t i t i o n c o n d i t i o n s and r e q u i r e -
ments, the athlete's skill to e f f e c t i v e l y u t i l i z e his motor
potential in the e x e c u t i o n of m o t o r tasks is p e r f e c t e d in three
different directions.
In types of sports requiring concentrated explosive effort,
characteristically, there is complete utilization of the
athlete's motor potential. In this case the movement system does
not have superfluous details, it should be economical, with
respect to energy expenditure, in the p r e p a r a t o r y phases and
secure a c o m p r e h e n s i v e m o b i l i z a t i o n of motor potential in those
phases in w h i c h o n e r e a l i z e s the fundamental objective of the
motor task. In endurance sports the economicalness of motor
potential utilization is t h e basic c r i t e r i o n of the e f f e c t i v e n e s s
of technical mastery for both the o r g a n i z a t i o n of e a c h movement
cycle and throughout t h e e n t i r e c o m p e t i t i o n . However, in the
latter case the tactical a i m should provide, ultimately, the full
realization of the a t h l e t e ' s potential. Finally, in sports
requiring spatially precise movement, the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c feature
of technical mastery is the rational utilization of motor
potential. In this instance, complete exhaustion of the
a t h l e t e ' s potential is not r e q u i r e d , however in the interests of
competition reliability, it (the a t h l e t e ' s physical potential,
Ed.) should exceed significantly, what is required for this
level.
3. The p e r f e c t i o n i n g of t e c h n i c a l m a s t e r y and s p e c i a l - p h y s i c a l -
p r e p a r e d n e s s a r e v e r y i n t e r d e p e n d e n t and i n t e r c o n d i t i o n a l compo-
nents of t h e a t h l e t e ' s m u l t i - y e a r system of preparation. The
nature of the a t h l e t e ' s external i n t e r a c t i o n s and t h e organism's
corresponding work regime d e t e r m i n e t h e s u b s t a n c e , d i r e c t i o n and

80.
m a g n i t u d e of its functional specialization. At the same time the
enhanced m o t o r potential makes p o s s i b l e the further perfectioning
of technical mastery. H o w e v e r it is important to e m p h a s i z e that
the key role in the i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e of the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d c o m p o -
nents a p p e r t a i n s to the functional p e r f e c t i o n i n g of the organism.
The specialized development of s p e e d - s t r e n g t h and the system of
energy-acquisition for intense muscular w o r k is a determining
(and limiting) factor for p e r f e c t i o n i n g technical mastery.
It is a l s o n e c e s s a r y to single two m o r e c o n d i t i o n s contribu-
ting to the e f f e c t i v e p e r f e c t i o n i i n g of sport-technical mastery,
which o n e should bear in mind for programming training.
The first is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the e x p e d i e n t f o r e s t a l l i n g of
in-depth work u t i l i z i n g the means of special physical prepara-
tion; the second is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the selection of favorable
times for in-depth p e r f e c t i o n i n g of technical mastery, including
maximum efforts. In other w o r d s , an e n h a n c e m e n t of special-
physical-preparedness should precede in-depth technique work,
which should be done in the midst of a decreased volume of
loading and w i t h the o r g a n i s m in an optimal functional state. To
realize this, it is n e c e s s a r y from the very beginning, to
organize technique training correctly, in h a r m o n y w i t h physical
training and p r i m a r i l y to perfect technique uniformly in accor-
dance with the c u r r e n t level of special-physical-preparedness.
All of the e x a m i n e d p e c u l a r i t i e s of the PASM as a whole and
some tendencies in the a l t e r a t i o n of some aspects of sport
mastery were revealed by c o n s i d e r a b l e statistical study, indepen-
dent of athletes' t r a i n i n g s p e c i f i c s and other factors. The
material presented is i n d i c a t i v e of the n e c e s s i t y and the order
of those c h a n g e s in t h e functional state of the o r g a n i s m ; which
bring t h e a t h l e t e to a high w o r k - c a p a c i t y , as well as the causual
conditions, d e t e r m i n i n g that the i n t e r n a l , essential correlation
between these changes which determine the sequence of the
sportsman's shift to t h e peak of m a s t e r y .
So, one has s u f f i c i e n t basis to speak about the PASM as a
system phenomenon, regularly developing over time, having
specific contents, c o n c r e t e forms and d i s t i n g u i s h i n g features.

81 .
The general regularities of the o r g a n i s m a d a p t a t i o n to sport
activities, w h i c h a r e e x t e r n a l l y e x p r e s s e d by a specific sequence
of m o r p h o - f u n c t i o n a l s p e c i a l i z a t i o n of the o r g a n i s m and the per-
fectioning of the athlete's skill to e f f e c t i v e l y utilize his
potential under c o m p e t i t i o n and training c o n d i t i o n s are at the
heart of t h e PASM. R e g u l a t i o n and s y s t e m a t i c p e r f e c t i o n i n g of
these PASM c o m p o n e n t s in their unity and interdependence, is in-
and-of-itself t h e m a i n t a s k of programming training.

Chapter 3
The Principal C o n n e c t i o n Between t h e A t h l e t e ' s S t a t e
and the Training Load

The connection between athlete's state and a g i v e n loading

is the c e n t r a l q u e s t i o n in the theory and technology of program-
ming training. T h i s is a l s o the w e a k e s t link in the m a n a g e m e n t
of training; r e q u i r i n g t h e s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n of specialists and
immediate scientific search. B e f o r e examining the practical
aspects of the connection between loading and the sportsman's
state; we will d e f i n e the c o n c e p t s -- the training load and its
effect.

Strictly speaking, the training load d o e s not exist in-and-

of-itself. It is a function of the m u s c u l a r w o r k inherent to
training and c o m p e t i t i o n a c t i v i t i e s . To wit, m u s c u l a r work is
that t r a i n i n g potential which provokes an a p p r o p r i a t e functional
(accommodative) reaction (training-effect) from the organism.
Well then, the t r a i n i n g potential of m u s c u l a r w o r k , and conse-
q u e n t l y its training-effect is to a significant extent determined
by the a t h l e t e ' s c u r r e n t s t a t e .
So, the connection b e t w e e n the s p o r t s m a n ' s s t a t e and the
training load is an e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y c o m p l e x interplay, dependent
upon a m u l t i t u d e of f a c t o r s and d e t e r m i n e d by n u m e r o u s v a r i a b l e s .
Unfortunately, one has to acknowledge that objective data,
characterizing this connection, is as yet very small. Some
research in this a r e a is not a complete representation; the
s t u d i e s are often i n c o m p a t i b l e and c o n t r a d i c t o r y . Therefore, the

82.
c o n t e n t s of this c h a p t e r r e p r e s e n t , in e s s e n c e , the first attempt
to s y s t e m a t i z e and m u l t i - f a c e t e d l y examine the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n
the sportsman's state and t h e training load. Basically, the
actual material used were the results of special multi-year
r e s e a r c h of the a u t h o r and his collaborators.
Naturally, c o n s i d e r i n g t h e n o v e l t y and the c o m p l e x i t y of the
problem, it is still early to talk about its value. However,
even that i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h has been successfully accumulated in
this area already makes a substantial contribution to t h e tasks
associated with programming training.
3.1 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the T r a i n i n g Load and its Effect
The training load is understood to m e a n the quantitative
measure of t h e training w o r k e x e c u t e d . It is c u s t o m a r y to dif-
f e r e n t i a t e t h e c o n c e p t s of "external", " i n t e r n a l " and "psycholo-
gical" loading, i.e., the q u a n t i t y of work d o n e , its affect on
the ogramisn and t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y p e r c i e v e d affect on the
athlete (L. P. M a t v e y e v , 1 9 6 4 ; N. I. V o l k o v , 1969; N. G. O z o l i n ,
1970; G. S. Tumanyan, 1974, and others). The volume and
intensity a r e utilized as the most general c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e
t r a i n i n g load (N. G. Ozolin, 1949; L. P. M a t v e y e v , 1956; L. S.
Khomenkov, 1 9 7 0 ; M. Y. N a b a t n i k o v a , 1972 and o t h e r s ) .
There are other c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s of the t r a i n i n g load based
on the m o t o r s p e c i f i c s of the types of sports; the power of
muscular work; t h e pedagogical tasks of the t r a i n i n g ; the affect
on r e s t o r a t i o n and the effect of t h e subsequent w o r k ; the inter-
action of w o r k of d i f f e r e n t e m p h a s i s (for e x a m p l e , the i n t e r a c -
t i o n of p r i m a r i l y s t r e n g t h w o r k and s p e e d - s t r e n g t h w o r k , Ed.) and
other criteria (V. S. F a r f e l , 1 9 5 8 ; N. I. V o l k o v , 1969, 1 9 7 4 ; N.
V. Zimkin, 1963; V. D. M o n o g a r o v , V. N. P l a t o n o v , 1975; F. P.
Suslov, 1978; I. Scherrer, 1962, 1 9 6 9 ) .
However, each of these c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , taken s e p a r a t e l y are
not q u i t e s u i t a b l e for r e s o l v i n g the task of p r o g r a m m i n g train-
ing. A somewhat d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h is required h e r e , providing
special requirements for the preliminary assessment of the
loading and taking i n t o account the aforementioned classification
•
criteria for a somewhat d i f f e r e n t basis for s y s t e m a t i z i n g them.

83.
 The concept of "loading" suggests first of all a
physiological m e a s u r e of t h e a f f e c t on the o r g a n i s m that occurs
as a result of s p e c i a l i z e d m u s c u l a r work and reflected by the
organism in the form of c o n c r e t e functional reactions of a
certain d e g r e e and d u r a t i o n . C o n s e q u e n t l y the n e c e s s i t y a r o s e ,
in the s u b s e q u e n t d e v e l o p m e n t of the c o n c e p t s of "external" and
"internal" loading, to i n t r o d u c e the c o n c e p t s of the "training
potential" of the loading and its "training effects", which
enables one to more concretely characterize the relationship
"influence — effect" (the principal way, in the sense of
f o r e s e e i n g the l a t t e r ) .
The loading's i n f l u e n c e is expressed by its training effect
(TE); assessed, first of a l l , by the m a g n i t u d e of the a l t e r a t i o n
of t h e s p o r t s m a n ' s s t a t e . D i s c u s s i o n in the literature c o n c e r n -
ing the forms in w h i c h the TE is d i s p l a y e d is very c o n t r a d i c t o r y .
On the w h o l e it a m o u n t s to t h e following linear representation
concerning the d i s p l a y i n g and summing of the training influences
(V. M. Zatsiorsky, 1964; N. I. V o l k o v , 1966; L. P. M a t v e y e v ,
1977 ) :
urgent TE lagging T E cumulative TE.
The first two forms a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h o n e training session:
t h e urgent TE is t h e o r g a n i s m ' s current reaction to the physical
loading; the lagging TE is the a l t e r a t i o n in the sportsman's
state, observed after the w o r k o u t . T h e c u m u l a t i v e TE is the
result of the s u b s e q u e n t a c c u m u l a t i o n of all t h e TE's within the
organism; w h i c h w e r e c r e a t e d in the c o u r s e of training.
However t h e scheme p r e s e n t e d is o n e - s i d e d and d o e s not t a k e
into account t h e q u a l i t a t i v e a s p e c t s , i n d i s p e n s i b l y inherent to
the TE, when it comes a b o u t as a result of t r a i n i n g loads of
different primary emphasis. The fact is that t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n ,
as a p h e n o m e n o n of the g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of the t r a c e s of the t r a i n -
ing i n f l u e n c e s on the o r g a n i s m , is not simply summed and is far
from its limitations.
T h e m e c h a n i s m of g e n e r a l i z a t i o n , as a u n i v e r s a l q u a l i t y of a
biological system providing a c o n f o r m i t y between its state and
the influences of the e x t e r n a l s u r r o u n d i n g s , is d e t e r m i n e d first

84 .
and foremost by the c r i t e r i a of e x p e d i e n c y in t h e selection of
the organism's adaptive strategy. T h i s is m a n i f e s t e d in its
selective relationship to the training influences of different
primary emphasis, as well as in the e x p r e s s i o n of its crucial
r e a c t i o n s and s t a b i l e a c c o m m o d a t i v e a c q u i s i t i o n s . A s has already
been mentioned, the c u m u l a t i v e TE itself can h a v e a different
q u a n t i t a t i v e and q u a l i t a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n , depending on t h e current
state of t h e o r g a n i s m , the order in w h i c h training influences of
different emphasis f o l l o w each o t h e r , the t r a c e s of the preceding
loading, d u r a t i o n of using c e r t a i n m e a n s and o t h e r a c t o r s (Y. V.
Verkhoshansky, 1970).
For example, it h a s b e e n known for a long t i m e in sport
p r a c t i c e that one can a l t e r t h e end result of a w o r k o u t somewhat,
d e p e n d i n g on the e x e r c i s e s e q u e n c e e m p h a s i z i n g the d e v e l o p m e n t of
speed, s t r e n g t h and e n d u r a n c e ; or w o r k i n g - o n t e c h n i q u e , strength
and speed. Considerable research has shown convincingly the
affect of a p a r t i c u l a r s e q u e n c e of training loads of different
emphasis in l o n g - t e r m t r a i n i n g s t a g e s h a s on the state of the
organism; for e x a m p l e , a e r o b i c and a n a e r o b i c g l y c o l y t i c loading
for the d e v e l o p m e n t of special endurance (M. Y. Nabatnikova,
1972; N. I. V o l k o v , 1975; V. N. P l a t o n o v , 1980) or strength and
jumping e x e r c i s e s for e x p l o s i v e - s t r e n g t h (V. V. Tatyan, 1975; A.
V. Khodykin, 1976; G. V. Chernousov, 1978; A. V. Levchenko,
1980).
Based on similar research it has been suggested to
d i f f e r e n t i a t e the c o n c e p t s "partial T E " (the result of the affect
of loading of o n e p r i m a r y e m p h a s i s or m e a n s ) and "cumulative TE"
(the result of the g e n e r a l i z e d affect on the o r g a n i s m of loading
of different primary e m p h a s i s , used s i m u l t a n e o u s l y or sequen-
tially). In the latter c a s e there is a q u a n t i t a t i v e and q u a l i t a -
tive side of the T E . T h e e s s e n c e of t h e s e concepts can be
explained with examples.
In o n e e x p e r i m e n t (figure 2 9 ) g r o u p I began by using barbell
exercises, then depth-jumps (the "shock" method of developing
explosive-strength). Group 2 utilized the reverse s e q u e n c e of
means. Each group of m e a n s w e r e used for three months each.

85.
Group 3 utilized the barbell exercises and the depth-jumps
simultaneously (complexly) t h r o u g h o u t b o t h 3-month s t a g e s . The
general v o l u m e of t h e loading w a s e q u i v a l e n t in all groups. The
alterations in t h e s p e e d - s t r e n g t h p r e p a r e d n e s s of the athletes
a f t e r the first and second (shaded) stages of t r a i n i n g are
p r e s e n t e d in the f i g u r e s .
T h e r e s u l t s of the s t u d i e s e n a b l e us first of all to see and
compare the partial TE of u t i l i z i n g o n l y barbell exercises and
d e p t h - j u m p s (the first s t a g e for g r o u p s 1 and 2 ) ; a s w e l l a s the
cumulative TE obtained as a result of two d i f f e r e n t forms of
o r g a n i z i n g the loading -- s i m u l t a n e o u s (group 3) and sequential
(the second s t a g e of g r o u p s 1 and 2 ) . O n e can d r a w the following
c o n c l u s i o n s based o n t h i s e x p e r i m e n t .
1. The partial TE of t h e d e p t h - j u m p i n g is higher than the
barbel 1 e x e r c i s e s .
2. The final e f f e c t of t h e t r a i n i n g is a l t e r e d e s s e n t i a l l y by
the r e a r r a n g e m e n t of the loading of d i f f e r e n t p r i m a r y emphasis.
T h e s e q u e n c e of u s i n g barbell exercises then d e p t h - j u m p i n g (group
1) p r o d u c e d a h i g h e r level of s p e e d - s t r e n g t h p r e p a r e d n e s s (a p o s -
i t i v e c u m u l a t i v e T E ) , t h a n the r e v e r s e s e q u e n c e (group 2). In
group 2 the TE w a s e s s e n t i a l l y lower at t h e end of the second
s t a g e t h a n after the first (negative c u m u l a t i v e T E ) .
3. The s i m u l t a n e o u s u s e of the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d m e a n s in the first
stage (group 3) yielded a larger c u m u l a t i v e e f f e c t than in g r o u p s
1 and 2. However, the TE n o t i c e a b l y d e c r e a s e d for g r o u p 3 in the
second s t a g e b e c a u s e t h e lengthy use of one m e a n s d e c r e a s e s the
training potential of the loading.
In a n o t h e r experiment (figure 3 0 ) , over a 7-week period,
group 1 utilized exercises with 30-50% weights; g r o u p 2 used 7 0 -
9 0 % and g r o u p 3 used w e i g h t s o f 30-90% simultaneously. The gen-
eral loading in all groups was equivalent according to the
physiological c r i t e r i a of the c o s t of the w o r k . Once again one
can c l e a r l y see the partial TE of using d i f f e r e n t w e i g h t s (groups
1 and 2) and the c u m u l a t i v e TE from the s i m u l t a n e o u s use of t h o s e
and o t h e r r e s i s t a n c e s (group 3 ) .

87
88.
 One should turn special a t t e n t i o n to how the "cumulative"
phenomenon appears, as a result of combination-work with weights
of 3 0 - 9 0 % , at the level of power (N) a c h i e v e d in g r o u p 3, and how
much higher it is r e l a t i v e to t h e partial TE o b t a i n e d w i t h m e a n s
of single e m p h a s i s (groups 1 and 2 ) .
T h e data p r e s e n t e d s e r v e s as a vivid example of how much the
effect of an a t h l e t e ' s p r e p a r a t i o n d e p e n d s on t h e organization
of t r a i n i n g loads, and what one needs to c l e a r l y represent when
organizing training; what sort of TE is r e q u i r e d in e a c h c o n c r e t e
c a s e and what o n e needs to do in o r d e r to a c h i e v e it.
From a practical standpoint, it is expedient to
differentiate and assess the TE w i t h respect to t w o criteria —
temporal (urgent and lagging) and qualitative (partial and
cumulative). The u r g e n t TE is the effect o b s e r v e d immediately
d u r i n g or right after a training session; the lagging TE a p p e a r s
a r e l a t i v e l y short t i m e after the l o a d i n g ; for example, in a
number of m i x e d s e s s i o n s or in a short stage (the nearest T E ) , or
is preserved for a longer t i m e a f t e r t h e loading a s s i g n e d in pro-
longed training stages (long-term T E ) . We will dwell on the
latter of these in m o r e d e t a i l .
A number of q u a l i t a t i v e forms of the c u m u l a t i v e TE (urgent
or l a g g i n g ) , d e p e n d i n g on t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e t r a i n i n g l o a d s ,
are distinguished. Thus, the c u m u l a t i o n can be m o m e n t a r y (the
organism's urgent reaction to a c o m p l e x of training influences of
different emphasis, a s s i g n e d in o n e or mixed w o r k o u t s ; as well as
the prolonged, parallel use of loading of d i f f e r e n t emphasis),
accumulation (the s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of functional traces of the
training i n f l u e n c e s of d i f f e r e n t e m p h a s i s , following in a certain
order in p r o l o n g e d t r a i n i n g s t a g e s ) , and f i n a l l y , positive or
negative (if the functional t r a c e s of s o m e loads c r e a t e or just
the reverse, do not create f a v o r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s for t h e orga-
n i s m ' s a c c o m m o d a t i v e reaction to other loading).
At first g l a n c e , this c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of the TE m a y a p p e a r to
be s o m e w h a t c u m b e r s o m e . However, its b a s i s is the d e p e n d e n c e of
the athlete's state on t h e training loads in actual sport
conditions and it is impossible not to take this into account

89.
when programming training.
The physiological n a t u r e of the TE is so complex and the
forms in w h i c h it is m a n i f e s t e d so d i v e r s e , that e x h a u s t i o n of
its c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s is only p o s s i b l e on the basis of aforemen-
tioned criteria. T h i s has g r e a t practical significance, since
the p r o g r a m m i n g of t r a i n i n g loads should be based first of all,
on the o b j e c t i v e of a c h i e v i n g a c o n c r e t e T E . Therefore, a clear-
cut representation of the required TE and the conditions,
objectively necessary for its a c h i e v e m e n t , is an o b l i g a t o r y p r e -
requisite for determining the contents and organization of
training.
3.2 Factors and C o n d i t i o n s Determining the T r a i n i n g - E f f e c t
In order to select the optimal (out of the m a n y possible
variants) training loads, it is n e c e s s a r y to do a preliminary
a s s e s s m e n t of t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s . To do t h i s , it is expedient
to d e t e r m i n e , t h r o u g h q u a l i t a t i v e and q u a n t i t a t i v e m e a s u r e s , the
affect of the loading on the o r g a n i s m , such as its contents,
volume and o r g a n i z a t i o n (figure 31). T h e d e g r e e o f reliability
p r o v i d i n g the e f f e c t g e n e r a t e d by e a c h of these characteristics,
has g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c e for the s u c c e s s of training.

90.
 We will e x a m i n e in m o r e detail the basis for a particular
selection, a s s o c i a t e d w i t h each c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . In doing so we
will r e s t r i c t our e x a m i n a t i o n to the loading that is d e s i g n e d to
develop explosive-strength and specific-endurance.
3.2.1 The C o n t e n t s of the Loading
The p r o g r a m m i n g of training b e g i n s with the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of
its c o n t e n t s , i.e., the c o m p o s i t i o n of the m e a n s , selected on the
basis of preliminary assessments according to two criteria -- the
s p e c i f i c i t y of t h e t r a i n i n g i n f l u e n c e and t h e t r a i n i n g p o t e n t i a l .
The s p e c i f i c i t y of the m e a n s ' training i n f l u e n c e is under-
stood to m e a n their c o n f o r m i t y to competition activities, with
respect to the motor structure, the regime of work and the
m e c h a n i s m of e n e r g y - a c q u i s i t i o n . The basis of this criterion is
used to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n m e a n s of special and g e n e r a l physical
preparedness (SPP and G P P ) . The SPP m e a n s p r i m a r i l y produce a
rise in the o r g a n i s m ' s s p e c i a l - w o r k - c a p a c i t y . T h e m e a n s of GPP
are utilized for general (multi-sided) physical development,
a c t i v a t i o n of the restoration processes within the o r g a n i s m after
v o l u m i n o u s or intense l o a d i n g ; as well as for creating the effect
of switching from o n e t y p e of w o r k to another (N. G. Ozolin,
1949; L. S. K h o m e n k o v , 1 9 5 7 ; L. P. M a t v e y e v , 1 9 6 4 ) .
The means of SPP should be as close as possible to the
conditions of the sport a c t i v i t y , with respect to its dynamics
and the regime of w o r k . This r e q u i r e m e n t is the so-called p r i n -
ciple of d y n a m i c c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w h i c h s t i p u l a t e s as criteria, the
similarity between the t r a i n i n g means and the fundamental sport
exercises of such i n d i c a t o r s as t h e amplitude and direction of
movement, the a c c e n t u a t e d part of the working amplitude, the
maximum force and the time it is displayed, the regime of
m u s c u l a r w o r k (Y. V . Verkhoshansky, 1963, 1970).
One should h o w e v e r , take into account that in p r a c t i c e the
external similarity of the training means to the fundamental
sport exercise is often o v e r - s t r e s s e d and the importance of the
c o n f o r m i t y of the m e a n s to the regime of m u s c u l a r w o r k and to the
m e c h a n i s m of its e n e r g y - a c q u i s i t i o n is u n d e r - s t r e s s e d . T h e fact
is that literal c o n f o r m i t y of the training m e a n s to the fundamen-
tal sport e x e r c i s e in m o t o r s t r u c t u r e is a p p r o p r i a t e o n l y if it
provides "conjugate" (V. M . Dyachkov, 1968, 1975) influence at
the a t h l e t e ' s level of physical and technical preparedess. How-
ever, if special-physical-preparation is w o r t h w h i l e it is not as
important that the t r a i n i n g m e a n s m i m i c p r e c i s e l y the fundamental
exercise, with respect t o its e x t e r n a l spatial characteristics.
The m a i n c r i t e r i o n of c o n f o r m i t y in t h i s case is the organism's
r e g i m e of m u s c u l a r w o r k as a w h o l e . For example, strength e x e r -
cises such a s barbell squats (resistance), bear little resem-
b l a n c e to the a t h l e t e ' s m o v e m e n t in r u n n i n g , t h r o w i n g or playing
basketball. However, the use of s q u a t s is justified b e c a u s e they
actively contribute to raising the athlete's special-work-
c a p a c i t y in t h e s e t y p e s of s p o r t s .
Each type of sport h a s a s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t y of S P P means
available, conforming t o t h e fundamental sport exercise, with
respect to certain c r i t e r i a . However, i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o point
out that the n e c e s s i t y of p r e s e r v i n g the loading's training
potential (especially for h i g h l y - q u a l i f i e d athletes) requires
m e a n s that not o n l y c o n f o r m t o but e x c e e d c o m p e t i t i o n c o n d i t i o n s ,
with respect to maximum force, time o f m a x i m u m force d e v e l o p m e n t
and the power of t h e m e t a b o l i c p r o c e s s e s s e c u r i n g the organism's
work-capacity. It is e a s y to c o n c l u d e from t h i s , that s a t i s f a c -
tion of this requirement is associated with improving the
strength component of the movement. The very emphasis of
strength or, more precisely, the use o f specialized-strength-
exercises in the s y s t e m of SPP m e a n s , makes it necessary to
examine this question in more detail.
First of all, one n e e d s t o point out that the role of
strength e x e r c i s e s in an a t h l e t e ' s p r e p a r a t i o n i s , by f a r , not
limited to " p u m p i n g " s t r e n g t h ; as is s o m e t i m e s t h o u g h t . It is
important to i n c r e a s e s t r e n g t h but t h i s is not t h e fundamental
and t h e sole task of s t r e n g t h e x e r c i s e s . By itself the latter
d w i n d l e s and is still not u t i l i z e d in p r a c t i c e as m u c h as possi-
ble for raising the e f f e c t and the s p e c i f i c i t y of the loading
under sport conditions. However, t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y in speed-
strength t y p e s of s p o r t s is o b v i o u s and realized successfully;

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but in many t y p e s of sports (in p a r t i c u l a r , requiring e n d u r a n c e ) .
They are s t i l l , in e s s e n c e , not understood.
The d e v e l o p m e n t of e n d u r a n c e , as we have a l r e a d y s a i d , is
primarily associated with i m p r o v i n g the a e r o b i c p r o d u c t i v i t y of
the organism; as a result of e m p l o y i n g the d i s t a n c e method of
training. However, such a n i m p o r t a n t c o n d i t i o n a s the m u s c l e s '
adaptation to i n t e n s e and prolonged work, is clearly under-
estimated. At t h e same t i m e , the functional s p e c i a l i z a t i o n of
the m u s c l e s , as t h e i m m e d i a t e e x e c u t o r of the w o r k , is of g r e a t e r
s i g n i f i c a n c e than the d e v e l o p m e n t of the v e g e t a t i v e c o m p o n e n t of
endurance. A more intense i n f l u e n c e is n e c e s s a r y for the m u s c l e s
to adapt to e n d u r a n c e w o r k , than for the cardio-vascular and
respiratory systems. T h e r e f o r e , w h e n one u s e s o n l y the d i s t a n c e
method for d e v e l o p i n g e n d u r a n c e , a definite non-conformity can
arise b e t w e e n the functional level of the v e g e t a t i v e systems and
the w o r k i n g p o t e n t i a l of the m u s c l e s . In this c a s e , the high
sport results one is c o u n t i n g on do not o c c u r .
T h i s s i t u a t i o n is very c h a r a c t e r t i s t i c of the p r e p a r a t i o n of
our m i d d l e - d i s t a n c e r u n n e r s . E l e m e n t a r y logic s a y s : in order to
run 8 0 0 M in one m i n u t e f o r t y - f i v e seconds (1:45.0) it is neces-
sary to h a v e a r e s u l t of 1 0 . 6 - 1 0 . 7 sec in the 100 M. One needs
to p o s s e s s g r e a t s t r e n g t h p o t e n t i a l to do t h i s -- t h r e e standing
long jumps of 9 M and m o r e and ten standing long jumps of 33-34
M, which m i d d l e - d i s t a n c e r u n n e r s do not have the s t r e n g t h for.
Elimination of this insufficiency is only possible through
specialized strength and jumping w o r k which renders a stronger
(compared to distance training) influence on the muscles,
intensifies their a d a p t a t i o n t o e n d u r a n c e work and a c t i v a t e s the
functional reserves of the o r g a n i s m ' s systems which satisfies
their r e q u i r e m e n t s . As a result, the power and the c a p a c i t y of
the m e t a b o l i c p r o c e s s e s a r e e n h a n c e d , including anaerobic energy-
production, which provides a high level of local muscular
e n d u r a n c e and is in c o n f o r m t y w i t h the o r g a n i s m ' s a e r o b i c p r o d u c -
tivity. At the same t i m e , it is p o s s i b l e to r e d u c e the v o l u m e of
e x h a u s t i n g d i s t a n c e work in the a n a e r o b i c g l y c o l y t i c zone (L. N.
Zhdanovich, 1980; Y. V. Verkhoshansky, V. A. Sirenko, 1 9 8 2 ) .

93.
 Selection and m e t h o d s of executing specialized s t r e n g t h and
jumping exercises in e n d u r a n c e types of s p o r t s should provide
first, an increase in strength up to a d e f i n i t e optimum, and
second, an o r g a n i z a t i o n of s p e c i f i c training i n f l u e n c e s on the
mechanisms crucial for the e n e r g y - a c q u i s i t i o n of repeated repro-
duction of motor-effort. The specifics of the t y p e of sport,
methodical experience and experimental search can and should
prompt the optimal variants of specialized strength t r a i n i n g for
each concrete case. T h e main thing here is to be a b l e to over-
come the traditional stagnate viewpoints regarding strength-
training, only as a m e a n s of increasing a b s o l u t e - s t r e n g t h .
The means of GPP play no less of an important role in the
o r g a n i z a t i o n of training. Besides traditional m u l t i - s i d e d motor
preparedness and the c r e a t i o n of a functional groundwork for
specialized p e r f e c t i o n i n g of motor a b i l i t i e s , the m e a n s of GPP
are associated with a c t i v a t i o n of the restoration processes
within the organism. This has special significance in those
types of sports in w h i c h there are few assistance means and
training is inherently m o n o t o n o u s , i.e., where the competition
e x e r c i s e s are the b a s i c training m e a n s (gymnastics, weightlift-
ing, cyclic types of s p o r t s ) .
For example, the sole and systematic use of swimming
restoration procedures during the e x e c u t i o n of voluminous loading
secured an i n c r e a s e of 24.2% in a b s o l u t e - s t r e n g t h and 18.9% in
strength-endurance; whereas the a t h l e t e s w h o did not use the
restoration procedures increased these indicators by 7.7 and 4.9%
respectively. At t h e same t i m e , the volume of t h e t r a i n i n g load
was increased an a v e r a g e of 1 5 % (0. N. K u c h n y e v , 1 9 7 7 ; V. N. Pla-
tonov, 1980). The c o m p l e x use of l o w - f r e q u e n c y v i b r o - m a s s a g e and
psycho-regulatory training in the p r e - c o m p e t i t i o n p r e p a r a t i o n of
highly-qualified middle-distance runners contributed to an
increase of 12-20% in the v o l u m e of the t r a i n i n g load, executed
at c o m p e t i t i o n speed and increased the speed of covering training
d i s t a n c e s by 2-4% ( I . P. P o t a p c h e n k o , 1 9 7 9 ) .
So, t h e rational c o m b i n a t i o n of t r a i n i n g loads and r e s t o r a -
tion p r o c e d u r e s is an important c o n d i t i o n and a large reserve for
the intensification and the raising of the effectiveness of
training. However, it is n e c e s s a r y to e m p h a s i z e that r e s t o r a t i o n
of the o r g a n i s m after w o r k is a natural p r o c e s s , u n f o l d i n g in a
d e f i n i t e s e q u e n c e and r e q u i r e s a d e f i n i t e time p e r i o d . This pro-
cess o c c u r s through the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n m e c h a n i s m o f the inter-
system regulation, u n d e r the i n f l u e n c e of s y s t e m a t i c loading (N.
N. Yakovlev, 1971). Artificially accelerating (or p r o v i d i n g ) the
restoration process can disturb the natural course of the
organism's long-term adaptation to intense muscular activities
and t h e r e f o r e can be justified o n l y in e x t r e m e c a s e s of serious
over-strain.
Frequent and r e g u l a r u t i l i z a t i o n of non-specific means of
restoration a r e found to be in some p h y s i o l o g i c a l non-conformity
(with r e s p e c t to the a i m s of the i n f l u e n c e on the o r g a n i s m ) with
the use of large training loads. Raising the volume and
i n t e n s i t y of t h e loading d i s b u r b s h o m e o s t a s i s , as a b a s i c c o n d i -
tion for the o r g a n i s m ' s a d a p t a t i o n to l o a d i n g , and the t r a i n i n g
of the restoration processes. A t t h e same time, intervention
during the c o u r s e of r e s t o r a t i o n h i n d e r s the o r g a n i s m ' s ability
to p e r f e c t t h i s p r o c e s s b y natural m e a n s (L. Y. Yevgenyev, et
al., 1975). T h e p r o c e s s " l o a d i n g - r e s t o r a t i o n " w i t h i n the general
s y s t e m of the athlete's preparation should be strictly r e g u l a t e d ;
and its m e t h o d i c a l resolution scientifically substantiated.
The training-potential of the loading characterizes the
strength of its i n f l u e n c e on the s p o r t s m a n ' s s t a t e . The higher
the training-potential (relative to the current state) the
greater the p r o b a b i l i t y of raising the athlete's special-work-
capacity. The t r a i n i n g - p o t e n t i a l o f the m e a n s e m p l o y e d d e c r e a s e s
as the s p e c i a l - w o r k - c a p a c i t y i n c r e a s e s ; therefore, it is i m p o r -
tant to preserve it by i n t r o d u c i n g more effective means in
training. This important principle of organizing training is
presented in figure 32. The graph depicts the practical
possibliity of altering the s p o r t s m a n ' s s t a t e (F) under the
influence of means with different training potential (A, B, C).
However, it is i n a p p r o p r i a t e to use h i g h l y - e f f e c t i v e m e a n s right
off because the o r g a n i s m is f u n c t i o n a l l y u n p r e p a r e d for them;
this leads to an e x c e s s i v e intensification of training and
disturbs the natural c o u r s e of the a d a p t a t i o n p r o c e s s .
The means of SPP are introduced into training with a
definite sequentialness; the a b s o l u t e strength of the training
influences on the o r g a n i s m are g r a d u a l l y increased and a logical
c o n t i n u i t y is o b s e r v e d , in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h w h i c h , the preceding
means provide favorable conditions for utilization of the
subsequent. Presented in figure 33 are examples of a practical
w o r k - u p of such a system of s p e c i a l - s t r e n g t h - t r a i n i n g means, in
different types of sport. We will e x a m i n e in m o r e detail the
methodical questions associated with it.
Correct assessment of the t r a i n i n g potential of the loading
selected and the training-effect it provides, which is an
objective n e c e s s i t y at a c o n c r e t e stage of p r e p a r a t i o n -- is o n e
of t h e chief requirements for p r o g r a m m i n g t r a i n i n g .
3.2.2 The V o l u m e of the Training Load
T h e v o l u m e of the training load c h a r a c t e r i z e s p r i m a r i l y the
quantitative aspect of the t r a i n i n g i n f l u e n c e s on the organism
and plays an important r o l e in its long-term adaptation to
intense muscular work.
The function of t h e v o l u m e of the load c o n s i s t s chiefly of
the s y s t e m a t i c and p r o l o n g e d d i s t u r b a n c e of the c o n s t a n c y of the
organism's internal relationships (homeostasis), stimulation of
the mobilization of its e n e r g y r e s o u r c e s and p l a s t i c reserves.
This is the fundamental c o n d i t i o n for switching from the urgent
(specific) reaction, provoked by individual segments of the
training influences, t o the g e n e r a l (non-specific) accommodative
reaction; and t h e n to t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of long-term adaptation; at
the b a s i s of w h i c h lies t h e s t a b i l e m o r p h o - f u n c t i o n a l reconstruc-
tion of the o r g a n i s m . Therefore, in each y e a r ' s c y c l e a t h l e t e s
should execute larger v o l u m e s of loading, p r o v i d i n g a rise in
special-work-capacity and its prolonged preservation.
In types of s p o r t s requiring brief, highly-concentrated
efforts, the v o l u m e of loading has yet another important signifi-
cance. As a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d , in the m o d e r n stage of sport the
mechanical integrity of the ligamentous-joint apparatus can
97.
become the limiting factor to the p r o g r e s s of sport achievements.
And, if it (ligamentous-joint apparatus, Ed.) is not p r e p a r e d by
voluminous work of m o d e r a t e i n t e n s i t y , then the high dynamic
overloading the s p o r t s m a n e n c o u n t e r s at the "record" level of
achievements can lead to joint injury, with severe c o n s e q u e n c e s .
This o c c u r s f r e q u e n t l y in g y m n a s t i c s , weightlifting, high jumping
and triple jumping.
Representing only q u a n t i t a t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , the volume
in-and-of itself does not d e t e r m i n e the specificity of the
training influence of the loading on the organism and the
qualitative peculiarities of the organism's accommodative reac-
tions. Therefore, w h e n p r o g r a m m i n g training the function of the
volume can be d e t e r m i n e d c o r r e c t l y in that instance if o n e takes
into c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e m a g n i t u d e of the loading, its d u r a t i o n and
intensity.
The m a g n i t u d e of the v o l u m e is the q u a n t i t a t i v e m e a s u r e of
the executed (or p l a n n e d ) training load of a certain primary
emphasis; r e l a t i v e to the s p e c i f i c m i c r o - c y c l e , stage (period) or
the year c y c l e as a w h o l e .
T h e m a g n i t u d e of the v o l u m e is d e t e r m i n e d , first of a l l , by
the a t h l e t e ' s q u a l i f i c a t i o n . The h i g h e r t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n , the
larger the y e a r ' s v o l u m e of loading and those of its parts which
are in e a c h s t a g e of preparation. With the growth of the s p o r t s -
man's qualification (also within a four-year cycle) the
magnitude, and c o n s e q u e n t l y , the ratio of the loading v o l u m e of
different primary emphasis shifts, as is correct, towards an
increase in t h e p o r t i o n of specialized loading (G. M. Panov,
1975; S. V. Z h i k h a r e v i c h , 1976; A. A. V a n k o v , 1 9 7 7 ; L. P. M a t v e -
yev, 1 9 7 7 ; V. B. G i l y a z o v a , 1 9 7 8 , and o t h e r s ) .
The practical m a g n i t u d e of the y e a r ' s loading volume is
established individually, based on the p e c u l i a r i t i e s of the
s p o r t s m a n ' s p r e p a r a t i o n in t h e preceding s t a g e s of training. A
more serious task of p r o g r a m m i n g t r a i n i n g is the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of
the optimal volume of loading in c o n c r e t e time s e g m e n t s (month,
stage, period). This magnitude should be determined based o n
the general stage-conceptions of training construction in the

98.
yearly cycle and the p r i n c i p l e s of rational organization of
training loads of d i f f e r e n t primary e m p h a s i s .
The intensity of the loading is the criterion of the
s t r e n g t h and s p e c i f i c i t y of its i n f l u e n c e on the o r g a n i s m or the
m e a s u r e of the "tensity" (difficulty, Ed.) of the t r a i n i n g w o r k .
The intensity regulates the magnitude (strength) of t h e t r a i n i n g
potential of t h e m e a n s u t i l i z e d , the frequency of their u s e , the
intervals between r e p e t i t i v e use of t h e m e a n s or training ses-
sions w i t h high t r a i n i n g p o t e n t i a l ; as well as the r a t i o of the
v o l u m e of the loading to t h e time of its r e a l i z a t i o n . T h e latter
criterion has e s p e c i a l l y important significance for programming
training for p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d s ; since it takes into a c c o u n t the
degree of loading c o n c e n t r a t i o n r e l a t i v e to t i m e . Intensifica-
tion of loading is p e r m i t t e d at s p e c i f i c s t a g e s in the yearly
cycle and only a f t e r p r e l i m i n a r y p r e p a r a t i o n of v o l u m i n o u s low-
intensity loading.
The duration of the training load is an extraordinary
c r i t e r i o n of the v o l u m e , on w h i c h we should dwell in m o r e d e t a i l .
The d u r a t i o n of t h e loading renders a s i g n i f i c a n t affect on the
d y n a m i c s of the sportsman's state and are those p a r a m e t e r s of the
loading, for which the probability for e r r o r s are particularly
great.
It h a s a l r e a d y b e e n m e n t i o n e d (see 2.1) that t h e length of
time systematic training i n f l u e n c e s are employed (the general
v o l u m e of loading) has a d e f i n i t e limit, d e p e n d i n g on the CAP of
the o r g a n i s m . At t h e same t i m e , c o n s i d e r a b l e research (unfortu-
nately, still limited) has e s t a b l i s h e d that there a l s o e x i s t s a
time limit where specialized portions of loading of a primary
emphasis are employed, the e x c e e d i n g of w h i c h a d v e r s e l y affects
the perfectioning of mechanisms crucial for maximum and
explosive-strength; a e r o b i c and a n a e r o b i c productivity. Going
beyond this limit loading, a l r e a d y d o e s not yield a d e v e l o p m e n t a l
e f f e c t and leads to a u s e l e s s e x p e n d i t u r e of the a t h l e t e ' s time
and energy. It is important to have a representation of the
optimal time-span for loading of any primary e m p h a s i s , as well as
the rate of improvement of the appropriate indicators, when

99.
programming training.
Unfortunately there is n o special research directed at
determining the appropriate length of time for loading of a
specific primary emphasis. However indirect data has been
gathered, e n a b l i n g u s t o shed s o m e light o n t h i s p r o b l e m . Thus,
there is a linear i n c r e a s e in a b s o l u t e - s t r e n g t h in connection
with an assigned loading, the slowing down of this increase
b e g i n s at the l i m i t s of t h i s optimal t i m e - s p a n of t r a i n i n g ; w h i c h
d e f i n e s the e x h a u s t i o n o f the o r g a n i s m ' s C A R . O b s e r v a t i o n a l data
of highly-qualified athletes indicates that absolute-strength
i n c r e a s e s with little fluctuation; rising c o n t i n u o u s l y during the
year's training.
W h e n e x p l o s i v e - s t r e n g t h is t h e s u b j e c t of special training,
there is a c l e a r l y e x p r e s s e d t e n d e n c y for the rise in e x p l o s i v e -
strength to slow down; t h e s h a r p e r the expressed growth, the
e a r l i e r it p l a t e a u s . W h e n o n e is e m p h a s i z i n g the d e v e l o p m e n t of
explosive-strength exclusively, by utilizing these m e a n s , the
plateau appears in 3-4 months. In those instances where
explosive-strength is not the key a b i l i t y (for example, in a
single-cycle of periodization in the year's training of
decathletes, see 2.1, figure 6) the i n c r e a s e in explosive-
strength (with some f l u c t u a t i o n ) can c o n t i n u e u p t o 1 0 - m o n t h s .
Loading that is p r i m a r i l y a e r o b i c in n a t u r e w i l l result in
significant i n c r e a s e s in a e r o b i c p r o d u c t i v i t y , already in one
m o n t h ' s t i m e (E. P. Borisov, 1979; V. A. S i r e n k o , 1980). The
dynamics of the aerobic productivity and loading indicators
executed w i t h i n t h e a e r o b i c zone (at a HR of 120-170 beats/min-
ute), are unidirectional. Their rate of increase is
approximately equivalent and t h e y are linear in n a t u r e over a 2-3
months period. D e s p i t e increased loading v o l u m e , the aerobic
productivity i n d i c a t o r s d o not increase significantly later on;
they fluctuate w i t h i n the r a n g e of t h e level achieved (V. M.
Zatsiorsky, et a l . , 1 9 7 4 ; A. P. Skorodymova, 1974; F. P. Suslov,
1977; Y. A. Ustkachkintsev, 1979; V. A. Sirenko, 1980).
The rate of i n c r e a s e in w o r k - c a p a c i t y c e d e s to rate of
increase in t h e loading (of c o r r e s p o n d i n g e m p h a s i s ) w i t h i n the

100.
anaerobic zone of energy-acquisition. About 4-months are
n e c e s s a r y to a c h i e v e the h i g h e s t results in a n a e r o b i c productiv-
ity (V. M. Z a t s i o r s k y , et a l . , 1 9 7 4 ; B. S. S e r a f i m o v a , 1 9 7 4 ; N.
I. Doroshchenko, 1976; Y. A. Ustkachkintsev, 1979). Increasing
the v o l u m e of a n a e r o b i c work r e n d e r s a p o s i t i v e e f f e c t o n l y if it
precedes a s i g n i f i c a n t v o l u m e of a e r o b i c w o r k , stimulating the
a e r o b i c r e a c t i o n (B. S . S e r a f i m o v a , 1 9 7 4 ; V . I . N a u m e n k o , 1 9 7 8 ) .
Note that the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d data a p p l i e s to the natural
c o n d i t i o n s of an a t h l e t e ' s p r e p a r a t i o n , w h e r e the d e v e l o p m e n t of
a certain motor ability is realized s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a l o n g w i t h the
resolution of other t a s k s and w h e r e loading of other primary
emphasis is employed. T h e y c o n f o r m to t h o s e actual loading
volumes that modern highly-qualified athletes assimulate and
realize w i t h t h e h e l p of t h e p r i n c i p l e s of organizing training
which are acceptable today. And, since these principles are
being c o n s t a n t l y p e r f e c t e d , the d u r a t i o n of loading indicated is
not d e f i n i t i v e . However, it can s e r v e as a p r e l i m i n a r y o r i e n t a -
tion when programming training.
3.2.3 O r g a n i z a t i o n of Training Loads
Organization of training m e a n s its regulation within a
c o n c r e t e time span (stage, period), which e n s u r e s the planned
dynamics of s t a t e and the a c h i e v e m e n t of the planned level of
SPP. The b a s i s of such r e g u l a t i o n should be the a c h i e v e m e n t of
the positive cumulative training-effect of the loading of
different primary emphasis. Here, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o o b s e r v e the
chief requirement -- p r e s e r v a t i o n of t h e training-potential of
the loading.

T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of loading is d e f i n e d by two c r i t e r i a : the

nature of its d i s t r i b u t i o n over time and the p r i n c i p a l interde-
p e n d e n c e of the loading of different primary e m p h a s i s .
D i s t r i b u t i o n of the t r a i n i n g load over time is u n d e r s t o o d to
mean the way in w h i c h it is d i s t r i b u t e d in separate stages,
cycles and p e r i o d s of the y e a r - c y c l e . The d i s t r i b u t i o n of the
general v o l u m e of loading and its d y n a m i c s in the y e a r - c y c l e are
determined by the traditional p e r i o d i z a t i o n of training and the

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regularities of the o r g a n i s m ' s long-term adaptation to training
influences. If o n e s p e a k s of loading of o n e p r i m a r y emphasis,
then o n e should d i s t i n g u i s h t w o v a r i a n t s of o r g a n i z i n g it time-
wise: distribution and concentration. T h e first assumes a
r e l a t i v e l y u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o n of m e a n s w i t h i n a y e a r - c y c l e ; the
second -- the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of m e a n s at d e f i n i t e t r a i n i n g s t a g e s .
The effectiveness of the distribution and concentration
variants of organizing t r a i n i n g loads should be based on the
sportsman's qualification. Research indicates that both v a r i a n t s
bring success in t h e t r a i n i n g of m i d d l e - q u a l i f i e d a t h l e t e s . The
second variant is a p p r o p r i a t e for the training of highly-quali-
fied a t h l e t e s . Thus, it h a s been shown that t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of
glycolytic work in the y e a r - c y c l e of highly-qualified sprinters
m a n i f e s t s itself in i n c r e a s e d loading v o l u m e , but d o e s not lead
to an i n c r e a s e in the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the loading. However, by
c o n c e n t r a t i o n of the v o l u m e of g l y c o l y t i c w o r k at c e r t a i n stages,
the w o r k w a s e x e c u t e d at a smaller v o l u m e of loading but achieved
a more significant displacement in t h e a t h l e t e s ' speed-endurance
(0. A. Kornelyuk). S i m i l a r r e s u l t s w e r e obtained b y c o n c e n t r a -
tion of the v o l u m e of s p r i n t e r s ' special-strength work (A. V.
Leuchenko), middle-distance runners (V. A. S i r e n k o , L. N. Zhdao-
vich), b o x e r s (V. I. F i l i m o n o v } and jumpers {I. N. M i r o n e n k o , T.
M. Antonova).
Special o b s e r v a t i o n s h a v e shown that concentration of the
volume of uni-directional loading r e s u l t s in more extensive
functional changes w i t h i n the o r g a n i s m and m o r e essential dis-
p l a c e m e n t t o the sportsman's physical preparedness. Distribution
of the volume of t r a i n i n g i n f l u e n c e s by dispersion over time
provokes only a brief functional reaction w h i c h d o e s not provide
conditions for t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of long-term a d a p t a t i o n a l recon-
struction. D i s t r i b u t i o n of the loading initially can yield some
rise in the f u n c t i o n a l level, but then, in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the
rapid a d a p t a t i o n of t h e o r g a n i s m , loses its training potential
and becomes non-productive work.
The interdependence of loading of different primary
emphasis, assuming they are combined rationally over time,

102.
p r o v i d e s the required c u m u l a t i v e training-effect.
The cumulative loading o f d i f f e r e n t p r i m a r y emphasis can
have positive and negative effects. Thus, when developing
explosive-strength, the p o s i t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n o f the organism's
functional reactions is achieved practically, through the
f o l l o w i n g brief c o m b i n a t i o n s of training m e a n s :
" s h o r t " and "long" jumping e x e r c i s e s ;
barbell e x e r c i s e s and jumping e x e r c i s e s ;
barbell e x e r c i s e s w i t h 30 and 9 0 % of m a x i m u m ;
barbell exercises and t h e "shock" method of developing
e x p l o s i v e - s t r e n g t h (for e x a m p l e , d e p t h - j u m p s ) ;
leaping w i t h k e t t l e - b e l l s and jumping e x e r c i s e s ;
barbell exercises and leaping w i t h k e t t l e - b e l l s .
In a s i n g l e t r a i n i n g s e s s i o n the order of the means, com-
bined in a s y s t e m a t i c c o m p l e x , has no s i g n i f i c a n c e , in p r i n c i p l e ;
s i n c e the length of t i m e the o r g a n i s m m a i n t a i n s the t r a c e s of the
training i n f l u e n c e s in t h i s i n s t a n c e , e x c e e d s the t i m e - s p a n of
the workout. Within the t i m e - s p a n of t h i s session and the
nearest restoration period, a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of the t r a c e s of the
entire complex of training influences of different primary
emphasis occurs; w h i c h r e s u l t s i n the same cumulative effect,
regardless of t h e s e q u e n c e w i t h w h i c h t h e s e i n f l u e n c e s f o l l o w in
time.
So, in the given case, concerning the development of
explosive-strength, of fundamental s i g n i f i c a n c e is not so much
the o r d e r of the m e a n s , as v o l u m e of the loading as well as the
"contrastness" of the t r a i n i n g i n f l u e n c e s of different means
phenomenon. Nevertheless one should still preserve the
aforementioned order of c o m b i n i n g m e a n s , s i n c e it p r o v i d e s the
favorable a f f e c t of a brief rise in f u n c t i o n a l state, w h i c h the
first e x e r c i s e c r e a t e s w i t h the e x e c u t i o n of the second. The
best methodical variant of utilizing the aforementioned
combination of s p e c i a l - s t r e n g t h e x e r c i s e s -- is to e m p l o y them
s e r i a l l y w i t h a c t i v e rest b e t w e e n s e r i e s . W h e n r e p e a t i n g such a
s e r i e s it is d e s i r a b l e to vary t h e e x e r c i s e s , in order to avoid
monotony of t r a i n i n g w o r k and to m a i n t a i n the optimal rest p a u s e

103.
for eliminating the alactate debt.
One c a n n o t s p e a k with as m u c h c e r t a i n t y about the e f f e c t of
the interaction of loading of d i f f e r e n t primary e m p h a s i s on the
development of e n d u r a n c e . The facts a v a i l a b l e lack conformity
and are often so c o n t r a d i c t o r y , that it is very difficult to
ascertain definitive tendencies. It is believed that the main
reason for this situation is the failed a t t e m p t at methodical
interpretation of "never popular conceptions" concerning the
mechanism of energy-acquisition for i n t e n s e muscular work (R.
Margaria, et a l . , 1964). An o u t c o m e of t h i s c o n c e p t i o n is the
division of training loads into aerobic, alactic anaerobic,
anaerobic glycolytic, mixed and so forth; nominally, so
conditional that t h e y p e r m i t very broad interpretation, they
exclude the p o s s i b i l i t y of strict classification with respect to
primary e m p h a s i s and c o n s e q u e n t l y , o b j e c t i v e a s s e s s m e n t of their
training effect (the m o r e c u m u l a t i v e ) .
One h o p e s that in the near f u t u r e the n e g a t i v e consequences
of such i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s w i l l be e l i m i n a t e d , but until then, note
that available experimental material i n d i c a t e s that t h e r e is a
positive interaction of e n d u r a n c e loading in those instances
where:
aerobic exercises are done after loading of alactate-
anaerobic influence;
aerobic exercises are d o n e after loading of glycolytic-
anaerobic influence (in a small volume);
glycolytic-anaerobic exercises are d o n e after loading of
alactic-anaerobic influence.
Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s the previous loading creates favor-
able conditions for e x e c u t i n g the s u b s e q u e n t loading and raises
the e f f e c t of the t r a i n i n g s e s s i o n , as a w h o l e .
T h e r e is a n e g a t i v e interaction when:
a l a c t i c - a n a e r o b i c e x e r c i s e s a r e done after a large a m o u n t of
glycolytic work;
glycolytic exercises follow large v o l u m e s of a e r o b i c work
(N. I. V o l k o v , 1975).
It has been established that restoration of energy

104 .
resources and disturbance of neuro-endocrine equilibrium within
the organism is prolonged by 2-3 days after a large volume of
aerobic work. During this period it is appropriate to employ a
small volume of anaerobic loading, which will not have a negative
influence on the restoration of the aerobic capacity and will
stimulate the development of anaerobic capacity.
Restoration after anaerobic loading, executed at a moderate
volume, usually takes 3-8 hours. However, extraordinarily large
volumes of anaerobic loading slow restoration. The effect of
alactic-anaerobic workouts worsens if the sessions are done
without full restoration from the preceding loading (M. Y.
Nabatnikova, 1972; N. I. Volkov, 1975; V. N. Platonov, 1980).
Sequential-cumulation of the training-effect of loading of
different primary emphasis has a place in the long-term stages of
preparation and is expressed by the "superimposed*' training-
effect of the subsequent work on the training-effect, achieved by
the preceding work. In this case, if the preceding work creates
favorable prerequsites for the subsequent work, there is a
positive sequential cumulation of their training-effects.
For the development of explosive-strength the positive cumu-
lation is achieved through a sequence where voluminous loading
with submaximum resistance is employed first; then means which
stimulate the display of explosive-effort. In this instance the
positive cumulation is achieved by the first loading securing a
rise in the general energy potential of the neuro-muscular appa-
ratus. This creates favorable conditions for the further devel-
opment of adaptation, conditioned by the subsequent loading and
the emphasis on perfectioning the athlete's ability to display
explosive-effort of great power. The reverse sequence of the
aforementioned loading leads to a negative cumulative-effect.
The mechanism of sequential-cumulation is appropriate only
if the training-effect of the previous work has become relatively
stabile (requiring no less than 4-6 weeks). When the strength
means of different emphasis are changed over shorter time inter-
vals, for example after 2-weeks, already the organism is unable
to differentiate the specifics of their influence and the

105.
organism's accommodative reaction is realized by m e a n s of the
brief cumulation m e c h a n i s m . This corroborates the c i r c u m s t a n c e ,
that a change in the o r d e r of loading of different emphasis,
after two-week s t a g e s of u s e , has p r a c t i c a l l y no a f f e c t on the
resulting training-effect.
W i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of special-endurance (the m a i n method
in c y c l i c s p o r t s ) t h e a p p e a r a n c e of the sequential c u m u l a t i o n of
the t r a i n i n g - e f f e c t of loading of different primary emphasis has
a more complex character than w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of e x p l o s i v e -
strength; which gives rise t o the following c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
First, it is p e r m i s s i b l e and c u s t o m a r y to d e v e l o p e x p l o s i v e -
abilities with a s s i s t a n c e m e a n s that are sometimes nominally
(externally) far from t h e m o t o r s t r u c t u r e of the fundamental
sport e x e r c i s e ; however, the fundamental sport e x e r c i s e is t r a d i -
tionally the chief m e a n s of developing special-endurance in
cyclic types of sports. Here the e f f e c t of the s p e c i a l - e n d u r a n c e
depends on the s u c c e s s f u l s e l e c t i o n of the v o l u m e r a t i o s of work
of different intensity and d u r a t i o n .
Second, endurance training causes more profound changes
within the o r g a n i s m , which require m o r e t i m e for r e s t o r a t i o n of
expended energy. Here, s e l e c t i o n of t h e w o r k to f o l l o w is of
great importance. And, since in this c a s e , it is a p p r o p r i a t e to
do work of a d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r , w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e s in particu-
lar, to intensification of the r e s t o r a t i o n processes or is
designed to improve o t h e r a b i l i t i e s (V. N. Platonov, 1 9 8 0 ) ; this
significantly complicates the m a i n t e n a n c e of the c h i e f emphasis
of the training i n f l u e n c e s and leads to c o m p o s i t e t r a i n i n g , which
is not a l w a y s a p p r o p r i a t e for h i g h l y - q u a l i f i e d a t h l e t e s .
The m e t h o d i c s of d e v e l o p i n g e n d u r a n c e have b e e n established
long ago and there a r e still t w o o p p o s i n g p o i n t s of v i e w amongst
their a d h e r e n t s . O n e of t h e s e is based on the e x p e d i e n c y of the
so-called parallel or s i m u l t a n e o u s d e v e l o p m e n t of general and
s p e c i a l - e n d u r a n c e (L. P. M a t v e y e v , 1 9 7 0 ; I. G. O g o l t s o v , 1971; M.
Y. Nabatnikova, 1972). This variant introduces special-endurance
loading a l r e a d y at the b e g i n n i n g of the p r e p a r a t i o n p e r i o d , while
one is developing general-endurance. It is a s s u m e d that this

106.
training will be more specialized, creating more favorable
conditions for s p e c i f i c a d a p t a t i o n to c o m p e t i t i o n a c t i v i t i e s . At
the same t i m e , one provides multi-sided preparedness simultane-
ously and t h e a t h l e t e a c h i e v e s a m o r e stabile w o r k - c a p a c i t y in
the c o m p e t i t i o n p e r i o d . T h i s p o i n t of view has b e e n c o r r o b o r a t e d
experimentally; a s i g n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n of the research w a s done
w i t h a t h l e t e s w h o have not yet reached the apex of sport m a s t e r y ,
in particular, with junior middle-distance runners (V. N.
Baranov, 1969), swimmers (V. V. Kuzovenkov, 1 9 6 9 ) and s k i e r s (V.
M. Malikov, 1974).
T h e other p o i n t of view e m p h a s i z e s sequential d e v e l o p m e n t of
endurance, where one begins by perfectioning respiratory
(aerobic) possibilities, then lactate e n d u r a n c e ( g l y c o l y s i s ) , and
finally alactate endurance (the creatinphosphate mechanism).
This sequential i n t r o d u c t i o n of aerobic work creates favorable
conditions for the t r a i n i n g - e f f e c t of a n a e r o b i c work (N. G.
Ozolin, 1959, 1 9 7 0 ; N. I. V o l k o v , 1963; N. N. Y a k o v l e v , 1 9 5 7 ; E.
P. B o r i s o v , 1979; S. A. L o k t e v , 1 9 7 8 ) . A gradual i n c r e a s e in the
duration of aerobic-loading leads to an an a c c u m u l a t i o n of the
supply of e n e r g y s u b s t a n c e s and an increase in the organism's
energy potential (N. N. Y a k o v l e v , et a l , 1960). H e r e , t h e volume
is not of p r i n c i p a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , but t h e intensity of the work
is (P.-O. Astrand, K. R o d a h l , 1970). When one's a e r o b i c a b i l i -
ties are insufficient, an e x c e s s i v e i n c r e a s e in the v o l u m e of
anaerobic means leads to a d e c r e a s e in sport a c h i e v e m e n t s (V. I.
Naumenko, 1978; Y. N. V a v i l o v , 1 9 7 7 ; B. S. S e r a f i m o v a , 1974; N.
V. Morzhevikov, 1980).
A third point of v i e w on practical methodics of endurance
d e v e l o p m e n t has been formulated and has found e x p e r i m e n t a l corro-
boration. Basically, this point of view i n v o l v e s t h e complex
rise of a e r o b i c and a n a e r o b i c m e a n s , but w i t h a s e q u e n t i a l switch
in t h e a c c e n t u a t i o n of their e m p h a s i s , from g e n e r a l to s p e c i a l -
endurance. The effectiveness of this type of training
construction in a y e a r l y c y c l e has been d e m o n s t r a t e d , in p a r t i c u -
lar, for h i g h l y - q u a l i f i e d middle-distance runners (N. I. Dorosh-
chenko, 1976; S. A. Loktev, 1 9 7 8 ; E. P. B o r i s o v , 1 9 7 9 ) ; as well

107.
as for m u l t i - y e a r t r a i n i n g (M. M. Linyets, 1979). O n e can a s s u m e
that this system represents a compromise, unifying in-and-of
itself the merits of the c o m p l e x and sequential variants of
special-endurance training. This is even m o r e important b e c a u s e
it is d o n e in p r a c t i c e .
The o r g a n i z a t i o n of loading is c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the
selection of the optimal rest interval b e t w e e n r e p e t i t i o n of a
single training s e s s i o n and b e t w e e n contiguous sessions. We
would remind you that t h e e s s e n c e of training c o n s i s t s not only
of m u s c u l a r w o r k , but t h e effect of the o r g a n i s m ' s compensatory
reaction, p r o v o k e d by it. Therefore, the rest pause is an impor-
tant training m e a n s , equally important as m u s c u l a r w o r k ; and this
means should be e m p l o y e d s k i l l f u l l y . It h a s been emphasized
repeatedly, that the art of t r a i n i n g m a n a g e m e n t c o n s i s t s of the
rational c o m b i n a t i o n of s p e c i f i c and n o n - s p e c i f i c loading along
w i t h skillful r e g u l a t i o n of w o r k and rest (B. S. Hippenreitor,
1 9 5 5 ; V. V. P e t r o v s k y , 1969; N. G. O z o l i n , 1949, 1 9 6 6 ) . T h e rest
interval is the most important pedagogical component of training
methodics. Sustaining the o p t i m a l p a u s e b e t w e e n r e p e t i t i o n of
work requires definite methodical competency and the coach's
pedagogical mastery to s k i l l f u l l y " f i l l " this pause. In the
opposite case, the s p e c i f i c i t y of the influence is d i m i n i s h e d and
the c u m u l a t i v e e f f e c t of the loading is a l t e r e d ; as a result of
which, it turns into " g r o s s " w o r k , developing everything, but not
r e s o l v i n g the t r a i n i n g ' s concrete task.
So, the aforementioned data is indicative of the
e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y c o m p l e x c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the s p o r t s m a n ' s state
and the a s s i g n e d t r a i n i n g load; and c o u p l e d w i t h t h i s , of the
difficulty of selecting the optimal variant of training
organization to a c h i e v e the g i v e n s p e c i a l - w o r k - c a p a c i t y . Never-
theless, in spite of t h e limited o b j e c t i v e d a t a one can already
speak, not a b o u t c o n c r e t e recommendations for each type of sport,
but about some p r i n c i p a l a p p r o a c h e s to t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of t r a i n -
ing loads in the s y s t e m of y e a r l y p r e p a r a t i o n .
3.3 T h e L o n g - T e r m Lag in the T r a i n i n g - E f f e c t of the Loading
We will isolate and e x a m i n e in detail, the particular

108.
connection b e t w e e n the d y n a m i c s of t h e s p o r t s m a n ' s s t a t e and the
assigned loading, in t h e long-term t r a i n i n g s t a g e s .
C o n s i d e r a b l e r e s e a r c h (S. V. N i k i t i n , 1977; I. N. M i r o n e n k o ,
1979; T. M. Antonova, 1982; A. V. Leuchenko, 1982) has r e v e a l e d
a steady d e c r e a s e in s p e e d - s t r e n g t h p r e p a r e d n e s s in individual
training stages of d i f f e r e n t length (from 5-12 weeks). This
decrease is t h e result of voluminous strength loading (figure 34,
shaded rectangle), after w h i c h s p e e d - s t r e n g t h returns to its
initial level and significantly surpasses it. Since this
phenomenon is not in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h e s t a b l i s h e d ideas concerning
the "steadfast" rise in an a t h l e t e ' s special-physical prepared-
ness as an indispensable condition for rationally organized
training; and is not accompanied by clear-cut signs of over-
training, it has b e c o m e a subject of special study. The follow-
ing has been e s t a b l i s h e d as a result of this study.
The v o l u m e of t h e training load has a d e f i n i t e (individual
for e a c h a t h l e t e ) level, a b o v e or below w h i c h q u a n t i t a t i v e l y and
qualitatively alters the o r g a n i s m ' s r e a c t i o n to the loading.
There is a characteristically simple connection between the
quantity of work e x e c u t e d and the d y n a m i c s of the athlete's
state. An i n c r e a s e in the v o l u m e of loading r a i s e s the a t h l e t e ' s
special w o r k - c a p a c i t y , and v i c e v e r s a . If the v o l u m e of loading
is e s s e n t i a l l y lower then the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d level, special w o r k -
capacity, a f t e r some r i s e , b e g i n s to d e c r e a s e . If the volume of
loading e x c e e d s this level significantly, a steady d e c r e a s e in
special work-capacity occurs, which however, rises intensely
during the t i m e l y r e d u c t i o n in the volume of loading. This
intense rise in the a t h l e t e ' s special work-capacity is in-and-of
itself a p h e n o m e n o n of the l o n g - t e r m lagging of the training
effect (LLTE) a c c o m p a n y i n g one of the forms of the organism's
c o m p e n s a t o r y a d a p t a t i o n to the v o l u m e of loading.
This phenomenon, in its general appearance, has been known
for some t i m e in p r a c t i c e , w h e r e it has been o b s e r v e d in the form
of a natural i n c r e a s e in sport r e s u l t s after a d e c r e a s e in the
v o l u m e of t h e t r a i n i n g load in t h e p r e - c o m p e t i t i o n stage (N. G.
Ozolin, 1949, 1 9 6 7 ; V. M. D i a c h k o v , 1953; L. P. M a t v e y e v , 1970;

109.
no.
R. M. C h a r y e v , 1975). However, this is only the external a s p e c t
of adaptation; the causual conditions, m e c h a n i s m s and p e c u l i a r i -
ties of its m a n i f e s t a t i o n w h i c h , and the chief p o s s i b i l i t y of
utilizing it as a special way of c o n s t r u c t i n g t r a i n i n g up-until-
now, was not a s u b j e c t of i n t e n s e s c r u t i n y . Essentially, no one
had any idea that t h e a p p e a r a n c e of the L L T E has great promise
for r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n of t r a i n i n g , e s p e c i a l l y for h i g h l y - q u a l i f i e d
athletes.
Several graphic, practical e x a m p l e s of the L L T E phenomena
are s h o w n . P r e s e n t e d in figure 35 are the d y n a m i c s of the speed-
strength indicators (leg extension) of highly-qualified
volleyball teams (group A), w h o for t w o m o n t h s prior to an
official tournament used a concentrated (4-weeks) volume of
special-strength work (chiefly d e p t h jumping). This loading
caused a brief rise in s p e e d - s t r e n g t h in the first week, then
lead to a s t e a d y d e c r e a s e of the s a m e . An i n t e n s e rise in speed-
strength occurred after the specialized strength loading c e a s e d ;
speed-strength then reached a level that far exceeded the
initial. The speed-strength dynamics of other teams who used
traditional m e t h o d s of s t r e n g t h and pre-competition preparation
(group B) are p r e s e n t e d for c o m p a r i s o n . It is easy to see that
the first g r o u p p e r f o r m e d in official competitions (9-12 weeks)
at a higher level of functional preparedness due to the
unidirectional use of the LLTE of c o n c e n t r a t e d strength-loading.
Similar results were obtained in an experiment which veri-
fied the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of a six-week p r o g r a m of special-strength-
training for increasing the speed of m o v e m e n t of t e n n i s players
on a t e n n i s court (figure 3 6 ) . In this c a s e , t h e r e w a s a similar
tendency in the d y n a m i c s of explosive-effort (leg e x t e n s i o n ) and
the t e n n i s p l a y e r s ' speed of m o v e m e n t in special motor t a s k s .
The LLTE p h e n o m e n o n of concentrated strength-loading was
observed in s p e c i a l l y o r g a n i z e d e x p e r i m e n t s in cyclic types of
sports — middle distance runners (L. N. Zhdanovich, 1980),
s w i m m e r s (N. M. Rudokene, 1 9 8 1 ) , s k a t e r s (P. I. K a b a c h k o v a , et
al, 1982). Thus, a steady i n c r e a s e in the s t r e n g t h - e n d u r a n c e of
middle-distance runners was verified — increased stride length
Is and the r e s u l t s in 1 0 - s t a n d i n g long jumps (figure 3 7 ) , after
concentrated strength-loading. It is interesting that o n e can
see an i n c r e a s e in the a b i l i t y to display a single explosive-
effort (vertical jumping) in the concentrated strength-loading
stage, but one finds that t h e r e is a t e n d e n c y for t h i s a b i l i t y to
decrease in the competition stage. One can a s s u m e that the
reason for t h i s p h e n o m e n o n is due to the raising of the v o l u m e of
i n t e n s e d i s t a n c e w o r k , w h i c h has a negative affect on t h e a b i l i t y
to d i s p l a y a c o n c e n t r a t e d e x p l o s i v e - e f f o r t , s i n c e the latter is
non-specific for c y c l i c t y p e s of sports.
Based on generalized r e s u l t s and s c h e m a t i c s of experimental
m a t e r i a l s the L L T E p h e n o m e n o n can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d in the f o l l o w -
ing way (see s c h e m a t i c in figure 38).
1. Concentration, i.e., within a limited time p e r i o d , c o n -
centration of the v o l u m e of strength loading (A), creates the
p o s s i b i l i t y of an e x t e n s i v e , unidirectional training i n f l u e n c e on
the organism. C o n c e n t r a t i o n of strength loading is the basic
condition for the b e g i n n i n g of the L L T E .
2. The lower (within an optimal range) the s p e e d - s t r e n g t h
levels fall in the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of s t r e n g t h loading stage, the
higher they s u b s e q u e n t l y rise in the r e a l i z a t i o n of LLTE phase
(graph of Fi and F 2 ) - E x c e s s i v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of strength-load-
ing r e s u l t s in a m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t d r o p in s p e e d - s t r e n g t h and to a
disruption of adaptation (graph F 3 ) .
3. When utilizing concentrated strength loading oriented
to o b t a i n i n g a LLTE, the m e a n s used should not be intensive.
C o n c e n t r a t i o n of u n i d i r e c t i o n a l loading is already an i n t e n s i f i -
cation of the t r a i n i n g influences, and one should not s t r e n g t h e n
it w i t h h i g h - i n t e n s i t y m e a n s .
4. A m o d e r a t e v o l u m e of g e n e r a l - d e v e l o p m e n t a l work, com-
bined w i t h special w o r k of gradually increasing intensity c o n t r i -
butes to r e a l i z a t i o n of the L L T E through c o n c e n t r a t e d strength-
loading (B) .
5. T h e length of time LLTE is d i s p l a y e d is d e t e r m i n e d by
the v o l u m e and t h e d u r a t i o n of the c o n c e n t r a t e d s t r e n g t h - l o a d i n g .
In p r i n c i p l e , the steady d i s p l a y of the L L T E (t2) is e q u i v a l e n t to

113
the d u r a t i o n of the strength w o r k stage (t^). Under the actual
training conditions of h i g h l y - q u a l i f i e d athletes, the stated
t e n d e n c y was o b s e r v e d from 4-12 w e e k s during t h e long-term s t a g e s
of strength p r e p a r a t i o n . However, one should bear in m i n d , that
m a n i f e s t a t i o n of t h e L L T E is i n d i v i d u a l i z e d and to a significant
degree depends on the s p o r t s m a n ' s v o l u m e of loading and his
recuperative ability. An e q u i v a l e n t v o l u m e of loading for two
a t h l e t e s of the same q u a l i f i c a t i o n can yield d i f f e r e n t e f f e c t s .
There are a number of important circumstances associated
with the m a n i f e s t a t i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n of the L L T E of strength-
loading in the y e a r c y c l e . A t h l e t e s do not have s u f f i c i e n t time
for recuperation after voluminous strength-loading. Conse-
quently, they e x c l u d e the p o s s i b l i t y of r e a l i z a t i o n of the LLTE
of the strength-loading and these conditions are extremely
unfavorable to the o r g a n i s m . Besides this, the organism is
forced into a u n j u s t i f a b l e e x p e n d i t u r e in order to restore its
energy potential. The effectivensss of the athlete's preparation
is rather low under such conditions and their special-work-
capacity is not very high in the c o m p e t i t i o n s t a g e .
During the period of the L L T E realization of voluminous
strength-loading it is r e l a t i v e l y easy and painless for the
organism to switch to i n t e n s i v e loading, but it will react
n e g a t i v e l y to v o l u m i n o u s w o r k . T h i s is m a n i f e s t e d in the slowed
growth and e v e n d e c r e a s e in s p e e d - s t r e n g t h . So, one must not
permit an increase in the v o l u m e of training w o r k during the
period of t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of the L L T E . O n e should be e s p e c i a l l y
cautious w i t h s t r e n g t h - l o a d i n g in the competition period. At
this time, i n t e n s i v e and s h o r t - t e r m strength w o r k can be u t i l i z e d
in a small v o l u m e as a m e a n s of toning the n e u r o - m u s c u l a r system
during competition preparation; as well as for preserving the
achieved level of s p e e d - s t r e n g t h p r e p a r e d n e s s , in the e v e n t the
length of t h e c o m p e t i t i o n period e x c e e d s t h e time period of the
r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e L L T E of strength-loading.
W i t h respect to a e r o b i c and a n a e r o b i c p r o d u c t i v i t y , there is
no experimental data that c l e a r l y d o c u m e n t s the L L T E phenomenon
of c y c l i c (distance) work. T h e e x c e p t i o n s are cases of intense

115.
t r a i n i n g in t h e l o w - o x y g e n c o n d i t i o n s of a l t i t u d e . Here, charac-
teristics of the LLTE phenomenon dynamics were observed in
swimmers (figure 39) -- m a x i m u m aerobic capacity, the total
volume of work w h i c h the a t h l e t e s are able to e x e c u t e at the
critical level of p o w e r , MOC and the oxygen d e b t . All of the
athletes improved their results immediately after training at
altitude.

Figure 39. D y n a m i c s of s w i m m e r s ' functional i n d i c a t o r s (S. M.

Vaitsekhovsky, et al, 1 9 7 4 ) :
1 - Summed volume of w o r k at level of critical p o w e r ,
2 - Maximum aerobic c a p a c i t y ,
3 - A l a c t a t e p o r t i o n of the o x y g e n d e b t ,
4 - MOC

116.
 The LLTE of training at a l t i t u d e w a s slightly d i f f e r e n t w i t h
respect to the organism's r e a c t i o n to a standard dosage of
loading. Thus, a d i s t u r b a n c e in the m o t o r - v i s c e r a l regulation
and the economicalness of circulatory-respiratory activities
(figure 40) were discovered in skaters, at altitude conditions;
d u r i n g f o u r - m i n u t e s of bicycle-ergometer loading. The result w a s
an i n c r e a s e in the i n t e n s i t y of t h e w o r k , a decrease in TANE,
activiation of the lactate m e c h a n i s m of ATP resynthesis, in-
creased energy expenditure and a d e c r e a s e in the mechanical
effectiveness of the work. After returning from altitude
functional e c o n o m i z a t i o n and m e c h a n i c a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s of standard
work e x c e e d e d the initial level as a r e s u l t of a m o r e e c o n o m i c a l
metabolism and a s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i m i n i s h e d p o r t i o n of anaerobic-
ally produced ATP.
T h e stay a t l o w - o x y g e n c o n d i t i o n s w a s common t o both e x p e r i -
mental examples, which was an extreme training influence,
provoking persistant disturbance of the organism's homeostasis
and t h e s u b s e q u e n t a c t i v a t i o n o f the p l a s t i c r e s o u r c e s .
As a l r e a d y emphasized, t h i s p h e n o m e n o n is not observed by
m e a n s of s t a n d a r d , t r a d i t i o n a l w a y s of a s s e s s i n g the state of the
v e g e t a t i v e s y s t e m s u n d e r normal barometric conditions. However,
if it o r i g i n a t e s from the general biological r e g u l a r i t i e s of the
o r g a n i s m ' s a d a p t a t i o n t o external influences, the prolonged d i s -
t u r b a n c e of h o m e o s t a s i s ( i n d i s p e n s a b l e c o n d i t i o n s for the b e g i n -
ning of t h e L L T E ) o c c u r s at the s y s t e m level; the functional
dynamics of w h i c h a r e not p e r c e p t i b l e to m e t h o d s utilized for
assessing the a e r o b i c and a n a e r o b i c p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e organ-
ism. In this instance the adaptational processes apparently,
develop at d e e p e r -- s u b s k e l e t a l and m o l e c u l a r levels (in the
mitochondria, the endocrine system); concerning which, the
r e s u l t s of c o n s i d e r a b l e r e s e a r c h is i n d i c a t i v e (N. I. Yakovlev,
1 9 5 7 , 1974; A. A. Viru, 1969, 1981; V. S. Finogenov, 1979). How-
ever, disturbance of homeostasis can be manifested in the
d y n a m i c s of a n u m b e r of p s y c h o - p h y s i o l o g i c a l indicators; reflect-
ing the functional state of t h e C N S and the neuro-muscular
apparatus.

117.
Figure 40. Energy dynamics of standard 4-minute bicycle-
e r g o m e t e r loading (A. S. Ivanov, 1 9 7 7 ) :
1 - M e c h a n i c a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the w o r k ,
2 - Oxygen r e q u i r e m e n t
3 - Oxygen d e b t , MPW - m e t a b o l i c power of w o r k

118.
 Thus, the use of large c o m p l e x t r a i n i n g loads, caused a
d e c r e a s e in the f u n c t i o n s of swimmers: an increased latent p e r i o d
of a c o m p l e x motor r e a c t i o n and its m o t o r c o m p o n e n t , diminished
p r e c i s e n e s s of m u s c u l a r force, a w o r s e n i n g of the p r e c i s e n e s s of
reaction to a moving object. At the same time there was a
noticeable d e c r e a s e in sport w o r k - c a p a c i t y , a w o r s e n i n g of the
functional state of the c a r d i o - v a s c u l a r system (according to c a r -
diac r h y t h m d a t a ) , a d e c r e a s e in m u s c l e t o n u s and a d e c r e a s e in
mineral-cortical hormones in the adrenal cortex. After the
training loads w e r e reduced and the intensity of the swimmers'
workouts was altered, t h e r e w a s a rise in psycho-physiological
functions with the subsequent switch t o the super-restoration
phase. Simultaneously, the swimmers' work-capacity increased,
the functional s t a t e of the cardio-vascular s y s t e m improved and
m u s c l e t o n u s i n c r e a s e d (N. V . S u s m a n , 1978).
One can hope that r e s e a r c h in this area in the near future
will e n a b l e us to c h a r a c t e r i z e m o r e c o m p l e t e l y the LLTE p h e n o m e -
non of v o l u m i n o u s s p e c i f i c loading in cyclic types of s p o r t s and
make a significant contribution to the t h e o r y and t e c h n o l o g y of
programming training.
So, the just d e s c r i b e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the L L T E p h e n o m e -
non should be c o n s i d e r e d an important foundation and an o b j e c t i v e
prerequisite for rational s y s t e m s of preparing highly-qualified
athletes in the y e a r l y c y c l e . Intentional c r e a t i o n of c o n d i t i o n s
for o r i g i n a t i o n and unidirectional u t i l i z a t i o n of the LLTE signi-
ficantly i n c r e a s e s , the p o s s i b l i t y for raising the e f f e c t i v e n e s s
of t r a i n i n g in all t y p e s of sports, without exception.
It is n e c e s s a r y to e m p h a s i z e that one should differentiate
between the p r e s e r v a t i o n of the t r a i n i n g e f f e c t and the L L T E of
loading. In the first c a s e , bear in mind the g e n e r a l d u r a t i o n of
the organism's r e t e n t i o n of functional reconstructions, as a
result of the t r a i n i n g i n f l u e n c e s (after they have ceased). In
the second c a s e , t h e r e is an essential and r e l a t i v e l y p r o l o n g e d
rise in the functional indicators, as a result of using specially
organized, concentrated volumes of loading.
 3.4 General Tendencies in the Dynamics of the S p o r t s m a n ' s
S t a t e in the Y e a r C y c l e ; D e p e n d i n g on the O r g a n i z a t i o n
of T r a i n i n g Loads
As we have already emphasized repeatedly, knowledge of the
regularities of t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e d y n a m i c s of the
sportsman's s t a t e and the t r a i n i n g l o a d s , is of e x c l u s i v e i m p o r -
tance for p r o g r a m m i n g t r a i n i n g . However, in p r a c t i c e , t h e r e is
very little e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the systematic
observation of the d y n a m i c s of the s p o r t s m a n ' s s t a t e in the year
cycle. Research, i n c l u s i v e of stage (3-4 t i m e s a y e a r ) assess-
ment of the s p o r t s m a n ' s s t a t e , is not v e r y i n f o r m a t i v e , s i n c e the
most i n t e r e s t i n g a l t e r a t i o n s i n s t a t e occur between these stages.
There is c o n s i d e r a b l e foreign r e s e a r c h on the changes in
functional indicators of u n t r a i n e d p e o p l e , d o n e in laboratory
c o n d i t i o n s , over a p e r i o d of 2-3 m o n t h s (M. L. Pollock's review,
1973). These s t u d i e s are u n d o u b t e d l y of i n t e r e s t for studying
the m e c h a n i s m o f t h e o r g a n i s m ' s short-term adaptation to muscular
work; but of little use in p r o g r a m m i n g the t r a i n i n g of highly-
qualified athletes. Therefore, any o b s e r v a t i o n s o f the d y n a m i c s
of a s p o r t s m a n ' s s t a t e , w i t h a p e r i o d i c i t y of o n l y once a m o n t h ,
is of s i g n i f i c a n t p r a c t i c a l interest.
Our laboratories were the first to conduct extensive
research on the d e p e n d e n c e b e t w e e n the d y n a m i c s o f the sports-
man's s t a t e in the year c y c l e on a s s i g n e d t r a i n i n g loads; this
created interest crucial for p r o g r a m m i n g t r a i n i n g results. The
research included o b s e r v a t i o n o f d y n a m i c s and e x p e r i m e n t s under
the natural c o n d i t i o n s of t r a i n i n g a t h l e t e s of v a r i o u s q u a l i f i c a -
tion. Functional i n d i c a t o r s w e r e r e c o r d e d 1-2 t i m e s per month
and the t r a i n i n g loads completed were carefully calculated.
R e s e a r c h has e s t a b l i s h e d that in sports requiring explosive-
force, a chaotic dynamics in s p e e d - s t r e n g t h is observed in
athletes o f m i d d l e q u a l i f i c a t i o n , along w i t h i n s i g n i f i c a n t a l t e r -
ations in s p e e d - s t r e n g t h level d u r i n g t h e year cycle; further-
more, the fluctuations often d o not c o n f o r m to the logical
periodizations of t r a i n i n g or the competition calendar. The
reason for this is b e c a u s e c o m p l e x t r a i n i n g is a p p l i e d , i.e., the

120.
parallel use of loading of different primary emphasis; and
chiefly, the monotonous monthly d i s t r i b u t i o n of the general
volume of loading in the y e a r - c y c l e .
Accompanying the growth of m a s t e r y , the dynamics of an
a t h l e t e ' s state shows a t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s r e g u l a t i o n , w h i c h first
of all r e f l e c t s the type of training p e r i o d i z a t i o n in the year-
cycle. During u n i - c y c l i c periodization (for e x a m p l e , in the
decathlon, see figure 6) the d y n a m i c s of s p e c i a l - s t r e n g t h pre-
paredness are a s c e n d i n g in nature, w i t h o u t any s i g n i f i c a n t fluc-
tuations throughout the year. In t w o - c y c l i c p e r i o d i z a t i o n (see
figure 5 ) , t w o large waves a r e c l e a r l y m a n i f e s t , conforming to
two large p e r i o d s of p r e p a r a t i o n ; concluding in the winter and
summer competitions.
However, the dynamics of highly-qualified sportsman's speed-
strength in the year c y c l e , can not be r e g u l a t e d in such a
manner. Our p e o p l e h a v e a c c u m u l a t e d m a t e r i a l that shows a rather
large diversity in t h e d y n a m i c s of an a t h l e t e ' s state. Large
fluctuations in s p e e d - s t r e n g t h p r e p a r e d n e s s can be of different
d u r a t i o n and m a g n i t u d e ; can t a k e place at d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s of the
y e a r - c y c l e and o f t e n have n e i t h e r a logical connection with tra-
ditional (for the t y p e of s p o r t ) p e r i o d i z a t i o n of t r a i n i n g , nor
the competition calendar.
A p h e n o m e n o n w h i c h has g r e a t significance for regulating the
influence of loading was first discovered as a result of
observation of the d y n a m i c s of s p o r t s m e n ' s state in the year-
cycle. It has b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d that the u n i d i r e c t i o n a l (in p r i n -
ciple) dynamics of the speed-strength of leg extension and
plantar flexion can supercede to different-directional dynamics,
at certain training s t a g e s . T h e d y n a m i c s of triple jumpers'
e x p l o s i v e - s t r e n g t h is p r e s e n t e d in figure 4 1 , and can serve as an
example. T h i s p h e n o m e n o n is associated w i t h the r e l a t i v e l y un-
equal e m p h a s i s of the t r a i n i n g influences on the functioning of
the muscle system, s e c u r i n g the e x t e n s i o n e f f o r t in the legs,
The c o m p l e x use of jumping and barbell e x e r c i s e s can lead to a
more i n t e n s i v e local i n f l u e n c e on t h e plantar f l e x o r s , and as a
consequence, to d e p r e s s i o n of their functional state. However,

121 .
this type of loading is not as intense on the thigh extensors,
consequently their functional i n d i c a t o r s w i l l be h i g h . In t h i s
instance the a t h l e t e n o t i c e s that m o v e m e n t c o o r d i n a t i o n is d i f f i -
cult w h i l e , o n the w h o l e , feeling g o o d .
So, w h e n one is d e t e r m i n i n g the c o m p o s i t i o n and the m e a n s of
special s t r e n g t h - t r a i n i n g and one d o e s not take into a c c o u n t (and
does not e q u a l i z e ) t h e i r p r i m a r y e m p h a s i s o n the m u s c l e groups
securing the w o r k i n g - e f f e c t of a sport m o v e m e n t , the result can
be a non-conformity in t h e functional state of the muscles
involved. This, in t u r n , has a n e g a t i v e a f f e c t on the q u a l i t y of
the s p o r t s m a n ' s t e c h n i c a l p r e p a r a t i o n and on his p r e p a r e d n e s s for
competition. Consequently, it is n e c e s s a r y , f i r s t , to regulate
the e m p h a s i s of t h e loading on the p l a n t a r f l e x o r s , and s e c o n d ,
periodically decrease the loading influence on them especially
during the technical and immediate pre-competition training
stages.
The d y n a m i c s of t h e s p o r t s m a n ' s s t a t e , as c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
his a e r o b i c and a n a e r o b i c p o s i b i l i t i e s , depend on the contents
at\u Giqat\\7A\A0Tv ol Xhfe t X & i t & O q l o a d s . Data from observations
of the d y n a m i c s of s t a t e of two g r o u p s of m i d d l e - d i s t a n c e runners
during a year-cycle are presented in f i g u r e 4 2 . Of particular
interest is the fact that w i t h e q u i v a l e n t v o l u m e and d i s t r i b u t i o n
of running m e a n s , the g r o u p s of r u n n e r s w e r e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d by
the o r g a n i z a t i o n of s t r e n g t h - t r a i n i n g . In one of t h e s e groups
(A), a traditional s i n g l e - p e a k v a r i a n t in the d i s t r i b u t i o n of
strength-means was used; whereas the o t h e r (group B) used a
double-peak d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m e a n s , with the e m p h a s i s c o n c e n t r a t e d

in December and M a r c h - A p r i l .
The results of the e x p e r i m e n t show that the difference in
the o r g a n i z a t i o n of s t r e n g t h - p r e p a r a t i o n caused e s s e n t i a l differ-
ences in the d y n a m i c s of t h e sportsmen's state. Group B's
aerobic and a n a e r o b i c p r o d u c t i v i t y reached higher levels of de-
velopment. The differences in the organization of special-
strength-training a p p e a r e d in the r e s u l t s of control runs of 400
and 1200 M, as w e l l as in the sport a c h i e v e m e n t s of t h e s e g r o u p s
of r u n n e r s . During the summer c o m p e t i t i o n stage g r o u p B improved

122.
the 800 M time by an a v e r a g e of 4.8 seconds and the 1500 M run by
6.3 seconds. In g r o u p A, the i m p r o v e m e n t s were 3.4 and 4.6
seconds respectively.
So, studies of the dynamics of specific functional-
indicators under the i n f l u e n c e of t r a i n i n g loads show that it is
possible to s i n g l e - o u t t h r e e levels of a l t e r a t i o n s in a sports-
man's state d u r i n g the c o u r s e of training.
The first level is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the steady rise in the
athlete's special work-capacity; this level is inherent chiefly
to the p r o l o n g e d t r a i n i n g p e r i o d s -- year and multi-year. The
basis for t h i s m e c h a n i s m is the long-term adaptation, formed
chiefly by the v o l u m e of l o a d i n g .
The second level is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by less s t a b i l e and to a
definite extent, r e v e r s i b l e functional c h a n g e s ; the b a s i s for
which is the c o m p e n s a t o r y a d a p t a t i o n m e c h a n i s m (see 2 . 1 ) . These
changes are i n h e r e n t to lengthy training stages -- up to 5-6
months and a l o n g w i t h the v o l u m e of the load, are s e c u r e d by the
qualitative c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of its c o n t e n t s , in p a r t i c u l a r , the
portion of intensive means in the general (total) volume of
loading.
And f i n a l l y , the t h i r d level is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the b r i e f ,
but not d e f i n i t e t e n d e n c i e s ; the rising or falling of f u n c t i o n a l
indicators, i.e., changes, r e p r e s e n t i n g the o r g a n i s m ' s c u r r e n t
(urgent) r e a c t i o n to t h e assigned t r a i n i n g load. These changes
are inherent to the m i c r o - c y c l e and are secured by the magnitude
and the i n t e n s i t y of the v o l u m e of loading, the i n d i v i d u a l p e c u l -
iarities of t h e a t h l e t e to e n d u r e the loading and his r e s t o r a t i o n
capabilities. On the t h i r d level, the d y n a m i c s of the functional
indicators a r e to a known d e g r e e , f o r t u i t o u s and at t i m e s u n p r e -
dictable. This level is not d e t e r m i n e d by the functional recon-
structions of the first two levels and is of i m p o r t a n c e o n l y for
the rational o r g a n i z a t i o n of the m i c r o - c y c l e and a c h i e v e m e n t of
the e x p e d i t i o u s e f f e c t of the c u r r e n t loading.
One p r a c t i c a l c o n c l u s i o n that can be drawn from the material
just discussed is that the d y n a m i c s of the sportsman's state
during the y e a r - c y c l e are m a n a g e a b l e . The dependence of the

124 .
d y n a m i c s of state on the c o n t e n t s , volume and o r g a n i z a t i o n of the
loading is a d e f i n i t e t e n d e n c y . Consequently, training should be
s t r u c t u r e d by first of all taking into account the concrete
(examined earlier) t e n d e n c i e s in the d y n a m i c s of the athlete's
special-physical-preparedness, -- in this c o n t e x t , t h e task of
programming training. At the same t i m e , it is n e c e s s a r y during
t h e course of t r a i n i n g to control the d e g r e e of c o n f o r m i t y of the
actual d y n a m i c s of state w i t h the g i v e n tendency (stage), — in
essence, t h e task of m a n a g i n g t r a i n i n g . Mastering the skill to
r a t i o n a l l y program t h e c o n t e n t s of training and o p p o r t u n e l y regu-
late the d y n a m i c s of the s p o r t s m a n ' s state d u r i n g the c o u r s e of
training m e a n s e l i m i n a t i n g the w e a k link in the system of manag-
ing t r a i n i n g (see 1 . 2 ) ; and s i g n i f i c a n t l y increasing t h e p r o b a -
b i l i t y of a c h i e v i n g the p l a n n e d level of sport m a s t e r y .
T h e art of c o n t r o l l i n g the d y n a m i c s of the sportsman's state
c o n s i s t s of first, a c h i e v i n g the necessary level of c o n d i t i o n i n g
and s e c o n d , achieving it at the instant required (as d e t e r m i n e d
by the c o m p e t i t i o n c a l e n d a r ) . R e s e a r c h shows that r e a l i z a t i o n of
the second r e q u i r e m e n t is not e s p e c i a l l y c o m p l e x . However, the
p r o b a b i l i t y of s u c c e s s f u l l y a c h i e v i n g t h e first requirement is as
yet, significantly less.

Chapter 4
Principles of Programming and O r g a n i z a t i o n
of Training

The basis of programming is the p r o g r a m - o b j e c t i v e a p p r o a c h ;

in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h w h i c h the c o n t e n t s , v o l u m e and o r g a n i z a t i o n of
training loads a r e d e t e r m i n e d by the o b j e c t i v e s of the athlete's
preparation. The o b j e c t i v e s consist o f three m a i n components:
the designated increase in sport results, the appropriate
alterations in t e c h n i c a l - t a c t i c a l , psychological and competition
preparedness, and the n e c e s s a r y d i s p l a c e m e n t in the s p o r t s m a n ' s
special-physical-preparedness.

125
 T h e s e l e c t i o n of a s t r a t e g y in p r o g r a m m i n g is r e a l i z e d , in a
practical sense, t h r o u g h logical p r e m i s e s "if, then", which are
understood in the f o l l o w i n g w a y . If one sets some (concretely
and q u a n t i t a t i v e l y d e t e r m i n e d ) task, then the (concrete) work
which is n e c e s s a r y to a c c o m p l i s h for the r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e task
and how it is to be d o n e , is t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n of the
strategy selected.
Let's look at t h o s e o b j e c t i v e fundamentals for selecting a
strategy when programming traiing, w h i c h at the p r e s e n t time,
already can be f o r m u l a t e d as well as those fundamentals of
programming technique, w h i c h have r e c e i v e d practical approval.
4.1 Forms of C o n s t r u c t i n g Training
Forms of c o n s t r u c t i n g training a r e the w a y s of regulating
its c o n t e n t s , providing the expeditious u t i l i z a t i o n of loading of
different p r i m a r y e m p h a s i s , i.e., the combination and arrangement
of the c o n t e n t s o v e r t i m e , s u c h that the required training-effect
occurs within an o p t i m a l energy expenditure.
Consequently, t i m e and o r g a n i z a t i o n are t w o closely inter-
dependent and i n t e r i n f l u e n c i n g v a r i a n t s of t h e forms of training
construction. The contents and o r g a n i z a t i o n of training are
dictated by the t r a i n i n g o b j e c t i v e s and t h e r e g u l a r i t i e s of the
organisn's a d a p t a t i o n t o intense m u s c u l a r work; determined as
necessary for this period of t i m e . Time, limited by the c o m p e t i -
tion calendar and the optimal d u r a t i o n of CAR of t h e organism,
affects the s e l e c t i o n of t h e c o n t e n t s and o r g a n i z a t i o n of train-
ing. Actual c o n d i t i o n s do not a l w a y s satisfy t h e optimal p a r a -
meters of t h e s e v a r i a n t s . Therefore, programming of training
requires c r e a t i v e flexibility; based on the skill to foresee the
effect of any form of t r a i n i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n and to select its
optimal variant.
Let's turn now to a number of forms of t r a i n i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n
and examine their p e c u l i a r i t i e s , as r e v e a l e d by the results of
research on the r e g u l a r i t i e s of the organism's adaptation to
intense muscular work and the principal tendencies in the
dynamics of the s p o r t s m a n ' s s t a t e ; as d e p e n d e n t upon the assigned
loading. T w o c a t e g o r i e s of t h e form of training c o n s t r u c t i o n are

126.
designated, b a s e d o n o r g a n i z a t i o n and t i m e . Under organization,
bear in mind the w a y s of c o m b i n i n g loading of d i f f e r e n t primary
emphasis, as a basic condition for achievement of a high
training-effect; under time -- the w a y s of r e g u l a t i n g the loading
w i t h i n c o n c r e t e c y c l e s and s t a g e s as d e t e r m i n e d by the p e r i o d i z a -
tion of t r a i n i n g and the c o m p e t i t i o n c a l e n d a r .
4.1.1 F o r m s of C o n s t r u c t i n g T r a i n i n g with R e s p e c t to O r g a -
nization
The complex form, which encompasses simultaneous (within one
w o r k o u t or m i c r o - c y c l e ) and parallel (prolonged s t a g e s of t r a i n -
ing, up to one y e a r ) s e l e c t i o n of a number of t r a i n i n g t a s k s and
loading of d i f f e r e n t p r i m a r y e m p h a s i s , is a l w a y s regarded as the
most effective form o f t r a i n i n g construction. In the past,
considerable data w a s f a v o r a b l e to the c o m p l e x o r g a n i z a t i o n of
training. T h i s data showed that the a t h l e t e a c h i e v e s h a r m o n i o u s
and multi-sided physical development; the d e v e l o p m e n t of one
motor ability contributes to the d e v e l o p m e n t of o t h e r s and that
multi-sided loading improves s t r e n g t h , speed of movement and
e n d u r a n c e to a g r e a t e r e x t e n t than u n i d i r e c t i o n a l exercise (A. N.
Krestovnikov, 1951; S. P. L e t u n o v , et al., 1954; N. V. Z i m k i n ,
1956; A . V . K o r o b k o v e t a l . , 1 9 6 0 , and o t h e r s ) .
As an outcome of this there were arguments for the
methodical p r i n c i p l e s u n i f y i n g G P P and S P P ; unification of the
h a b i t s and q u a l i t i e s , d e t e r m i n i n g the t r a i n i n g m e t h o d s , indepen-
dent o f the a t h l e t e ' s q u a l i f i c a t i o n . Complex-training construc-
t i o n is p r e f e r e d o v e r u n i d i r e c t i o n a l , w i t h its (unidirectional)
inherent to it, monotonous workouts, diminishing effectiveness of
the t r a i n i n g m e a n s r e l a t i v e t o t h e o r g a n i s m ' s a d a p t a t i o n and the
one-sided physical p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e a t h l e t e . It is believed
that prolonged unidirectional work (one-sided training for
strength or speed, etc., Ed.) c a u s e s the o r g a n i s m t o form an
accommodative process w i t h the d o m i n e n c e of o n l y some of the
physiological mechanisms and d o e s not create conditions for
specific adaptation to competition activities. Parallel loading
of different emphasis simultaneously improves physiological func-
tions and in t h e typical ratio for the selected sport (L. P.

127.
Matveyev, 1970).
All of t h e s e c o n c e p t s in p r i n c i p l e , a r e i n d i s p u t a b l e and a r e
of importance a s the m o s t general g u i d e l i n e s , determining the
methodical f u n d a m e n t a l s of physical e d u c a t i o n and sport training.
However, t h e research touting t h e s e ideas w a s done m a n y y e a r s a g o
and utilized low-class a t h l e t e s . If q u a l i f i e d a t h l e t e s had taken
part in these studies, then, with respect to modern criteria,
their achievements would be only average. Besides this, one
should emphasize in p a r t i c u l a r , that the loading in t h o s e days
was d i f f e r e n t . Therefore, under modern c o n d i t i o n s this loading
would only be applicable to beginners or athletes of average
qualification.

There appears to be l i t t l e a d v a n t a g e for h i g h - c l a s s a t h l e t e s

to u t i l i z e the c o m p l e x s y s t e m of t r a i n i n g . A r g u m e n t s in favor of
this conclusion a r e b a s e d on p r o g r e s s i v e sport practices (see
1.1); where t h e r e i s a n a c t i v e search t o o v e r c o m e the glaring
i n s u f f i c i e n c i e s of the c o m p l e x s y s t e m of training.

First, extra-class athletes have a very high level of

special-physical preparedness. In order to r a i s e t h i s s i g n i f i -
cantly, w h i c h is a n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n for t h e p r o g r e s s of sport
mastery, one must u t i l i z e strong and r e l a t i v e l y prolonged t r a i n -
ing influences of appropriate emphasis. Complex-training does
not achieve this. In c o m p l e x - t r a i n i n g the d i s t r i b u t i o n of the
volume of special loading (see 3.2) is not a b l e to provoke
extensive adaptational reconstruction of the n e c e s s a r y emphasis
within the organism.

Second, there is a clearly expressed specificity in the

structure of the p h y s i c a l - p r e p a r e d n e s s of h i g h - c l a s s athletes.
Complex-training, w i t h r e s p e c t t o its multi-sided influence on
the organism, cannot c r e a t e the c o n d i t i o n s n e c e s s a r y for the
formation o f t h i s p h y s i c a l - p r e p a r e d n e s s . Besides t h i s , c o m p l e x -
training (at h i g h v o l u m e s ) c r e a t e s p r e r e q u i s i t e s for t h e begin-
ning of c o n c r e t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n the p r o c e s s e s p e r f e c t i o n -
ing s e p a r a t e f u n c t i o n a l s y s t e m s of the o r g a n i s m ; as well between
the t r a i n i n g - e f f e c t s of loading of d i f f e r e n t p r i m a r y e m p h a s i s .

Third, highly-qualified athletes execute the competition

1 28.
exercise skillfully and with precise regulation of effort.
Voluminous complex loading, stipulating simultaneous perfection-
ing of sport technique and special-physical preparedness,
inevitably leads to g e n e r a l functional fatigue and has a n e g a t i v e
a f f e c t on the q u a l i t y of this r e g u l a t i o n (see 2.4; 3.2).
The aforementioned i n s u f f i c i e n c i e s of c o m p l e x - t r a i n i n g are
not as n o t i c e a b l e in s p o r t s m e n of average q u a l i f i c a t i o n and are
significantly more a p p a r e n t at the high-mastery level; where
t h e r e is a h i g h general v o l u m e and intensity of l o a d i n g . And, if
one d o e s not p r e s c r i b e m e a s u r e s to e l i m i n a t e t h e s e insufficien-
cies, they can s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t the s u c c e s s of training.
One should seek just such m e a s u r e s to rationally utilize
loading of some single t r a i n i n g emphasis in separate workouts,
and at s t a g e s of d i f f e r e n t d u r a t i o n . R e s e a r c h has shown that
utilization of u n i d i r e c t i o n a l loading, in s e p a r a t e w o r k o u t s for
example, makes it p o s s i b l e to achieve training o b j e c t i v e s more
effectively. It is b e c a u s e of this that t h e a c c o m m o d a t i v e pro-
cesses within the organism are more intense than w h e n one is
trying to a c h i e v e several training o b j e c t i v e s by using m e a n s of
different primary influence (A. B. Handelsman, K. M. Stetsenko,
1980) .
For example, it has b e e n shown that individual workouts
devoted solely t o p e r f e c t i o n i n g sport t e c h n i q u e a r e appropriate.
Even w h e n a w i d e v a r i e t y of m e a n s and rational r e g i m e n s of work
and rest a r e u t i l i z e d , t h e s e types of training s e s s i o n s a r e very
e f f e c t i v e in r a i s i n g an a t h l e t e ' s technical m a s t e r y (Z. S. Struc-
hkov, 1980; I. N. Mironenko, 1981; V. V. Petrovsky, 1 9 7 7 ) .
Available data shows that training s e s s i o n s w i t h the primary
e m p h a s i s on t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a single motor a b i l i t y (but under
c o n d i t i o n s of a w i d e d i v e r s i t y of m e a n s and m e t h o d s u s e d ) renders
a more e x t e n s i v e i n f l u e n c e on the o r g a n i s m in comparison with
training sessions where several objectives are undertaken (I. V.
Urzhensnevsky, 1969; M. Y. G o r k i n , et a l . , 1973; V. D. M o n o g r a -
dov, V. N. P l a t o n o v , 1 9 7 5 ; L. E. F e d o r o v a , et a l . , 1975; V. I.
Chepelyev, 1980 and o t h e r s ) .
In a d d i t i o n to s e p a r a t e w o r k o u t s , unidirectional loading is

129.
appropriate in the m i c r o - c y c l e s (A. B. Kudelin, 1980; T. M.
M i k h a i l o v a , I. P. S o k o l o v a , 1 9 8 0 ; T. M. B u d o k h o , et a l . , 1 9 7 8 ; I.
N. Mironenko, 1981). I t has been e s t a b l i s h e d , for e x a m p l e , that
micro-cycles of a single primary emphasis (in particular, to
increase speed or v a r i o u s t y p e s of special e n d u r a n c e ) are power-
ful s t i m u l a n t s to the g r o w t h of t r a i n a b i l i t y in s w i m m e r s (A. B.
Kudelin, 1980); and m i c r o - c y c l e s of a p r i m a r i l y s t r e n g t h e m p h a -
sis, have the same effect for raising the special-physical
preparedness of track and field jumpers ( I . N. M i r o n e n k o , 1981).
Methodical recommendations emphasize that unidirectional loading
is only e f f e c t i v e if o n e uses a d i v e r s e c o m p l e x of m e a n s of a
single primary e m p h a s i s , a l o n g w i t h a v a r i e t y of m e t h o d s (L. E.
Fedorova, et a l . , 1975; V. N. Platonov, V. D. Monograov, 1977; Y.
V. Verkhoshansky, 1977).
Considerable r e s e a r c h has revealed that the p r i m a r y u t i l i z a -
tion of unidirectional training influences for prolonged (from 4-
12 w e e k s ) stages of t r a i n i n g is very e f f e c t i v e . Use of a variety
of means and c h i e f l y , a gradual increase in the s t r e n g t h of their
influence, has been s h o w n to be a p p r o p r i a t e ; e s p e c i a l l y for p e r -
fectioning sport t e c h n i q u e , s p e e d - s t r e n g t h p r e p a r e d n e s s and for
increasing the power and c a p a c i t y of the p r o c e s s e s of a l a c t i c and
glycolytic a n a e r o b i c e n e r g y - a c q u i s i t i o n ( I . N. Mironenko, 1981;
T. M. Antonova, 1980; V. N. Deniskin, 1976; A. V. Leuchenko,
1981; A . 0 . K o r n e l y u k , 1980).
A special c o n c e n t r a t e d v o l u m e of specialized training loads
was devised and a p p r o v e d (based on r e s e a r c h ) for the practical
preparation of h i g h l y - q u a l i f i e d a t h l e t e s -- t h i s loading being
concentrated at s p e c i f i c s t a g e s of p r e p a r a t i o n (Y. V. V e r k h o s h a n -
sky, 1977). The principal novelty of t h i s m e t h o d c o n s i s t s of
creating a massed t r a i n i n g i n f l u e n c e on the o r g a n i s m w i t h a high
volume of unidirectional loading, w i t h i n a limited time period
(up to 2 months). T h i s m a s s e d influence r e s u l t s in a brief
stabilization of the s t a t e of incomplete restoration, which is
associated with the p e r s i s t a n t and relatively p r o l o n g e d disrup-
tion of h o m e o s t a s i s . This triggers extensive functional changes,
which are p r e r e q u i s i t e s for the subsequent supercompensation of

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e n e r g y potential and the t r a n s f e r e n c e of the o r g a n i s m to a higher
level of s p e c i a l - p r e p a r e d n e s s . An important c o n d i t i o n for the
utilization of c o n c e n t r a t e d loading -- is the relatively low
intensity of the m e a n s , s i n c e the frequent use of t h e s e means
a l r e a d y leads to i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of t r a i n i n g . T h e loading can be
c o n s i d e r e d c o n c e n t r a t e d if its v o l u m e in the m o n t h in w h i c h it is
c o n c e n t r a t e d is 2 3 - 2 5 % of t h e general y e a r - v o l u m e .
It is a p p r o p r i a t e to use c o n c e n t r a t e d loading, first and
foremost, for raising the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of S P P ; and for this
purpose one can use loading of any p r i m a r y emphasis. However,
the concentration of specialized strength-loading is of
particular significance (and not only for raising the sportsman's
physical preparedness, but for r e g u l a t i n g the e n t i r e c o m p l e x of
loading in t h e year c y c l e in all types of s p o r t s ) .
Concentrated strength-loading, as a part of t h e athlete's
preparation, is a r e l a t i v e l y i n d e p e n d e n t part or "block", which
creates a functional f o u n d a t i o n for the s u b s e q u e n t perfectioning
of technical mastery or t h o s e m o t o r abilities which chiefly
d e t e r m i n e s u c c e s s in a c e r t a i n type of s p o r t . Hence, one, the
c o m p o s i t i o n of m e a n s and their o r g a n i z a t i o n in s t r e n g t h "blocks'",
as well as t h e i r logical c o n n e c t i o n w i t h other loading, should be
d e t e r m i n e d by taking into a c c o u n t the t r a i n i n g specifics in that
t y p e of sport. Two, the s t r e n g t h "block" should have a s p e c i f i c
p l a c e in t h e year c y c l e , and c o n s e q u e n t l y , have an a f f e c t on the
succession of loading and the o r g a n i z a t i o n of loading of other
primary emphasis over time. Here the idea of a " b l o c k " has a
definite meaning, e m a n a t i n g from the p r o g r a m m i n g o f technique,
including individual p r o g r a m m i n g of t r a i n i n g . To r e a l i z e the
principal idea of o r g a n i z a t i o n of loading (especially for c e r t a i n
sports) in the year-cycle, t h e c o a c h can (depending on the
conditions) s e l e c t a c e r t a i n s t r e n g t h "block" or s u b s t i t u t e one
"block" for a n o t h e r . Naturally, in order to do this he needs to
a r r a n g e in d e t a i l , a s u p p l y of w o r k e d - o u t and a p p r o v e d strength
"blocks".
The effectiveness of c o n c e n t r a t e d s t r e n g t h - l o a d i n g has been
confirmed by m a n y c o a c h e s , as well as by special r e s e a r c h in a

131 .
number of s p e e d - s t r e n g t h , cyclic and g a m e s p o r t s ; in s i n g l e and
multi-events (A. P. V a r a k i n , 1 9 7 9 ; L. N. Z h d a n o v i c h , 1 9 8 0 ; N. M.
R u d o k e n e , 1 9 8 1 ; A. M. N a r a l i e v , 1 9 8 1 ; G. M. P t u s h k i n , 1 9 8 1 ; N. Y.
Verkhoshanskaya, 1982; P. I. K a b a c h k o v a , et a l . , 1982). It has
been e s t a b l i s h e d that t h i s is most a p p r o p r i a t e for highly-quali-
fied athletes, and the use of concentrated strength-loading
enables one to painlessly r e d u c e the g e n e r a l year-volume (within
13-15%) of s t r e n g t h - l o a d i n g , in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h o s e a s s i m i l a t e d
in the m o d e r n s t a g e (I. N. Mironenko, 1981; T. M. Antonova,
1982) .
Concentrated strength-loading has its deficiencies along
with its o b v i o u s a d v a n t a g e s . It leads to a brief but c o n s i s t a n t
decrease in s p e e d - s t r e n g t h , which has a negative reflection on
the a t h l e t e ' s s p e c i a l - w o r k - c a p a c i t y ; and c o m p l i c a t e s t h e task of
perfectioning t e c h n i c a l m a s t e r y and speed of m o v e m e n t .
Thus, the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the o r g a n i z a t i o n and the v o l u m e
of t r a i n i n g l o a d s , t h e c h a n g e s in the d y n a m i c s (Fy) and t i m e (Te)
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e t a k e - o f f in j u m p i n g , sport r e s u l t s (S) and
the explosive-strength of women athletes (long jumpers) is
clearly d e p i c t e d in f i g u r e 4 3 . It is o b v i o u s that in the m o n t h s
with t h e largest v o l u m e s (XI-XII and I I I - I V ) t h e r e is a notice-
able d e c r e a s e in t h e s p e c i a l - s t r e n g t h p r e p a r e d n e s s of the women
and the q u a l i t y of t h e i r sport m a s t e r y . And vice versa, these
same qualities rise d u r i n g the m o n t h s w i t h reduced loading (II
and V-VII).
Shown in figure 44 a r e the interdependence between the
dynamics of the v o l u m e of special s t r e n g t h - t r a i n i n g means, the
elasticity of the m u s c l e s and the control r e s u l t s of the standing
triple-jump o f h i g h l y - q u a l i f i e d s p r i n t e r s , d u r i n g their spring-
summer stage of training.
Here, it is a l s o o b v i o u s that an i n c r e a s e in the v o l u m e of
special-strength-training means (4-6th and 8-9th w e e k s ) resulted
in increased m u s c u l a r s t i f f n e s s and a d e c r e a s e d w o r k i n g - e f f e c t of
explosive-effort. Unfavorable c o n d i t i o n s were c r e a t e d a t this
time, for perfectioning of t e c h n i q u e and running speed; the
probability of injury increases significantly.

132.
 So, it is a p p a r e n t that v o l u m i n o u s s t r e n g t h - l o a d i n g c r e a t e s
unfavorable conditions for improving technical m a s t e r y and speed
work. Considerable research has e s t a b l i s h e d that voluminous
strength-loading has a n e g a t i v e a f f e c t on the t e c h n i q u e of the
weightlifting exercises (M. S. K h l y s t o v , 1976; A. N. V o r o b e y e v ,
et a l . , 1978), javelin throwing (L. I. R u v i n s k y , 1 9 8 0 ) and the
p u n c h i n g speed in b o x i n g (V. I. F i l i m o n o v , 1979).
However, in t h e m o d e r n s t a g e , the c o n c e n t r a t e d u n i d i r e c t i o n -
al m e t h o d (including s t r e n g t h ) of loading is the most e f f e c t i v e
(if not to say the o n l y ) way of raising that high level of
p h y s i c a l - p r e p a r e d n e s s w h i c h a t h l e t e s a c h i e v e during the course of
multi-year training. Therefore, in order to employ it, one
should seek ways of overcoming the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d insufficien-
cies. One such way is to c u l t i v a t e p e r i o d i c a l l y , t h o s e volumes
of loading w h i c h a r e c l e a r l y i n c o m p a t i b l e on t h e t r a i n i n g - e f f e c t s
which have a negative relation (Y. V. V e r k h o s h a n s k y , 1977).
For e x a m p l e , the scheme in figure 45 p r e s e n t s the cultiva-
tion of concentrated-strength-loading (shaded a r e a ) and work
associated weith i m p r o v i n g technical mastery (broken), in speed-
s t r e n g t h and c o m p l e x - t e c h n i q u e t y p e s of s p o r t s . It is emphasized
immediately, that the c u l t i v a t i o n method should not be taken
literally as a s t r i c t l i m i t a t i o n of strength and technique. We
are t a l k i n g a b o u t the p r i m a r y e m p h a s i s on one or t h e other, at
d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s of t r a i n i n g . However, this does not m e a n that
one totally eliminates technique work during the stage of
concentrated-strength-loading. Let's look at some p e c u l i a r i t i e s
of technical preparation in o r d e r to find t h e c o r r e c t methodical
solution.
One must w o r k on improving technique daily, especially in
speed-strength and complex-technique types of sports; the
"freshness" of the a t h l e t e ' s body is an important part of tech-
nique (V. M. Diachkov, 1966; N. G. O z o l i n , 1970; I. P. Ratov,
1979). However the methodical l i t e r a t u r e on t e c h n i q u e is very
diverse. Separate tasks of t e c h n i q u e t r a i n i n g not requiring
limit intensity of effort, can be a c c o m p l i s h e d w i t h t h e o r g a n i s m
in a d i m i n i s h e d functional s t a t e . However, the execution of

134.
other tasks under s u c h c o n d i t i o n s is i n t o l e r a b l e . For i n s t a n c e ,
t h e most important and crucial c o u r s e of technique preparation in
the competition stage is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the e x e c u t i o n of the
fundamental sport e x e r c i s e with a h i g h intensity of e f f o r t ; under
c o n d i t i o n s that a r e c l o s e to t h o s e of c o m p e t i t i o n . It is only in
this i n s t a n c e that a rational biodynamic s t r u c t u r e of the move-
ment system can be formed w i t h the r e q u i r e d ration of time,
dynamics parameters and stability r e l a t i v e to the inconsistant
factors, inherent to c o m p e t i t i o n c o n d i t i o n s . This t y p e of w o r k
(without c o m p r o m i s e ) should be done when the o r g a n i s m is at the
highest level of its functional state. It should b e g i n in the
preparatory period, since it will a l r e a d y be t o o late if it w e r e
to b e g i n in t h e c o m p e t i t i o n p e r i o d .
So, one can d e s i g n a t e t w o s u c c e s s i v e stages of technique
w o r k in the p r e p a r a t o r y p e r i o d . In the first stage o n e , perfects
those c o m p o n e n t s of t e c h n i q u e w h i c h need improvement and in the
second — t h e e m p h a s i s is on e x e c u t i o n of the sport e x e r c i s e as a
whole, with high intensity of effort.
The formation of technical mastery is a multi-year,
continuous process of learning. T h e basis for this is the
athlete's constant s t r i v i n g to m a s t e r the skill to fully realize
his possibilities by c o n t i n u o u s l y raising his m o t o r p o t e n t i a l ; by
means of accommodating established movement s y s t e m s to a newer,
higher level of s p e c i a l - p h y s i c a l - p r e p a r e d n e s s . This process is
cyclical. Each c y c l e c o n s i s t s of a p r e l i m i n a r y p r e p a r a t i o n of
the m o t o r p o t e n t i a l , w h i c h t h e a t h l e t e will encounter in t h e n e a r
future; and then, i m m e d i a t e a c c o m m o d a t i o n of t e c h n i q u e to that
level. C o m p l e t i o n of this p r o c e s s s i g n i f i e s the b e g i n n i n g of a
new cycle. So, t w o s t a g e s are d e s i g n a t e d h e r e , which ideally
should go into t h e y e a r - c y c l e of training. Consequently, with
the use of this system, the a t h l e t e will not worry about
t e c h n i q u e and h i s a c h i e v e m e n t s will not stagnate.
If we n o w t u r n to figure 45, the m e a n i n g of the just dis-
cussed c o n c e p t s are p r e s e n t e d in the following w a y . During the
stage of concentrated-strength-loading one should primarily
e m p h a s i z e learning, i.e., m a s t e r i n g the m o r e p r e c i s e v a r i a n t s of

135.
technique, oriented to that specific level of speed-strength
preparedness, which will be provided by the concentrated-
strength-loading. Taking into account that functional state is
diminished, this task is c a r r i e d - o u t at a low intensity of
effort, and c h i e f l y by means of special-supplementary exercises,
imitation of the rhythmic pattern (but not the t e m p o ) and the
related individual elements, r e p r o d u c t i o n of the whole sport
exercise, not at full strength, but under lightened conditions

136.
(including a c c e n t u a t i o n of individual elements). The intensifi-
cation of e f f o r t is g r a d u a l l y increased d u r i n g e x e c u t i o n of the
whole sport exercise.
One begins perfectioning technique during the r e a l i z a t i o n of
t h e L L T E stage of s t r e n g t h - l o a d i n g , i.e., adapting it (technique,
Ed.) to the a t h l e t e ' s i n c r e a s i n g speed-strength preparedness.
Here is w h e r e o n e employs m o d e l i n g of competition c o n d i t i o n s in
training; w h i c h p r o v i d e s the a c h i e v e m e n t of stabile and r e l i a b l e
t e c h n i q u e of t h e c o m p e t i t i o n e x e r c i s e , e x e c u t e d at a h i g h inten-
sity of effort.
Since p e r f e c t i o n i n g of technique is timed for the L L T E stage
of the strength-loading, it is a p p r o p r i a t e to look at this
p h e n o m e n o n and add t o the recommendations made earlier (3.3).
A r e l a t i v e l y p r o l o n g e d stage of a r e d u c t i o n in the general
v o l u m e of training is r e q u i r e d to obtain the LLTE. However, in
practice, coaches nominally a i m for a s s i m i l a t i o n of large v o l u m e s
of loading and as y e t , do not a l w a y s a s s e s s the role of restora-
tion .
Although they provide rehabilitational pauses within the
micro-cycle and the so-called over-load micro-cycles as necessary
rest, they still do not e f f e c i t v e l y utilize p r o l o n g e d reduction
of loading after large v o l u m e s . However, such methods are
objectively necessary, not only and not so much for rest and
r e s t o r a t i o n of t h e o r g a n i s m ' s "freshness", but for t h e develop-
ment and "flowing" of those physiological p r o c e s s e s w h i c h are the
basis for adaptive reconstructions. These processes "flow"
r e l a t i v e l y slowly; and a d e f i n i t e amount of t i m e is n e c e s s a r y for
their completion, which is far r e m o v e d from the o n e - t w o weeks
usually allocated for the reduction of loading.
By o v e r e s t i m a t i n g the q u a n t i t a t i v e criteria of the loading,
athletes frequently not only "take on" the v o l u m e they do not
need, but a l s o e x e c u t e this v o l u m e w h e n it is simply contraindi-
cated, i.e., at the m o m e n t w h e n r e s t o r a t i o n of the o r g a n i s m is an
objective necessity. Therefore new, additional volumes of
loading not only do not ensure a training influence on the
organism, but b e c o m e a s i g n i f i c a n t h i n d r a n c e to the unleashing of
the restoration processes, for which the o r g a n i s m is in extreme
need.
A scheme of training construction which emphasizes the
d e v e l o p m e n t of speed (sprinting, middle-distances, single-combat,
sport games), is p r e s e n t e d in figure 46. It is distinguished
from s p e e d - s t r e n g t h types of s p o r t s (see figure 45) in that it
provides a sharper differentiation of concentrated-strength-
loading (shaded) and w o r k on improving speed (broken line).
Speed work is e x c l u d e d totally in the concentrated-strength-
loading s t a g e . However, it is p o s s i b l e in this stage to perfect
the athlete's motor mastery, which d i r e c t l y s e c u r e s (and limits)
high speed of m o v e m e n t .
This motor mastery is a rational inter-muscular coordina-
tion, w h e r e t h e r e is no t e n s i o n in the m u s c l e g r o u p s w h i c h do not
directly take part in the execution of the m o t o r t a s k s ; it is a
clear-cut s e q u e n c e of tension and r e l a x a t i o n of the w o r k i n g m u s -
cle groups, p e r f e c t i o n i n g the general c o o r d i n a t i o n s t r u c t u r e of
the sport e x e r c i s e . This type of w o r k is q u i t e c o m p a t i b l e with
the a t h l e t e ' s d e c r e a s e d functional state, only if it is in the
optimal range of intensity of effort and frequency of m o v e m e n t .
Speed work b e g i n s only with the beginning of r e a l i z a t i o n of
the LLTE of s t r e n g t h - l o a d i n g and along w i t h the o b l i g a t o r y , gra-
dual rise in the i n t e n s i t y of e f f o r t — the frequency of the
movement and t h e a t h l e t e ' s speed of m o v e m e n t a l s o r i s e .
High speed of movement or t h e m o v e m e n t s of t h e a t h l e t e under
competition conditions a r e to a g r e a t extent d e t e r m i n e d by the
specific s p e e d - e n d u r a n c e . T h e latter is e x p r e s s e d at a d e f i n i t e
level of power and c a p a c i t y of t h e a n a e r o b i c g l y c o l y t i c p r o c e s s e s
of energy-acquisition; the acquisition of which (special-
endurance) is n e c e s s a r y not only to provide e n e r g y for training,
but in o r d e r to c o r r e c t l y select the place for t h e appropriate
loading.
This type of loading has two w a v e s (see figure 46). The
first is timed for t h e end of the s t a g e w h e r e there has been a
concentrated v o l u m e of strength-loading; specialized-strength-
means (see 2.3) a r e employed and the o b j e c t i v e is to develop

138.
special (primarily l o c a l ) strength-endurance. T h e second wave
follows the f u n d a m e n t a l v o l u m e o f speed w o r k ; distance methods
(in c y c l i c t y p e s of s p o r t s ) or s p e c i a l i z e d m e a n s and m e t h o d s (one
on one e v e n t s , sport g a m e s ) are employed and the o b j e c t i v e i s t o
develop specific speed-endurance. T h i s type of w o r k should be
done in " s e g m e n t s " of small v o l u m e and c o m b i n e d w i t h speed work
in such a way that it d o e s not have a n e g a t i v e a f f e c t .
It should be taken into a c c o u n t , that a l o n g w i t h the rise in
strength-endurance ( S E ) , e x p l o s i v e - e f f o r t (I) has a tendency to
decrease when the s e c o n d w a v e of loading of anaerobic glycolytic
emphasis occurs. Therefore, in t h o s e t y p e s of sports where
explosive-effort is of great importance, it is necessary to
provide an a p p r o p r i a t e i n t e n s i v e , small volume of maintenance
loading.
So, the just examined forms of loading organization of
different primary emphasis, is i n d i c a t i v e of the d e p a r t u r e from
the traditional understanding of the complex p r e p a r a t i o n princi-
ple c o n s i s t i n g of t h e parallel e x e c u t i o n of several tasks. How-
ever, t h e s e forms by no m e a n s , n e g a t e t h e idea of c o m p l e x p r e p -
aration. They o n l y s h o w that the a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t of the latter
as a u n i f i e d p r i n c i p l e of t r a i n i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n is unorthodox;
and also the necessity to search for m o r e rational ways of
training construction, in accordance w i t h the r e q u i r e m e n t s of
preparing today's highly-qualified athletes.
In recent years r e s e a r c h shows that it is appropriate to
u t i l i z e t h e so-called "conjugate-sequence system of organization
of loading" for h i g h l y - q u a l i f i e d a t h l e t e s . This is based on
those same ideas for the s y s t e m a t i c combination of special
strength-training m e a n s ; w h i c h take into a c c o u n t their training
potential (see 3 . 2 , figure 3 2 ) ; a s w e l l a s the a p p r o p r i a t e c o n -
centration and c u l t i v a t i o n , at t i m e s , of loading of different
primary emphasis. In this instance, sequence means a strict
o r d e r and s u c c e s s i o n of introducing loading of d i f f e r e n t emphasis
into training; w h i l e t a k i n g into a c c o u n t the s y s t e m a t i c i n t e n s i -
fication of t h e s t r e n g t h of the s p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g influence on
the o r g a n i s m . C o n j u g a t e a s s u m e s an a p p r o p r i a t e s u c c e s s i o n in the

139.
sequence of u t i l i z i n g loading; the p u r p o s e of w h i c h is the crea-
tion of such c o n d i t i o n s , through w h i c h the preceding loading
provides a favorable functional b a c k g r o u n d for raising t h e t r a i n -
ing influence of t h e s u b s e q u e n t l o a d i n g . Sequence should be
understood not as an a b r u p t , at t i m e s , d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of load-
ing, but c h i e f l y as a s w i t c h from one t y p e of loading to the p r i -
mary u t i l i z a t i o n of a n o t h e r (Y. V. V e r k h o s h a n s k y , 1977).
A s c h e m e of loading o r g a n i z a t i o n , based on the conjugate-
sequence system, over a p r o l o n g e d t r a i n i n g period is presented in
figure 4 7 . T h e s c h e m e d e p i c t s an a p p r o p r i a t e s e q u e n c e (but not
the q u a n t i t a t i v e and t i m e r a t i o s of t h e v o l u m e s ) of loading of
different primary emphasis, taking into account the positive
interaction and an i n c r e a s e in the specific training potential of
the loading (TP). Thus, in o r d e r to d e v e l o p s p e e d - e n d u r a n c e , the
numerical order s i g n i f i e s t h e following, in-stages, s e q u e n c e of
using d i s t a n c e loading: 1-aerobic, 2-mixed, 3-alactic-anaerobic,

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4-anaerobic-glycolytic. The "block" of specialized-strength-
loading is c o n c e n t r a t e d in s t a g e 2. Speed w o r k is concentrated
primarily in s t a g e 3 and is e x e c u t e d a g a i n s t a b a c k g r o u n d of the
realization of the L L T E of t h e s t r e n g t h "block". Stage 4 is
d e v o t e d to i m p r o v i n g s p e e d - e n d u r a n c e w h e n t h e r e is a significant
d e c r e a s e in the general v o l u m e of loading.
For speed-strength and c o m p l e x - t e c h n i q u e t y p e s of sports.
T h e s e q u e n c e of loading of d i f f e r e n t p r i m a r y e m p h a s i s c a n be the
following for speed-strength and complex-technique types of
sports: 1- g e n e r a l - d e v e l o p m e n t a l work, in preparation for
specialized-loading; 2- a "block" of c o n c e n t r a t e d - s t r e n g t h - l o a d -
ing; 3- i n - d e p t h p e r f e c t i o n i n g of t e c h n i c a l m a s t e r y , against a
background of the r e a l i z a t i o n of the LLTE of the strength-
loading; 4- further perfectioning of technical mastery under
c o n d i t i o n s of competition loading.
Well then, the general characteristics of the conjugate-
sequence s y s t e m of loading o r g a n i z a t i o n can be e x p r e s s e d in the
following way.
T h e c o n j u g a t e - s e q u e n c e s y s t e m d o e s not reject complexness as
the most general p r i n c i p l e of training, but o n l y d e v e l o p s it in
conformity with the conditions and requirements of the
preparation of t h e m o d e r n , highly-qualified sportsman. In the
given case, c o m p l e x n e s s should be u n d e r s t o o d in the s u c c e s s i o n of
its unfolding over t i m e ; not i n one m o m e n t or parallel. The
chief m e c h a n i s m of t h e t r a i n i n g - e f f e c t of such a m e t h o d consists
of the succession of positive, accumulated traces, from super-
c e d i n g loading o f d i f f e r e n t p r i m a r y e m p h a s i s . Thus, the c o n j u -
gate-sequence form not only p r e s e r v e s the advantage of the
c o m p l e x o r g a n i z a t i o n of t r a i n i n g , but p r o v i d e s a m o r e e x p r e s s i v e ,
specific training-effect of the loading of a certain primary
emphasis. On the w h o l e , the p o s i t i v e s u c c e s s i o n o f c u m u l a t i o n s
of achieved t r a i n i n g - e f f e c t s of this form, r e s u l t s in a more
unidirectional elevation of t h e o r g a n i s m to a higher and more
stable special-work-capacity.
The a d v a n t a g e of the c o n j u g a t e - s e q u e n c e s y s t e m c o n s i s t s not
o n l y in p r o v i d i n g a h i g h and s t a b l e c u m u l a t i v e e f f e c t of loading

141.
of d i f f e r e n t p r i m a r y e m p h a s i s , but in a c h i e v i n g a h i g h d e g r e e of
r a t i o n a l i t y in t h e i r u s a g e . In t h i s c a s e , the e n t i r e v o l u m e of
the loading e x e c u t e d , c o m p l e t e l y and u n i d i r e c t i o n a l l y c o n t r i b u t e s
to increasing motor potential and p e r f e c t i o n i n g the sportsman's
technical mastery. At t h e same t i m e , "superfluous" work is
excluded; since it d o e s not c o n t r i b u t e to the development of
trainability, but often has a n e g a t i v e a f f e c t on the planned
c u m u l a t i v e t r a i n i n g - e f f e c t of the loading.
The conjugate-sequence s y s t e m should be used in t h e year-
cycle of t r a i n i n g for o r g a n i z i n g loading of different primary
emphasis; and in separate s t a g e s for o r g a n i z i n g loading of a
single p r i m a r y e m p h a s i s ; furthermore, i t should b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d
by the s t r e n g t h and s p e c i f i c i t y of the t r a i n i n g i n f l u e n c e of the
m e a n s and m e t h o d s used.
F o r m s of C o n s t r u c t i n g T r a i n i n g by Provisional Indications
Provisional indications s t i p u l a t e first o f all, rational
ways of o r g a n i z i n g t r a i n i n g w i t h i n the f r a m e w o r k of a concrete
time period, l i m i t e d by e x t e r n a l conditions, the competition
calendar, traditional periodization of training, work or studies.
Timewise, one ought t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h r e e fundamental forms of
training c o n s t r u c t i o n : t h e year c y c l e , the large s t a g e and the
micro-cycle. T r a i n i n g can be e f f e c t i v e if it has b e e n c o n s t r u c -
ted optimally, with respect to organization and provisional
indications.
The s c i e n t i f i c search for time v a r i a n t s of t r a i n i n g o r g a n i -
zation has t r a d i t i o n a l l y c o n c e n t r a t e d on two of its forms: the
year c y c l e (rational p e r i o d i z a t i o n and c o o r d i n a t e d w i t h the c o m -
petition c a l e n d a r ) and t h e m i c r o - c y c l e (working-out its " m o d e l "
o r g a n i z a t i o n for d i f f e r e n t p e r i o d s and s t a g e s o f the y e a r c y c l e ) .
And, a l t h o u g h w i t h i n the f r a m e w o r k of a year-cycle, everything
has been d i v i d e d i n t o s e p a r a t e s t a g e s , the p r i n c i p l e s g o v e r n i n g
their c o n s t r u c t i o n a r e a c c o r d e d l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n . These stages
are often formed a r b i t r a r i l y and by c h a n c e , d i c t a t e d by the c o m -
petition calendar and t h e current training objectives. The
length and s o m e t i m e s t h e q u a n t i t y of t h e s t a g e s c h a n g e s from year
to y e a r . These circumstances, apparently, lead to t h i s -- the

142.
practical necessity to work-out some special, systematically
formed p r i n c i p l e s , u n i f y i n g the c o n t e n t s of t r a i n i n g in separate
stages into w h o l e and functionally complete forms d o e s not arise.
The exception to this being pre-competition training stages,
lasting 1-1.5 m o n t h s ; to w h i c h c o n s i d e r a b l e r e s e a r c h has been
devoted (N. G. O z o l i n , 1 9 5 3 , 1 9 6 6 , 1 9 7 0 ; D. A. A r o s y e v , 1 9 6 9 ; L.
P. M a t v e y e v , 1 9 7 7 , and o t h e r s ) . P r a c t i c e has fully answered the
requirements of the p r e p a r a t o r y period through e m p i r i c a l l y e s t a -
blished w a y s of constructing separate stages from a combination
of m i c r o - c y c l e s of d i f f e r e n t e m p h a s i s . In the m e t h o d i c a l litera-
ture the m o s t p r e v a l e n t a r e t h r e e and f o u r - w e e k s t a g e s , i n which
one week (the l a s t ) is the restoration week. There are combina-
tions of two-weeks with l a r g e and t w o - w e e k s w i t h m o d e r a t e loading
or an a l t e r n a t i o n of w e e k s w i t h high and m o d e r a t e loading. One
c a n find m a n y v a r i a n t s of such c o m b i n a t i o n s in p r a c t i c e , and all
of t h e m , d e p e n d i n g on t h e c o n d i t i o n s , can bring s u c c e s s . It is
very difficult to establish that any of these are highly
effective, s i n c e the c r i t e r i a a r e e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y d i v e r s e .
Therefore, without casting doubt on the achievements of
practice, we e x a m i n e d potential a p p r o a c h e s t o o r g a n i z e the so-
called l a r g e s t a g e as a f u n c t i o n a l l y d e f i n i t i v e and a relatively
i n d e p e n d e n t p a r t o f the y e a r - t r a i n i n g - c y c l e . The differentiation
of such a s t a g e is based on the r e g u l a r i t i e s (examined in the
preceding chapters) of the o r g a n i s m ' s adaptation to intense
muscular activity and chiefly, the optimal periods of the
o r g a n i s m ' s r e a l i z a t i o n of the C A R ; c o m p r i s i n g about 20 w e e k s (see
2.1) .
Based on the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d f o r m s of the o r g a n i s m ' s compen-
satory adaptation (see 2 . 1 , figure 4 ) , feasible, w o r k a b l e and
suitable f o r m s of t r a i n i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n in the large stage are
presented (figure 4 8 ) . W e w o u l d remind you that one o f the forms
of compensatory adaptation (A) is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a smooth
increase in the f u n c t i o n a l indicators, right u p t o w h e r e they
pass t h r o u g h the p l a t e a u ; the other (B), begins with a steady
d e c l i n e then a s h a r p i n c r e a s e in functional indicators, up to a
level that s i g n i f i c a n t l y e x c e e d s the first v a r i a n t . T h e schemes

143.
represent suitable forms of training o r g a n i z a t i o n . Variant A
expresses a traditional form of t r a i n i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n , the idea
of w h i c h is o b v i o u s , and d o e s not r e q u i r e e x p l a n a t i o n . Therefore
let's look at t h e s p e c i f i c p e c u l i a r i t i e s of the c o n s t r u c t i o n of
loading in V a r i a n t B.
1. Two micro-stages are distinguished, taking into a c c o u n t the
adaptational regularities within a large-stage. There is a
concentration of l o a d i n g in t h e first micro-stage, containing
primarily means of special-physical-preparation. Requiring
increased expenditure of energy resources, these m e a n s provoke
extensive accommodative reconstruction within the organism, which
is e x p r e s s e d , externally, by a steady d e c r e a s e in its functional
indicators. S p e c i a l i z e d loading (at a lesser v o l u m e ) is d o n e in
the second s t a g e , i n c l u d i n g c o m p e t i t i o n loading. This loading is
d e s i g n e d p r i m a r i l y to i m p r o v e t e c h n i q u e or the speed of e x e c u t i o n
of a sport e x e r c i s e ; it c o n t r i b u t e s to a c t i v a t i o n of the c o m p e n -
satory r e a c t i o n s , t h e s u r p l u s r e s t o r a t i o n of e n e r g y r e s o u r c e s and
raises the athlete's special-work-capacity. T h e e n t e r i n g of and
the stabilization of t h e o r g a n i s m at a new functional level,
signifies the m a n i f e s t a t i o n of its n e w a d a p t a t i o n a l r e s e r v e s and,
consequently, its r e a d i n e s s t o respond w i t h p o s i t i v e a c c o m m o d a -
tive reactions to further training influences.
2. The traditional s c h e m e of the v o l u m e and i n t e n s i t y r a t i o is
p r e s e r v e d in t h e large training stage (Variant B ) , but it is
realized in a s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t form (see figure 48). The
volume i n c r e a s e s and d e c r e a s e s m o r e s t e e p l y than in the tradi-
tional scheme, w h i l e t h e r e is a slight rise in the i n t e n s i t y of
the loading. T h e n e c e s s i t y of such a form of interdependence
between the dynamics of the m a g n i t u d e and intensity of the
loading is e x p l a i n e d by t h e fact that the c o n c e n t r a t e d v o l u m e of
intense loading c a u s e s an e x t r a o r d i n a r y o v e r s t r a i n on the o r g a n -
ism and r e s u l t s in a d i s r u p t i o n of a d a p t a t i o n . In o t h e r words,
one can r e a l i z e t h e n e c e s s a r y v o l u m e of w o r k only w i t h a rela-
tively low i n t e n s i t y of loading.
3. The aforementioned p r i n c i p l e s of c o n s t r u c t i o n of the large
stage of training eliminate the nominal contradictions, that
arise when the utterly unjustified {which often happens)
objectives of t h e loading are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h "fatiguing" the
motor potential, and the competition objectives with
"realizing" it. If this were so in actuality, then the
sportman's r e s u l t s w o u l d d e c r e a s e with e a c h c o m p e t i t i o n . However
this d o e s not o c c u r w i t h c o r r e c t o r g a n i z a t i o n of training. On
the contrary, t h e r e is an i n c r e a s e in the s p o r t s m a n ' s special-
w o r k - c a p a c i t y and a c h i e v e m e n t s in t h e c o m p e t i t i o n s t a g e .
Training and competition loading are different in the
strength and the s p e c i f i c i t y of the i n f l u e n c e on the organism;
the forms of the p r e p a r a t i o n , within a large-stage, are associ-
ated with an u t t e r l y c o n c r e t e s e q u e n c e and c o n t i n u i t y . T h e first
provides the n e c e s s a r y p r e r e q u i s i t e s for the further i n c r e a s e in
the athlete's work-capacity. T h e second c o n t r i b u t e s (if it is
not excessive) to i n t e n s i f y i n g those physiological processes
which are the b a s i s for raising this level. Therefore, the
success of the t r a i n i n g as a w h o l e d e p e n d s on a proper under-
standing of the o b j e c t i v e s , roles and ratios of the loading in
the large-training-stage.
Variant B provides e x t e n s i v e and unidirectional utilization
of the m e a n s of G P P and a d e f i n i t i v e c o m b i n a t i o n of t h e m w i t h the
special-work. The b a s i c p u r p o s e of the G P P m e a n s is to p r o v i d e
the e f f e c t of s w i t c h i n g to contrast activities, d i f f e r e n t from
the special-work and thereby contributing to the restoration of
the a t h l e t e ' s w o r k - c a p a c i t y and his m o t o r a p p a r a t u s . The means
of GPP solve the p r o b l e m of restoring work-capacity during
concentrated-loading (primarily a f t e r v o l u m i n o u s loading); and
d u r i n g the r e a l i z a t i o n of the LLTE -- the G P P m e a n s are used for
restoration after h i g h - i n t e n s i t y t e c h n i q u e and speed work. On
the whole, the m e a n s of G P P are executed at a low intensity.
But, in order t o p r e p a r e the o r g a n i s m t o switch t o t h e d e v e l o p -
ment of speed and to the p e r f e c t i o n i n g of technical mastery
during the r e d u c t i o n of c o n c e n t r a t e d - l o a d i n g , the intensity of
the G P P m e a n s is increased s l i g h t l y .
5. Variant A is a p p r o p r i a t e for a t h l e t e s of m i d d l e qualifica-
tion; as well as for qualified athletes needing to devote

145.
c o n s i d e r a b l e time for p e r f e c t i o n i n g technical mastery. Variant B
can be u t i l i z e d to t h e fullest extent by q u a l i f i e d a t h l e t e s who
possess a h i g h s p e c i a l - p h y s i c a l work-capacity, can e n d u r e v o l u m i -
nous loading and h a v e p e r f e c t sport t e c h n i q u e .
6. The t a s k s and forms of t h e l a r g e - s t a g e o r g a n i z a t i o n should
have a c o n c r e t e and s p e c i a l - e m p h a s i s , oriented towards a defini-
tive contribution to t h e s y s t e m a t i c a c h i e v e m e n t of the special
objectives of t h e y e a r ' s training; and e s p e c i a l l y to p r o p e l l i n g
the o r g a n i s m to a n e w level of s p e c i a l - w o r k - c a p a c i t y and towards
the creation of t h e most necessary conditions for e f f e c t i v e tech-
nical and competition preparation. The necessary contents,
volume and o r g a n i z a t i o n of t r a i n i n g and c o m p e t i t i o n loading are
determined on t h e b a s i s of such a concrete, special-emphasis.
The most important, d i s t i n g u i s h i n g trait of t h e l a r g e - s t a g e is
the c o m p l e t e n e s s of t h e e x e c u t i o n of all the intermediate tasks
associated with the athlete's special-physical, technical and
competition preparation.
So, the large s t a g e is the r e l a t i v e l y i n d e p e n d e n t part of
the year-cycle, acting as an a m a l g a m a t i o n of the fundamental
forms of t r a i n i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n ; it e x e c u t e s a r e g u l a t i n g func-
tion, with r e s p e c t to the m i c r o - c y c l e s and their consolidation
based on the unity of t h e tasks c o m p l e t e d . T h e d u r a t i o n of the
large-stage can vary (from 3 to 5 m o n t h s ) , since its a p p o r t i o n -
ment, to a significant extent, depends on the competition
calendar and, c h i e f l y on t h e d a t e s of those c o m p e t i t i o n s which
are designated as fundamental.
Special research shows that it is p o s s i b l e and appropriate
to utilize t w o large s t a g e s of p r e p a r a t i o n , in the year-cycle;
providing for t h e o r g a n i s m ' s r e a l i z a t i o n of the CAR (figure 49).
In this c a s e , t h e d y n a m i c s of the s p o r t s m a n ' s state (I) form two
large w a v e s , w i t h the second h a v i n g the h i g h e r s p e c i a l - w o r k - c a p a -
city indicators. T h e m o s t s u i t a b l e t w o - c y c l e o r g a n i z a t i o n of a
year's preparation empirically was worked-out long ago and
approved in p r a c t i c e , in a number of t y p e s of sports; receives
yet m o r e convincing corroboration.
 Consequently, traditional adherence to uni-cyclical
periodization in a number of types of s p o r t s can not be justi-
fied, and the sooner coaches repudiate this tradition, the
better. Two-cycle p e r i o d i z a t i o n t r a n s f e r s to a number of types
of sports, which traditionally, had p r e v i o u s l y employed other
forms of p e r i o d i z a t i o n ; in p a r t i c u l a r — uni-cyclical in skiing
(I. G. Ogoltsov, 1 9 7 9 ) and in m i d d l e - d i s t a n c e running {Y. D.
Turin, 1980; V. A. Sirenko, 1980) and t r i - c y c l i c a l in boxing (Y.
B. N i k i f o r o v , I. B. V i k t o r o v , 1978) and in swimming (S. M. V a i t -
sekhovsky, 1981 ) . In a number of g a m e s types of sports and
single-combats the t r i - c y c l i c a l p e r i o d i z a t i o n is preserved, as
conditioned by the c o m p e t i t i o n c a l e n d a r ; -but in e n d u r a n c e types
of sports — uni-cyclical.
We will examine the p r i n c i p l e s of p r o g r a m m i n g and o r g a n i z a -
tion of t r a i n i n g in the y e a r - c y c l e in t h e following s e c t i o n s of
the c h a p t e r , but let's now turn to the m i c r o - c y c l e s .
When p r o g r a m m i n g the l a r g e - s t a g e the p r o b l e m of t h e rational
"accommodation" of t h e n e c e s s a r y volume of loading a r i s e s , which
brings out new r e q u i r e m e n t s for the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the micro-
cycle. One should acknowledge that all of the traditional
schemes of c o n s t r u c t i o n of the m i c r o - c y c l e , in s t i p u l a t i n g the
complex c o m p l e t i o n of training o b j e c t i v e s , {under c o m p u l s o r y c o n -
ditions) not only r e s t o r a t i o n , but increasing the s p e c i f i c - w o r k -
capacity at t h e b e g i n n i n g of a new m i c r o - c y c l e , do not satisfy
these requirements. It is necessary to seek new forms of
construction of m i c r o - c y c l e s , which permit the realization of
high v o l u m e s of l o a d i n g , including u n i - d i r e c t i o n a l . This yet
again c o n f i r m s t h e t h e s i s that m i c r o - c y c l e s , as the basic units
of training c o n s t r u c t i o n , become its w o r k i n g - f o r m s ; the function
of which c o n s i s t s of t h e rational u t i l i z a t i o n of those parts of
the volume w h i c h bring t h e m into c o n f o r m i t y w i t h t h e objectives
and general s t r a t e g y of t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the large s t a g e .
Let's look at the s c a n t , for t h e p r e s e n t , experimental data
which suggest ways of solving t h e s e problems. It has been
established that large u n i d i r e c t i o n a l loading causes a sharp
reduction in the capability to d i s p l a y those qualities and

148.
abilities w h i c h s e c u r e the e x e c u t i o n of t r a i n i n g programs. At
the same time, a t h l e t e s w h o are c a p a b l e of d i s p l a y i n g a high
work-capacity, secure it p r i m a r i l y by other systems (V. D.
Monogarov, V. N. Platonov, 1975; L. E. Fedorova, et a l . , 1975; V.
I. C h e p e l y e v , 1 9 8 0 ; V. N. P l a t o n o v , 1 9 8 0 ) .
For example, a weeks* c y c l e of loading (figure 50) was
devised, of fatigue and the length of h i g h l y - q u a l i f i e d s w i m m e r s '
r e s t o r a t i o n after v o l u m i n o u s u n i d i r e c t i o n a l w o r k o u t s . The idea
of the s c h e m e is t h e p o s s i b i l i t y to r e a l i z e a h i g h , on the w h o l e ,
v o l u m e of loading; b a s e d on a rational c o m b i n a t i o n of w o r k o u t s of
different m a g n i t u d e and e m p h a s i s o f loading, while taking into
account the d u r a t i o n of the r e s t o r a t i o n p r o c e s s e s that c o r r e s p o n d
to them.
It s h o u l d , however, be noted that d e s p i t e the u n i d i r e c t i o n a l
character o f the w o r k o u t s i n d i v i d u a l l y , o n the w h o l e t h i s t y p i -
f i e s a c o m p l e x form of t r a i n i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n . The organism can-
not d i f f e r e n t i a t e and "accumulate", a t the same time, specific
reactions to e a c h type of loading and w i l l respond to them with
generalized, proportional reactions. Therefore, t h i s form of
micro-cycle construction, undoubtedly, enables one to realize a
large v o l u m e of loading (which it is based o n , and i n t e n d e d ) , but
it hardly secures a clear-cut increase in speed, aerobic and
anaerobic productivity.
Presented in f i g u r e 51 a r e e x a m p l e s of the unidirectional
organization of week-cycles for highly-qualified athletes;
inclusive of three w o r k o u t s , with large loading of primarily
aerobic (Ae) or a n a e r o b i c (An) emphasis, combined w i t h w o r k o u t s
emphasizing complex (C), speed-strength (SS) and t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
of speed-endurance (SE). O b s e r v a t i o n s o f the i m m e d i a t e lagging
training e f f e c t showed (figure 5 2 ) , that i n the first instance
there was a s i g n i f i c a n t d e p r e s s i o n of a e r o b i c potential (MOC);
the r e s t o r a t i o n of w h i c h up to the level exceeding the initial
w a s o b s e r v e d o v e r a 72 h o u r p e r i o d . At the same t i m e , anaerobic
potential (assessed by the s w i m m i n g test — 4 x 50) restored
quickly and held at a level e x c e e d i n g the initial. In the
second instance, restoration of anaerobic productivity took
longer and e x c e e d e d its initial level after 72 hours. It is
interesting that d u r i n g this t i m e , a e r o b i c potential rose within
a 12 hour span and t h e n r e c e d e d .
The following v a r i a n t of o r g a n i z a t i o n of a w e e k m i c r o - c y c l e ,
chiefly emphasizing special-strength-training (figure 53), is
possible in s p e e d - s t r e n g t h and c o m p l e x - t e c h n i c a l types of sports.
In addition to w o r k o u t s with large and moderate volumes of
strength-loading (SS), these m i c r o - c y c l e s include w o r k o u t s with
technique (T) and c o m p l e x (C) e m p h a s i s .
So, o n e has to say that d u e to the new d e m a n d s in the prep-
aration of highly-qualified athletes, the micro-cycles from the
old days — the most cultivated form of training construction,
became the weakest link in t h e t e c h n i q u e of programming training.
Naturally, the examples cited still do not eliminate those
insufficiencies; however, to a known d e g r e e , they s t i p u l a t e the
ways in w h i c h one should direct the scientific search.
4.2 Primary Aims in Programming Training
A methodical r e v i e w of all of the just d i s c u s s e d material
can be e x p r e s s e d by a number of primary aims, w h i c h contain the
most general basis for the s e l e c t i o n of the optimal variant of
programming training. T h e p r i m a r y a i m s are a s e p a r a t e category
of m e t h o d i c a l c o n c e p t s and r u l e s ; e s p e c i a l l y w i t h respect to the
general principles of p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n and sport training.
First, they develop the leading ideas that make-up these
principles, a p p l i c a b l e to the m o d e r n c o n d i t i o n s and r e q u i r e m e n t s
of the t r a i n i n g of h i g h l y - q u a l i f i e d a t h l e t e s ; and, second, they
become the c o n c r e t e rules of programming training.
1. The a i m of realizing the o r g a n i s m ' s CAR is associated
w i t h t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of loading based on the r e g u l a r i t i e s of the
organisn's adaptation to specialized muscular work. One stipu-
lates (within the y e a r c y c l e ) , t h e a p p o r t i o n m e n t of large-stages,
their c o n c r e t e o b j e c t i v e s and t h e c o n t e n t s , volume and o r g a n i z a -
tion of loading o b j e c t i v e l y n e c e s s a r y to a c h i e v e these objec-
tives. The large-stage should be inserted into the year's
training system in such a way that t h e a t h l e t e a t t a i n s the new
level of s p e c i a l - w o r k - c a p a c i t y at the instant of his performance

151.
in the most i m p o r t a n t c o m p e t i t i o n . It is a p p r o p r i a t e to d e s i g -
nate two l a r g e - s t a g e s in t h e y e a r - c y c l e ; e v e n in those types of
sports, w h i c h t r a d i t i o n a l l y a d o p t a unicyclical p e r i o d i z a t i o n of
training, with one competition season.
2. The aim of p r e s e r v i n g the training potential of the
loading is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s y s t e m a t i c a l l y raising the strength
and specificity of the training influence on the organism,
according to the i n c r e a s e in its w o r k - c a p a c i t y . Practical reali-
zation of this t a k e s t h e form of the c o n j u g a t e - s e q u e n c e system of
organizing loading of different primary e m p h a s i s .
3. T h e aim of a c o n c e n t r a t e d use of v o l u m i n o u s , special-
ized-unidirectional-loading is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h creating a concen-
trated training i n f l u e n c e on the o r g a n i s m , for the p u r p o s e of
significantly increasing its special-physical-preparedness. In
order to provide steady, functional recostruction within the
organism, the t r a i n i n g i n f l u e n c e should be of optimal strength,
frequency and of sufficient duration. T h e m o d e of c o n c e n t r a t i o n
can be applied to loading of any p r i m a r y e m p h a s i s . It is e s p e -
cially e f f e c t i v e for strength-loading which represents a rela-
tively independent "block" in t h e year t r a i n i n g system. Its p u r -
pose involves t h e c r e a t i o n of a functional b a s e for the subse-
quent in-depth, special preparation, a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the p e r f e c -
tioning of technical mastery, the d e v e l o p m e n t of speed or of
special endurance.
4. The a i m to u t i l i z e the L L T E of concentrated-strength-
loading is associated with first of all, rational ways of
regulating the general v o l u m e of loading in the year-cycle and
the effective u t i l i z a t i o n of s p e c i a l i z e d - s t r e n g t h - w o r k for the
purpose of c r e a t i n g favorable conditions for the athlete's tech-
nique, speed and c o m p e t i t i o n p r e p a r a t i o n .
5. T h e a i m of c u l t i v a t i o n , d u r i n g the v o l u m i n o u s loading
of differet p r i m a r y e m p h a s i s , is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h rational ways of
utilizing incompatible loading (for e x a m p l e , emphasizing strength
and p e r f e c t i o n i n g t e c h n i q u e or speed of m o v e m e n t ) ; e l i m i n a t i o n or
reducing to a m i n i m u m t h e n e g a t i v e a f f e c t s b e t w e e n the t r a i n i n g -
effects of loading of d i f f e r e n t p r i m a r y e m p h a s i s ; as well as

152.
towards those combinations, w h i c h p r o v i d e a partial sequential
c u m u l a t i o n of their partial training-effects.
6. T h e aim of o u t - s t r i p p i n g the e m p h a s i s of SPP emphasizes
the key role of t h i s t r a i n i n g in the growth of h i g h l y - q u a l i f i e d
athletes' achievements. The aim is associated with such an
o r g a n i z a t i o n of t r a i n i n g w h e r e SPP p r e c e d e s i n - d e p t h t e c h n i q u e or
speed of movement work.
7. The aim of modeling competition activities is associ-
ated with reproducing (in t r a i n i n g ) w o r k that is i n h e r e n t to com-
petition conditions; especially t o w a r d s the e x e c u t i o n of the
sport e x e r c i s e w i t h a h i g h i n t e n s i t y e f f o r t , w i t h i n the r u l e s of
competition. T h i s is a very e f f e c t i v e form of s p e c i a l - t r a i n i n g ,
i m p r o v i n g the a t h l e t e ' s p h y s i c a l , psychological, technical-tacti-
cal and competitive readiness.
The aims f o r m u l a t e d a r e the b a s i s for working-up general
strategic c o n c e p t i o n s of training organization, as well as the
direction in w h i c h o n e ought to seek a c o n c r e t e m e t h o d for pro-
gramming training, a t the q u a n t i t a t i v e l e v e l . However, adherence
to these aims will lead to s u c c e s s o n l y if all the preceding
preparation has been systematic, w i t h o u t the forcing of these
a i m s or o t h e r a s p e c t s of sport m a s t e r y and w h e n the a t h l e t e has a
well b a l a n c e d technical and special-physical-preparedness. In
order t o r e a l i z e t h e s e a i m s o n e should institute measures that
take into a c c o u n t actual conditions, the individual peculiarities
of the a t h l e t e and the s p e c i f i c s of the s p o r t .
4.3 F u n d a m e n t a l Model S y s t e m s of C o n s t r u c t i n g T r a i n i n g in
the Year-Cycle
The development of p r i n c i p l e s r e g a r d i n g the contents and
organization of t r a i n i n g and the a c c u m u l a t i o n of the c o r r e s p o n d -
ing statistics, permits one to f i r s t , f o r m u l a t e the idea of
" m o d e l i n g sport a c t i v i t i e s " and t o d e v i s e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l and con-
crete, practical w a y s t o r e a l i z e i t . W i t h r e s p e c t t o the theory
of sport t r a i n i n g , m o d e l i n g -- a n e w m e t h o d of research, con-
structively expressing the e s s e n c e of the form of training
construction, its d e v e l o p m e n t a l t e n d e n c i e s over time and d e f i n e s
the m e t h o d i c a l c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e s e t e n d e n c i e s .

153.
 Modeling makes it possible to overcome the pithy, organiza-
tional c o m p l e x i t y i n h e r e n t to sport a c t i v i t i e s ; as well as the
implementation of operational a n a l y s i s and prognostical research
on some s u p p l e m e n t a r y o b j e c t . This object represents a simpli-
fied analogue of the a c t u a l training process, omitting some
details, but p r e s e r v i n g the most e s s e n t i a l information concerning
its c o m p o s i t i o n and s t r u c t u r e . This object is a model of the
dynamics of the a t h l e t e ' s s t a t e and a model of the systems of
training c o n s t r u c t i o n in the year-cycle.
A m o d e l of t h e d y n a m i c s of the a t h l e t e ' s s t a t e is a g r a p h i c
expression of the o p t i m a l t e n d e n c i e s of the c h a n g e s in the most
essential i n d i c a t o r s of his special work-capacity, over t i m e . It
stipulates the c o n c r e t e m o m e n t in t i m e , t o w a r d s w h i c h one should
plan for the a c h i e v e m e n t of the m a x i m u m level of the functional
indicators, and is t h e initial prerequisite for programming
training.
A m o d e l of the s y s t e m s of t r a i n i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n is expressed
graphically or by any o t h e r s i g n s or symbolic form of t h e pithy
interpretation of p r i n c i p l e s and logical p r e r e q u i s i t e s , determin-
ing its organization. This model is q u i t e a d e q u a t e for the
actual training p r o c e s s ; making it possible to substitute this
process with a v i e w of l o g i c a l l y r e s e a r c h i n g the expediency of
different variants of t r a i n i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n and providing (by
means of t h i s ) a s u f f i c i e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n about their e f f e c t i v e -
ness. At the same time it is a c o n v e n i e n t way of g r a p h i c a l l y and
laconically e x p r e s s i n g the m e t h o d i c a l conceptions, prescribed on
the b a s i s o f t r a i n i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n .
Two forms of models are distinguished -- principal and
quantitative. The principal model is a descriptive (qualita-
tive) e x p r e s s i o n of the d y n a m i c s of the a t h l e t e ' s s t a t e and the
most essential p a r a m e t e r s of t h e c o n t e n t s and the connections
between t h e c o m p o n e n t s of the t r a i n i n g p r o c e s s ; w h i c h a r e in c o n -
formity w i t h t r a i n i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n , under the actual sport c o n d i -
tions. The q u a n t i t a t i v e model is the r e s u l t of p r o g r a m m i n g and
contains the q u a n t i t a t i v e s i g n i f i c a n c e of the composition and
o r g a n i z a t i o n of training. Principal m o d e l s are the b a s i s for its

154.
e l a b o r a t i o n for a s p e c i f i c a t h l e t e or g r o u p of a t h l e t e s and is a
working document for t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f training.
B e f o r e we a n a l y z e m o d e l s , let's look at some of the general
questions concerning their description.
1. S i n c e the m o d e l s p e r t a i n to the so-called summer and
winter t y p e s of sports, the s p e c i f i c m o n t h s of the year a r e not
designated. Each m o d e l c o n s i s t s of 11 m o n t h s , since, on the
average, o n e m o n t h is a l l o t t e d for the final period.
2. M o d e l s of the s y s t e m s of t r a i n i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n include
two c o m p o n e n t s for each sport g r o u p : t h e optimal t e n d e n c y in the
alteration of the m o s t e s s e n t i a l functional indicators (a model
of the d y n a m i c s of t h e a t h l e t e ' s s t a t e ) and the corresponding
organization of loading, n e c e s s a r y for the r e a l i z a t i o n of this
tendency (a m o d e l of the p r o g r a m of l o a d i n g ) . T h e logical scheme
of training construction in e a c h sport g r o u p is based on the
traditional p e r i o d i z a t i o n of t r a i n i n g in t h e y e a r - c y c l e , inherent
to them.
3. The model of the d y n a m i c s of the athlete's state
includes the e s s e n t i a l functional indicators, which objectively
r e f l e c t s his s p e c i a l - w o r k - c a p a c i t y . O n e can use any method that
is of e a s y a c c e s s to the c o a c h to q u a n t i t a t i v e l y assess these
indicators.
4. All of the m o d e l s u t i l i z e the p r i n c i p l e of c o n c e n t r a t e d -
special-strength-loading; which provides for the realization of
the LLTE. The strength-loading is represented by "blocks"
(designated by s q u a r e s ) , timed for c o n c r e t e stages of the year
cycle.
5. By e x p r e s s i n g the q u a l i t a t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of train-
ing organization, t h e m o d e l s p r e s e n t an o p t i m a l t e n d e n c y in the
distribution of t h e v o l u m e of loading of d i f f e r e n t emphasis in
the y e a r - c y c l e and the principal r a t i o of t h i s loading over t i m e .
However, for the p u r p o s e o f c l a r i t y t h e r e a r e n o v o l u m e ratios o f
loading o f d i f f e r e n t e m p h a s i s , by m o n t h s .
6. T h e b o u n d a r i e s of the s t a g e s and the d a t e s of the m a j o r
competitions in the models provided, are b a s e d on the most
frequent occurances i n sport p r a c t i c e . However, taking into

155.
account t h e a c t u a l calendar, they can vary s o m e w h a t , in order to
adhere to the g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s of the o r g a n i z a t i o n of loading.
Now let's look at principal m o d e l s of the systems of
constructing training in the y e a r - c y c l e for a number of sport
groups; w h i c h w e r e d r a w n - u p o n the b a s i s o f t h e just formulated
primary m e t h o d i c a l aims.
4.3.1 A Model for G r o u p s of Sports, R e q u i r i n g the Display
of Explosive-Force
The model originated from the t w o - c y c l e periodization of
training and i n c l u d e s t w o l a r g e - s t a g e s ; oriented to the r e a l i z a -
tion of the o r g a n i s m ' s CAR and a c h i e v e m e n t of the p l a n n e d level
of s p e c i a l - s t r e n g t h - p r e p a r e d n e s s at the m o s t important competi-
tions (figure 5 4 ) .
The model of the d y n a m i c s of the a t h l e t e ' s s t a t e s h o w s the
optimal t e n d e n c y i n t h e a l t e r a t i o n s o f the a b s o l u t e (Po), explo-
sive (I) and s t a r t i n g (Q) strength indicators; the h i g h e s t values
of which are a c h i e v e d at t h e end of each large-stage.
The o r g a n i z a t i o n of loading p r o v i d e s for the u t i l i z a t i o n of
the LLTE of the " b l o c k " of s t r e n g t h work in each large-stage;
against a b a c k g r o u n d of the f u n d a m e n t a l v o l u m e of speed (S) and
technique w o r k . T h e m o s t s u s t a i n i n g p r i n c i p l e i s the c u l t i v a t i o n
of loading of d i f f e r e n t p r i m a r y e m p h a s i s , which creates favorable
conditions for i n - d e p t h i m p r o v e m e n t of t e c h n i q u e and unidirec-
tional preparation for c o m p e t i t i o n .
As has a l r e a d y b e e n s a i d , t e c h n i q u e w o r k is not excluded
during the s t r e n g t h loading "block". However, such work is
included at a reduced intensity; e x e c u t e d in the form of the
separate e l e m e n t s and t h e i r l i n k s , as well as the r h y t h m i c struc-
tures of individual p h a s e s and t h e g e n e r a l s c h e m e of m o v e m e n t .
The second strength "block" is of a lesser volume of
loading; however, the g e n e r a l i n t e n s i t y of the loading is higher
than in the first "block". C o n s i d e r i n g that the second "block"
is executed a g a i n s t a b a c k g r o u n d of the a d a p t a t i o n a l reconstruc-
tion of the first large s t a g e ; the L L T E w i l l be preserved during
the second c o m p e t i t i o n s t a g e . It is not n e c e s s a r y to further
increase t h e v o l u m e of s t r e n g t h work at t h i s t i m e . Tha latter

156.
can be used e x c l u s i v e l y for t o n i n g the n e u r o - m u s c u l a r apparatus
preceding the training emphasizing technique or competitions.
The contents and the o r g a n i z a t i o n of the strength work
"blocks" are based on the p r i n c i p l e of p r e s e r v i n g the training
potential of the loading; based on the conjugate-sequential
system, regulating the m e a n s o f special-strength-training.
The means of G P P are specialized — within the "blocks",
they c r e a t e the e f f e c t of c o n t r a s t n e s s and aid r e s t o r a t i o n after
voluminous strength-loading; at the L L T E s t a g e -- G P P assists
restoration after intense specialized-loading. The largest,
r e l a t i v e v o l u m e of G P P m e a n s o c c u r s in the c o m p e t i t i o n p e r i o d .
4.3.2 A Model for G r o u p s of S p o r t s , Requiring Endurance
(Middle Distances)
The model is b a s e d on a t w o - c y c l e p e r i o d i z a t i o n of training
and c o n s i s t s of t w o l a r g e - s t a g e s , designed for r e a l i z a t i o n of the
a t h l e t e ' s CAR (figure 5 5 ) . T h e r e a r e two c o m p e t i t i o n stages in
the y e a r - c y c l e and o n e need not c o m p e t e a t the fundamental dis-
t a n c e in t h e first s t a g e . Here, it is i m p o r t a n t to m a i n t a i n the
t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of t r a i n i n g , in order to r e a l i z e
the C A R . O n e can a c h i e v e t h i s by c o m p e t i n g at other d i s t a n c e s in
competition; which will s i m u l t a n e o u s l y s e r v e a s control estimates
of the athlete's developmental level of a e r o b i c and anaerobic
productivity.
The model of the d y n a m i c s of the a t h l e t e ' s s t a t e p r o v i d e s a
t w o - p e a k e d t e n d e n c y for the c h a n g e s in a e r o b i c (Ae) and a n a e r o b i c
(An) productivity. The dynamics of the special-strength-pre-
paredness is e x p r e s s e d by the a c c e l e r a t e d i n c r e a s e of general-
strength-endruance (SE) and the special-endurance for repetitive
execution of explosive-force (EF), in the second competition
stage; as well as by the p l a n n e d rise in a b s o l u t e - s t r e n g t h (Po).
Explosive-strength (I) r e a c h e s m a x i m u m at the b e g i n n i n g of the
second competition stage; t h e n it d e c r e a s e s , in c o n n e c t i o n with
the r i s e in t h e v o l u m e of i n t e n s e cyclic w o r k . The fundamental,
functional indicators -- a n a e r o b i c p r o d u c t i v i t y and strength-
endurance reach their highest levels d u r i n g the most important
c o m p e t i t i o n s (X - XI m o n t h s ) .
 The o r g a n i z a t i o n of loading p r o v i d e s two s t r e n g t h "blocks";
executed simultaneously, along with special w o r k in a mixed
aerobic-anaerobic regime (MR). The ratio o f a e r o b i c t o a n a e r o b i c
work c h a n g e s d u r i n g t h e year c y c l e . T h e r e is a p r e d o m i n e n c e of
aerobic-loading in t h e first p r e p a r a t o r y s t a g e ; in the second
stage the work is c h i e f l y at the TANE level. There is an
increase in the v o l u m e of a e r o b i c loading once again in the
second competition stage; its role here is restoration work.
Speed-work (primarily in the a n a e r o b i c - a l a c t i c zone of energy-
acquisition — Al) and the perfectioning of speed-endurance
(chiefly in the a n a e r o b i c - g l y c o l y t i c zone of energy-acquisition
— Gl) a r e timed for t h e s t a g e w h e r e one r e a l i z e s the LLTE of the
strength-loading, i.e., the d e v e l o p m e n t of speed precedes the
perfectioning of speed-endurance.
So, the general s t r a t e g y of loading o r g a n i z a t i o n in the
year-cycle is b a s e d on the following s e q u e n c e of perfectioning
special-work-capacity: general endurance -- speed -- speed-
endurance; the orientation of the e n t i r e t r a i n i n g process is
towards the systematic development of strength and speed-
endurance during the stage where there are important competi-
tions.
The c o n t e n t s of the strength-training "blocks" is selected
by taking into a c c o u n t its c o n f o r m i t y to the specific work regime
o f the f u n d a m e n t a l sport e x e r c i s e (see 3 . 2 ) . T h e first "block"
emphasizes the d e v e l o p m e n t of e x p l o s i v e - s t r e n g t h and local muscu-
lar endurance; the second chiefly emphasizes local muscular
endurance.
4.3.3 A Model for G r o u p s of S p o r t s , Requiring Endurance
(Long Distances)
The m o d e l p r o v i d e s a u n i c y c l i c a l p e r i o d i z a t i o n of training
with one competition stage (figure 5 6 ) . Practice shows that
competition at long d i s t a n c e s r e q u i r e s a long (up to 6 months)
preparatory p e r i o d ; which is n e c e s s a r y for c r e a t i n g s t a b l e accom-
modative r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h i n the o r g a n i s m , s u f f i c i e n t for p r e -
serving the special-work-capacity for a p e r i o d of 4-5 months
during the c o m p e t i t i o n p e r i o d . T h e r e f o r e in the g i v e n c a s e , with

159
respect to the p r e d o m i n e n c e of low-intensity work (relative to
other groups of s p o r t s ) , the d a t e for the r e a l i z a t i o n of the
o r g a n i s m ' s CAR is m o v e d b a c k , w h i c h is taken into a c c o u n t in the
model.
T h e model has yet a n o t h e r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e . With uni-
cyclical periodization, s t a b l e sport r e s u l t s are a c h i e v e d in the
c o m p e t i t i o n p e r i o d if the rise in the loading during the p r e p a r a -
tory period occurs gradually (the mean-monthly increase is
between 7 - 1 4 % ) ; if d u r i n g the c o m p e t i t i o n p e r i o d , t h e r e is not a
sharp drop in the v o l u m e of loading, and i f , the portion of
loading executed w i t h i n the zone of anaerobic energy-acquisition
is not increased (V. B. Gilyazova, 1978). It has been esta-
blished that the natural and prolonged reduction of the v o l u m e of
loading during the c o m p e t i t i o n period (with unicyclical periodi-
zation of t r a i n i n g ) leads to the r e a d a p t a t i o n phenomenon, which
is reflected in the d r o p in n o n - s p e c i f i c , t r a i n a b i l i t y . Competi-
tion and special-assistance loading (with limited v o l u m e s ) cannot
stimulate further development and even m a i n t a i n special work-
capacity. With r e s p e c t to t h i s , it is a p p r o p r i a t e to p e r i o d i c -
ally raise the v o l u m e of competition and special-assistance
loading (V. A. B a r a n o v s k y , 1 9 6 9 ; V. N. K r y a z h , 1 9 6 9 ; V. P. M u z i s ,
1970; S. V. Zhikharevich, 1976).
Therefore, one f e a t u r e of the g i v e n model is that w i t h i n a
s i n g l e - c y c l e of p e r i o d i z a t i o n , it provides a t w o - s t a g e o r g a n i z a -
tion of s t r e n g t h and speed t r a i n i n g . A g a i n s t a b a c k g r o u n d of the
traditional d i s t r i b u t i o n of aerobic, m i x e d and a n a e r o b i c (chiefly
glycolytic) loading, two "blocks" of s p e c i a l - s t r e n g t h and speed
(chiefly anaerobic-alactic) t r a i n i n g are included. The first
"block" c o n t a i n s s t r e n g t h w o r k of a g e n e r a l - f o r m a t i v e emphasis;
the second block e m p h a s i z e s the d e v e l o p m e n t of local muscular
endurance. T h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n of loading p r o v i d e s for an increase
in s p e c i a l - w o r k - c a p a c i t y and the s t a b l e p r e s e r v a t i o n of it in the
competition period; right up to the important c o m p e t i t i o n s in the
X and XI m o n t h s .
The model of state d y n a m i c s , provides for a c h i e v e m e n t of
maximum aerobic p r o d u c t i v i t y at the b e g i n n i n g of the competition

L6C .
period, and some d e c r e a s e . T h e r e is a gradual rise in s p e c i a l -
strength-endurance {Se) and a b s o l u t e - s t r e n g t h (Po), up to the
stage of important competitions.
4.3.4 A Model for G r o u p s of Sports, with Tri-cyclical
Periodization of Training
The model is intended p r i m a r i l y for individual-game types of
sports and s i n g l e - c o m b a t s p o r t s (figure 5 7 ) . It includes three
large-stages, with p r e p a r a t o r y and c o m p e t i t i o n m i c r o - s t a g e s . The
first stage is oriented chiefly towards special-physical-prepara-
tion; the second — to p e r f e c t i o n i n g technical m a s t e r y ; the third
— to r e a d i n e s s for the fundamental competitions. Depending on
the competition c a l e n d a r and the p e c u l i a r i t i e s of the training
objectives in the y e a r - c y c l e , the length of the third stage can
be increased by s h o r t e n i n g t h e duration of the second s t a g e . In
certain cases a t w o - c y c l e model of training c o n s t r u c t i o n can be
employed w i t h t h i s g r o u p of sports.
The model of the sportsman's state d y n a m i c s p r o v i d e s for the
achievement of maximum aerobic productivity (Ae) in the second
stage, then some d e c r e a s e . Absolute-strength (Po) rises uniform-
ly; strength-endurance (SE) a c c e l e r a t e s more at the end of the
third stage. Explosive-strength (I) reaches m a x i m u m at the
beginning of the second and at the end of the third stages.
The loading i n c l u d e s three strength "blocks". The objec-
tives of the first a r e to develop absolute and explosive-
strength; the second -- s t r e n g t h - e n d u r a n c e ; the third -- chiefly
explosive-strength and to c r e a t e c o n d i t i o n s for utilization of
the LLTE of the s t r e n g t h - l o a d i n g d u r i n g the fundamental competi-
tions s t a g e .
The first and third "blocks" of strength work a r e executed
in combination with special work within the mixed (aerobic-
anaerobic) zone of energy-acquisition (Mi); the second — with
work in the a n a e r o b i c (chiefly a l a c t a t e - a n a e r o b i c and a n a e r o b i c -
glycolytic) zone of energy-acquisition (An). T h e fundamental
volume of speed (Sp) and t e c h n i c a l - t a c t i c a l (T) preparation is
executed against a b a c k g r o u n d of the r e a l i z a t i o n of the LLTE
"blocks" of the s t r e n g t h w o r k .

161.
 4.3.5 Practical Use of the Principal M o d e l s of T r a i n i n g
Construction
Concrete, quantitative models of training (group or
individual) are drawn-up based on t h e principal models. An
e x a m p l e of such a model for the long jump is p r e s e n t e d in figure
58; it w a s based on a p r i n c i p a l model (see figure 54) and takes
into account the s p e c i f i c s of the competition calendar. The
model includes: a plan of the d y n a m i c s of sport results at the
winter (A) and summer (B) competition stages, r e l a t i v e to the
corresponding level of the preceding season; the o p t i m a l tendency
in the d y n a m i c s of the s p o r t s m a n ' s state (based on the c o m p e t i -
tion calendar) and the m o n t h l y d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e fundamental
training means.

The model of the d y n a m i c s of the s p o r t s m a n ' s state includes

indicators of a b s o l u t e (Po) and e x p l o s i v e (I) strength of the
m u s c l e s e x t e n d i n g the legs, assessed i n s t r u m e n t a l l y ; as well as
control exercises a d e q u a t e l y assessing the c h a n g e s in the s p e e d -
strength p r e p a r e d n e s s of jumpers (triple and five standing-long-
jumps). T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of loading is o r i e n t e d t o w a r d s r e a l i z a -
tion of the model o b j e c t i v e s of the d y n a m i c s of the sportsman's
state; creating favorable conditions for p e r f e c t i o n i n g technical
mastery and the a c h i e v e m e n t of the p l a n n e d sport r e s u l t s on the
date of an important c o m p e t i t i o n . T h e means of p r e p a r a t i o n are
combined in the following g r o u p s — long jump (including long
jumps w i t h a full r u n - u p a p p r o a c h ) , special jumping exercises,
barbell exercises, running through a full run-up approach
(including the d e s i g n a t e d t a k e - o f f s ) , sprinting and repetition
running of m o d e r a t e intensity.
The y e a r - c y c l e c o n s i s t s of two large-stages (October-Febru-
ary and M a r c h - A u g u s t ) . Each of them includes two micro-stages
with "blocks" on c o n c e n t r a t e d v o l u m e s of strength-loading (Octo-
ber-December and M a r c h - A p r i l ) . The a c h i e v e m e n t of the highest
level of s p e c i a l - s t r e n g t h - p r e p a r e d n e s s and sport results is timed
for the end of F e b r u a r y (the first competition s t a g e ) and for
July-August (the second competition stage).

163.
 Data o n groups of qualified (Class 1, CMS, MS) jumpers
(triple jump) is p r e s e n t e d in f i g u r e 5 9 . The percentage distri-
bution by m o n t h s (from the general v o l u m e of the y e a r ) of the
fundamental g r o u p s o f special p r e p a r a t i o n m e a n s (1-triple jump,
2- m e a n s of special-strength-training, 3- general and special
jumping e x e r c i s e s ) and the d y n a m i c s of the loading (the r e c t a n -
gular graph) are shown. The s c a l e on the left of the ordinate
a x i s r e f e r s t o the partial v o l u m e s ; the s c a l e t o its right r e f e r s
to the total m o n t h l y v o l u m e of loading. The special-strength
work was c o n c e n t r a t e d in two "blocks" (November-December and
March-April) a g a i n s t a b a c k g r o u n d of w h i c h the L L T E was realized
b y e x t e n s i v e t e c h n i q u e w o r k and pre-competition preparation. The
m a g n i t u d e of the y e a r ' s v o l u m e changed as a result of the i n d i v i -
dual d i f f e r e n c e s in the j u m p e r s ; however, the m o n t h l y d i s t r i b u -
tion w a s the same for all groups.
The actual, i n d i v i d u a l d y n a m i c s o f the a t h l e t e s ' state were
r e p r e s e n t e d by the (I) index (explosive-strength); including the
mean of four indicators (extension of the thigh and plantar
flexion of both legs). The testing was done once, and in
separate stages -- t w i c e a m o n t h . The dynamics of the four
jumpers' sport r e s u l t s in the c o m p e t i t i o n s t a g e conformed to the
d y n a m i c s of e x p l o s i v e - s t r e n g t h . T h e r e w a s no c o n f o r m i t y for two
of the jumpers, d u e to e r r o r s in t e c h n i q u e .
The example presented should focus attention on two circum-
stances: the sharp u n i d i r e c t i o n a l c h a n g e s in the explosive-
strength of all the jumpers and its c o n f o r m i t y w i t h the model of
t h e d y n a m i c s o f s t a t e w o r k e d - u p for them (see f i g u r e 5 8 ) ; and t o
the c l e a r d i s p l a y of the L L T E of the s t r e n g t h "blocks", especi-
ally the d u r a t i o n of t h e L L T E in the second competition stage
(June-August), w h e n t h i s o c c u r e d a g a i n s t a b a c k g r o u n d of a r e l a -
tively l o w v o l u m e of special strength-training.
The m e a n - g r o u p d a t a of eight highly-qualified sprinters is
presented in figure 6 0 ; the training program of which was worked-
out according t o the p r e v i o u s l y f o r m u l a t e d primary aims, the
model of t h e d y n a m i c s of t h e s p o r t s m a n ' s s t a t e and the specific
p e c u l i a r i t i e s of the loading o r g a n i z a t i o n for t y p e s of sport w i t h
a cyclic s t r u c t u r e of m o v e m e n t . The model of t h e d y n a m i c s of
state is based on the c o m p e t i t i o n c a l e n d a r and includes the
absolute (Po), explosive (I), and starting (Q) strength
indicators, and the r e s u l t s of ten s t a n d i n g long-jumps.
T h e p r o g r a m of loading provides two " b l o c k s " of S P P (Novem-
b e r - D e c e m b e r and M a r c h - A p r i l ) . Resistance exercises, including
barbell m o v e m e n t s ( 1 ) , m a k e u p the fundamental c o n t e n t s ; special-
ized jumping e x e r c i s e s (2), e x e c u t e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h running
in the a e r o b i c ( 6 ) , m i x e d (5) and partial g l y c o l y t i c (4) zones of
energy-acquisition were also included. Speed w o r k (3) is done
primarily a g a i n s t a b a c k g r o u n d of the r e a l i z a t i o n of the LLTE of
specialized-strength-loading.
This organization of loading provided r e a l i z a t i o n of the
model o b j e c t i v e s of the d y n a m i c s of the s p o r t s m a n ' s s t a t e and the
achievement of h i g h m a x i m u m running speed (Vmax); as well as
running 30 M with a low start during the period of important
competitions. The m e a n - g r o u p i m p r o v e m e n t in 100 M results was
0.16 seconds, in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h the p r e c e d i n g y e a r .
It is i n t e r e s t i n g to note that the g e n e r a l - y e a r volume of
loading was c h a n g e d d u r i n g the c o u r s e of training, with respect
to all of the t r a i n i n g m e a n s , r e l a t i v e to the planned. The
v o l u m e of strength-loading, in p a r t i c u l a r , was increased by 7%,
and the volume of running in the various zones of energy-
acquisition was reduced 16-25%. T h i s was d u e t o the constant
control and c o r r e c t i o n of the t r a i n i n g p r o c e s s ; as a result of
which the d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n the actual and t h e o b j e c t i v e s of
model of the d y n a m i c s of the s p o r t s m a n ' s s t a t e and the speed-
s t r e n g t h i n d i c a t o r s did not exceed 5% in the c o m p e t i t i o n s t a g e .
So, the material presented is indicative of the high
practical e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the a l r e a d y formulated principal aims
of p r o g r a m m i n g t r a i n i n g and the d r a w i n g - u p of principal m o d e l s of
t r a i n i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n in the y e a r - c y c l e . The a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s of
the m o d e l s of the d y n a m i c s of the s p o r t s m a n ' s state in the year-
c y c l e and their practical use through p r o g r a m m i n g of t r a i n i n g has
been corroborated.

L66.
 By way of c o n c l u s i o n , let's look at some partial but impor-
tant questions, associated w i t h the t e c h n i q u e of programming
training.
When programming training in the y e a r - c y c l e one should turn
attention first and foremost (from amongst the o t h e r factors and
conditions) to the c o m p e t i t i o n calendar and the adaptational
regularities of the o r g a n i s m to intense muscular work. These
factors can be in o p p o s i t i o n ; usually b e c a u s e of the competition
calendar. For example, the dates of the m a i n c o m p e t i t i o n s may
change s i g n i f i c a n t l y , w h i l e t h e d a t e s of traditional competitions
remain the s a m e . In a w o r s e s i t u a t i o n , the c o m p e t i t i o n season
can be e x t e n d e d and the length of the preparatory stages shorten-
end; which complicates significantly, the p r o g r a m m i n g and o r g a n i -
zation of training.
Under similar circumstances o n e should find the optimal
method, being g u i d e d b y t h e following p r i n c i p l e s .
1. O r g a n i z a t i o n of training should provide favorable condi-
tions for t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of the a d a p t a t i o n a l r e g u l a r i t i e s of the
organism, w h i l e taking into account t h e actual c o m p e t i t i o n calen-
dar. The c a l e n d a r should be c o - o r d i n a t e d w i t h the periods and
duration of t h e large t r a i n i n g s t a g e s . The contents of these
stages a r e d e t e r m i n e d so as to r e a l i z e the CAR of the o r g a n i s m .
2. It has a l r e a d y b e e n m e n t i o n e d that the o p t i m a l CAR r e a l -
ization period (about 20 w e e k s ) is t h e m e a n - s t a t i s t i c a l figure,
w i t h respect to t h e o p t i m a l loading of h i g h l y - q u a l i f i e d a t h l e t e s .
However, the CAR r e a l i z a t i o n period can be increased or reduced
w i t h i n an i n s i g n i f i c a n t range; this r e q u i r e s an a p p r o p r i a t e in-
crease or decrease in the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of loading. It is
important in this c a s e not to exceed the optimal time limit,
since e x c e s s i v e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of training can d i s r u p t adapta-
tion. Shorter l a r g e - s t a g e s , w h i c h have their p l a c e , for example
in t r i - c y c l i c a l p e r i o d i z a t i o n (see figure 5 7 ) , should not shift
the objective of the full r e a l i z a t i o n of the o r g a n i s m ' s CAR to
the next stage.
3. To d e t e r m i n e the b o u n d a r i e s of t h e large-stages, one
should be guided only by the dates of the main c o m p e t i t i o n s , for

167.
w h i c h the a t h l e t e is p r e p a r i n g all y e a r . This rule should not be
broken (including the d e s i r e to d e m o n s t r a t e high r e s u l t s at the
b e g i n n i n g of the s e a s o n ) for any reason.
4. There is some d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the c o n t e n t s of the two
l a r g e - s t a g e s in t h e y e a r - c y c l e . T h e loading of the preparatory
micro-stage is m o r e s p e c i a l i z e d and intense in the second stage,
than the first. Therefore, the first large-stage should always
be c o n s i d e r e d t h e fundamental base for the s e c o n d . T h e interests
of intermediate competitions should not a l t e r this o b j e c t i v e .
5. When p l a n n i n g the y e a r - c y c l e o n e should be a w a r e of the
negative affect that c o m p e t i t i o n loading (associated w i t h the
s i g n i f i c a n t e x h a u s t i o n of nervous energy) has on t h e s p o r t s m a n ' s
state. T h e r e f o r e , d u r i n g the switch to the next l a r g e - s t a g e , it
is n e c e s s a r y to s t i p u l a t e a r e h a b i l i t a t i o n a l pause, the duration
of w h i c h is d e t e r m i n e d individually, d e p e n d i n g on the difficulty
of the competition stage.
4.4 Logical S e q u e n c e for Programming T r a i n i n g in the Y e a r -
Cycle
The t e c h n o l o g y of programming training is a complex proce-
dure involving a sufficiently large number of d e t e r m i n a t i o n s , its
complexity, however, consists not so much of the quantity of
determinations, as in the i n s u f f i c i e n t basis for choosing the
main logical operations and selecting the d e t e r m i n a t i o n for e a c h
of them. T h e r e f o r e in p r a c t i c e , e v e n e x p e r i e n c e d c o a c h e s need to
m a k e an u n c e r t a i n d e t e r m i n a t i o n , with a low p r o b a b i l i t y of a cor-
rect prognosis.
By taking into c o n s i d e r a t i o n the m a t e r i a l of the preceding
chapters, it is p o s s i b l e to r e g u l a t e the m a k i n g of a determina-
tion w h e n p r o g r a m m i n g - t r a i n i n g ; to recommend a d e f i n i t e s e q u e n c e
necessary for this logical o p e r a t i o n and at the same time to show
an o b j e c t i v e basis for m a k i n g the d e t e r m i n a t i o n . So, when faced
with the task of p r o g r a m m i n g t r a i n i n g , it is appropriate to
adhere to the following s e q u e n c e of logical operations (each
determination is m a d e by t a k i n g into a c c o u n t the determination
made in the preceding o p e r a t i o n ) .

168.
 1. D e t e r m i n i n g the Increase in Sport R e s u l t s and the Date
of A c h i e v e m e n t . T h i s is the p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e of t r a i n i n g ; the
concrete requirements of programming conditioning the n e c e s s a r y ,
q u a n t i t a t i v e p a r a m e t e r s of the t r a i n i n g c o n t e n t s . Here, a multi-
sided objective assessment of the sportsman's potential and the
competition c a l e n d a r a r e the b a s i s for m a k i n g t h e determination.
One takes into consideration the athlete's preparation in the
preceding t r a i n i n g s t a g e s and t h o s e d i s p l a c e m e n t s , at his level
of mastery, w h i c h can a c t u a l l y o c c u r i n t h e c u r r e n t year. The
determination is expressed by a prognostical model of the
dynamics of the sport r e s u l t s , r e l a t i v e to the c o m p e t i t i o n c a l e n -
dar .
2. Determination of the D i s p l a c e m e n t s in Special Physical
P r e p a r e d n e s s and the T e c h n i c a l - T a c t i c a l M a s t e r y of the Athlete: is
n e c e s s a r y for e n s u r i n g t h e t a r g e t - i n c r e a s e in sport r e s u l t s . The
determination is based on an objective assessment of the
sportsman's special preparedness, analysis of the rate of
improvement in functional c a p a b i l i t i e s in the p r e c e d i n g stages
and identification of those capabilities which need to be
enhanced. The d e t e r m i n a t i o n is e x p r e s s e d by the c o n c r e t e tar-
gets, r e l a t i v e t o t h e functional indicators and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of technical m a s t e r y , w h i c h need to be achieved at t h e instant of
performance in important competitions.
3. Quantitative Models of the D y n a m i c s of the Sportsman's
S t a t e in the Y e a r - C y c l e . The competition calendar, the level of
s p e c i a l - p h y s i c a l - p r e p a r e d n e s s and the d a t e s of the main c o m p e t i -
t i o n a r e the b a s i s for m a k i n g the d e t e r m i n a t i o n . The determina-
tion is reflected in the g r a p h i c t e n d e n c i e s of t h e dynamics of
essential, functional indicators; such that t h e s e i n d i c a t o r s a r e
at their p e a k at t h e instant of the m a i n c o m p e t i t i o n .
4. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of the C o m p o s i t i o n of the M e a n s and M e t h -
ods: is the mode of s t i p u l a t i n g the required increase in
special-physical-preparedness and technical-tactical mastery.
The determination is m a d e based on the a s s e s s m e n t of the t r a i n i n g
potential of the m e a n s and m e t h o d s , as w e l l as the desired
increase in s p e c i a 1 - p h y s i c a 1 - p r e p a r e d n e s s .

169.
 5. Determination of the General V o l u m e of Loading, with
Respect to all of t h e T r a i n i n g M e a n s , is n e c e s s a r y for selecting
the o b j e c t i v e s , a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the p h y s i c a l , technical-tactical
and c o m p e t i t i o n p r e p a r a t i o n of a t h l e t e s . The actual assimilation
of the loading in t h e p r e c e d i n g s t a g e s and the c o n j e c t u r a l forms
of loading o r g a n i z a t i o n , of d i f f e r e n t p r i m a r y e m p h a s i s , is the
basis for making a determination. The concrete volume of
loading, r e l a t i v e t o the fundamental groups of m e a n s , character-
ize the d e t e r m i n a t i o n .
6. The D i v i s i o n of the Y e a r - C y c l e into L a r g e Stages, is
d e t e r m i n e d by the s t r u c t u r e and s t r a t e g i c o b j e c t i v e s of the p e r i -
o d i z a t i o n of training. T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n is m a d e by taking into
a c c o u n t the c o m p e t i t i o n c a l e n d a r and the optimal d a t e s , necessary
for complete r e a l i z a t i o n of the o r g a n i s m ' s C A R .
7. The D i s t r i b u t i o n of Loading in t h e Y e a r - C y c l e , is in
c o n f o r m i t y w i t h all of the m e a n s securing t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of the
target d y n a m i c s of the s p o r t s m a n ' s s t a t e . T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n is
based on careful a n a l y s i s of the preceding training stages,
principal m o d e l s of t r a i n i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n , for the specific type
of sport, and the p r i n c i p a l o b j e c t i v e s of p r o g r a m m i n g training.
The determination is e x p r e s s e d by the q u a n t i t a t i v e d y n a m i c s of
the loading, r e l a t i v e to the fundamental m e a n s of t r a i n i n g in the
year-cycle.
8. Specifying the O r g a n i z a t i o n of T r a i n i n g Loads in the
Large-Stages of Preparation. T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n is based on the
p r i n c i p l e s of large-stage construction, the p e c u l i a r i t i e s of the
LLTE of c o n c e n t r a t e d s t r e n g t h - l o a d i n g and the forms of the o r g a -
nization of loading of d i f f e r e n t primary e m p h a s i s . The deter-
mination is expressed by a d e t a i l e d t r a i n i n g program with a
s p e c i f i c d i s t r i b u t i o n of loading in all of the m i c r o - c y c l e s , pre-
ceding the large stage.
4.5 Managing the C o u r s e of T r a i n i n g
Material w h i c h has been presented (see 4 . 3 , figures 59 and
60) clearly characterizes the objectives and technique of
managing training. Management is the control o v e r the c o u r s e of
t r a i n i n g and its s t i p u l a t i o n (if n e c e s s a r y ) , in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h

170.
its effectiveness. Management is based on a c o m p a r i s o n of the
real d y n a m i c s of t r a i n i n g from p r e v i o u s t a r g e t s t a n d a r d s . Sport
results and the i n d i c a t o r s w h i c h r e f l e c t the c h a n g e s in technical
mastery, the s p o r t s m a n ' s s t a t e under t h e influence of training
and c o m p e t i t i o n loading, c a n s e r v e a s the p r e v i o u s t a r g e t stand-
ards. One c o r r e c t s the c o u r s e of t r a i n i n g by a l t e r a t i o n of the'
appropriate parameters of the loading.
So, the technique of managing training is extraordinarily
simple and o b v i o u s . It is still b e i n g d e v e l o p e d . In our time
management of training is d i s t i n g u i s h e d from its p r o t o t y p e only
by more o b j e c t i v e w a y s of a s s e s s i n g the a t h l e t e ' s special pre-
paredness .
For e x a m p l e , two individual c a s e s of t r a i n i n g m a n a g e m e n t are
cited in f i g u r e 6 1 ; t h e y a r e based on a c o m p a r i s o n of the actual
d y n a m i c s of explosive-strength (I) i n d i c a t o r s from an e a r l i e r
model.
The training program (for the T r i p l e J u m p , I) was well c o n -
structed and did not require correction. The actuall explosive-
strength of the leaping m u s c l e s e v e n exceeded t h e standard of the
second c o m p e t i t i o n s t a g e (May-August); and in J u l y , the a t h l e t e
executed the n o r m for m a s t e r of s p o r t . The sportwoman's (Long
Jump, II) p r o g r a m w a s n o t well constructed. Her v o l u m e o f load-
ing in the first s t r e n g t h " b l o c k " (October-December) proved to be
insufficient and included an excessive portion of strength
"proper" exercises. Therefore, in o r d e r to reach the target
explosive-strength dynamics, corrections i n the training were
made in January by increasing the portion of intense speed-
strength means. T h e q u a n t i t y o f d e p t h - j u m p s w e r e increased in
the second "block" of strength-loading (March-April). As a
result, the explosive-strength indicators were successfully
"pulled u p " t o the model; however, technique suffered. The
sportswoman's results at the w i n t e r c o m p e t i t i o n s w e r e low b e c a u s e
of the loss of t e c h n i q u e . T h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of the second
"block" of s t r e n g t h - t r a i n i n g raised e x p l o s i v e - s t r e n g t h slightly
a b o v e the m o d e l s ; however, i t w a s not s t a b l e . T h e sport r e s u l t s
w e r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d by stability in the second c o m p e t i t i o n s t a g e .

171 .
 Figure 6 1 . M a n a g e m e n t of training a c c o r d i n g to a model
of the a t h l e t e ' s state

but on the w h o l e , were successful. In July the s p o r t s w o m a n e x e -

cuted the norm for C M S (candidate for Master of S p o r t , Ed.).
So, the t e c h n i q u e of m a n a g i n g training i n v o l v e s assessment
and control of the s p o r t s m a n ' s s t a t e , careful c a l c u l a t i o n of the
loading executed and a n a l y s i s of the interdependencies between
them. Therefore, it is n e c e s s a r y to be g u i d e d by the following
principles.

1. First of all o n e should select the most e s s e n t i a l and

informative characteristics in order to objectively assess
s p e c i a l - p h y s i c a l and t e c h n i c a l - p r e p a r e d n e s s ; as well as the state
of t h e s p o r t s m a n ' s "psychic s p h e r e s " . T h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can
be o b t a i n e d by e m p l o y i n g special instrumental methods or control
exercises (pedagogical tests). O n e should seek all p o s s i b l e ways
of obtaining such characteristics, to be found in the special
1iterature.

172.
 2. Control o v e r t h e c o u r s e of t r a i n i n g can o n l y be e f f e c -
tive if one c a r r i e s - o u t r e g u l a r o b s e r v a t i o n s of the d y n a m i c s of
the s p o r t s m a n ' s s t a t e . When doing this: a) testing should be
done with a s t r i c t p e r i o d i c i t y of 1-2 times per m o n t h , indepen-
dent of the p e r i o d i z a t i o n and s t r u c t u r e of t h e t r a i n i n g stages;
b) the testing p r o c e d u r e should not be e x c e s s i v e , burdonsome or
require m u c h time and e n e r g y from the a t h l e t e ; c) it is n e c e s s a r y
to keep t h e t e s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s c o n s t a n t , to exclude the possi-
bility o f chance factors affecting the results.
3. Management requires a systematic (within a m o n t h l y p e r i -
odicity) c o m p a r i s o n of the real and target c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the
training. If t h e r e is a d i s c r e p e n c y , it is n e c e s s a r y to care-
fully analyze the situation, d e t e r m i n e the c a u s e for such a
d i s c r e p e n c y and m a k e a d e t e r m i n a t i o n to c o r r e c t the t r a i n i n g p r o -
gram.
One should consider yet another important circumstance
associated w i t h t h e t e c h n i q u e o f m a n a g i n g t r a i n i n g . First, this
is an e x c e p t i o n a l l y s i m p l e thing and therefore it's astonishing
that c o a c h e s h a v e n o t t a k e n it s e r i o u s l y , up till n o w . Second,
this is o n l y o n e , p u r e l y u t i l i t a r i a n a s p e c t of a coach's job.
However, e m p l o y i n g of t h e simplest t e c h n i q u e s of m a n a g e m e n t is a
source o f u n i q u e m a t e r i a l , t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f w h i c h can m a k e a n
invaluable contribution to further extending the theories and
methods of training; and, in particular, the p r o b l e m o f p r o g r a m -
ming. If the coach accepts this, he has taken the first step
toward essentially augmenting his methodical e x p e r i e n c e and p r o -
fessional erudition; raises his labor to the level of creative
activity; and then — to a scientific-practical experiment.
The coach's planning, c a l c u l a t i o n and d o c u m e n t a t i o n i s ex-
traordinarily important for programming training. Unfortunately
a totally u n p e r m i s s i b l e , scornful a t t i t u d e has d e v e l o p e d , in both
theory and p r a c t i c e , towards documentation. However, documenta-
tion is not s i m p l y an a u x i l i a r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , i n d i c a t i v e of the
coach's efficiency, but an important a t t r i b u t e o f his profes-
sional mastery; upon which the success of his students'
preparation is primarily dependent.

173.
 Planning documentation is, first of a l l , a f o r m a l i z a t i o n of
the ideas upon w h i c h the s t r a t e g i e s of the s p o r t s m a n ' s prepara-
t i o n are b a s e d , an ideal r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e f o r t h c o m i n g train-
ing, requiring a quite specific, s i m p l e r e s p o n s e to the infinite
n u m b e r of q u e s t i o n s of b o t h a principal and partial n a t u r e . The
w o r k e d - o u t p l a n of the d o c u m e n t a t i o n is a s t i m u l u s to the coach's
logic, m o b i l i z a t i o n o f his c r e a t i v e p o s s i b i l i t i e s ; and finally,
a way of s u p p l y i n g insufficient knowledge, n e c e s s a r y first of all
for prognosis, adduced as an o u t c o m e of a c e r t a i n variant of
training construction.
The accounting documentation, r e f l e c t i n g the actual para-
m e t e r s of t r a i n i n g and acting as an o b j e c t i v e b a s i s for assessing
its s i g n i f i c a n c e , is of no less s i g n i f i c a n c e .
The form of the d o c u m e n t a t i o n p l a y s a s i g n i f i c a n t role in
r a i s i n g the informativeness, the practical s i g n i f i c a n c e and is of
scientific-methodical v a l u e for the c o a c h . The form should p r o -
v i d e c l e a r and a c c e s s i b l e c o n t e n t s for its m a t e r i a l ; and chiefly,
this material should r e f l e c t the principal s t r a t e g i c features of
training construction. T h e f o l l o w i n g basic forms o f d o c u m e n t a -
tion for p r o g r a m m i n g and control of t r a i n i n g can be recommended.
1. A Principal Model of the S y s t e m of Training Construction
in the Year-Cycle. T h e model should clearly and laconically
reflect the g e n e r a l s t r a t e g y and t h e principal organization of
the t r a i n i n g . Therefore, it should be c o n s t r u c t e d in a g r a p h i c
form; for example, like that p r e s e n t e d in figures 5 4 - 5 7 . The
principal model is a good school for t h e coach's professional
thinking. At the same t i m e the g r a p h i c form of the model of
training construction is e x p r e s s i v e and m a k e s it easy for the
coach t o c o n v e y his i d e a s t o the p u p i l s . The extent to which
t h e y u n d e r s t a n d his i d e a s , will for the most p a r t , d e t e r m i n e the
s u c c e s s of t h e t r a i n i n g .
2. A Q u a n t i t a t i v e Model of t h e T r a i n i n g C o n s t r u c t i o n S y s t e m
(group or individual). It is w o r k e d - o u t on the basis of the
principal model and i n c l u d e s a q u a n t i t a t i v e model of the d y n a m i c s
of the m o s t essential i n d i c a t o r s of s p e c i a l - p h y s i c a l and t e c h n i -
cal-preparedness; taking into a c c o u n t the c o m p e t i t i o n calendar.
It stipulates the g e n e r a l y e a r - v o l u m e of loading in all of the
t r a i n i n g m e a n s and its d i s t r i b u t i o n b y m o n t h s ; oriented towards
realization of the t a r g e t - m o d e l d y a n m i c s of s p e c i a l - p r e p a r e d n e s s .
The y e a r - c y c l e of training for q u a l i f i e d a t h l e t e s (long jumping,
see f i g u r e 58) c a n s e r v e as an e x a m p l e of the aforementioned
model of training construction.
3. A p r o g r a m for the l a r g e - s t a g e of p r e p a r a t i o n is worked-
out w i t h a w e e k l y p e r i o d i c i t y in the o r g a n i z a t i o n of the loading.
The stipulated, concrete distribution of m e a n s of different
primary emphasis (according t o m i c r o - c y c l e s ) , t a k e s i n t o account
the o b j e c t i v e s of t h e l a r g e - s t a g e and the individual peculiari-
ties of the a t h l e t e ' s p r e p a r a t i o n . T h e s e are the fundamental
working documents, in accordance with which, the coach o r g a n i z e s
and c o n t r o l s the t r a i n i n g .
4. The sportsman's individualized chart includes the
d y n a m i c s of the t r a i n i n g load a c t u a l l y e x e c u t e d , w i t h respect to
the fundamental m e a n s , as well as the corresponding alterations
in the c o n t r o l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; r e f l e c t i n g the d y n a m i c s of the
s p o r t s m a n ' s s t a t e and his sport r e s u l t s . T h e e x a m p l e s in f i g u r e s
59 and 60 i l l u s t r a t e s the c o n t e n t s and form of such a c h a r t . The
composition of t h e c h a r t is an i m p o r t a n t c o n d i t i o n for the con-
trol and m a n a g e m e n t of t r a i n i n g , and c h i e f l y , for the subsequent
a n a l y s i s of its e f f e c t i v e n e s s and c o n c l u s i o n s as to what f o l l o w s .

CONCLUSION

Programming is a n e w and better form of planning training.

The necessity for p r o g r a m m i n g is an o u t g r o w t h of today's require-
ments; its potential for c u l t i v a t i o n has b e e n m a d e p o s s i b l e by
the e n t i r e c o u r s e of t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of s c i e n c e and the practice
of sport. However, o n l y t h e first s t e p has been taken in t h i s
direction. We h o p e that it s e r v e s a p r a c t i c a l p r u p o s e , and at
the same time, p o i n t s s p e c i a l i s t s in the d i r e c t i o n of further
scientific search.
C o n s i d e r i n g t h e n o v e l t y of the p r o b l e m , it is n a t u r a l , that
far from all of the q u e s t i o n s (even the limited o n e s s t i p u l a t e d )
will receive exhaustive elucidation. Those directions of
scientific search, in w h i c h o n e should seek the a n s w e r s to these
questions, h a v e been a s c e r t a i n e d . With respect to t h i s the most
p r o s p e c t i v e a r e a s are the study of the r e g u l a r i t i e s of long-term
and the o r g a n i s m ' s so-called c o m p e n s a t o r y a d a p t a t i o n to intense
muscular work; and o b s e r v a t i o n of the principal t e n d e n c i e s in the
dynamics of the sportsman's state during prolonged training
stages, d e p e n d i n g on the a s s i g n e d loading (its c o n t e n t s , volume
and organization).
It's obvious that f u r t h e r search in t h e s e directions is
impossible without a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of sport physiologists
and b i o c h e m i s t s . It is n e c e s s a r y for them to o v e r c o m e the tradi-
tional narrow-minded d e s c r i p t i v e and e x p l a n a t o r y functions by
which they have been guided up till now; to see the training
process in all of the c o m p l e x i t y of its c o n t e n t s and organiza-
tion, and to u n d e r s t a n d its role in solving the p r o b l e m s emana-
ting from this. It is very important to point o u t that it is
i m p o s s i b l e to s o l v e t h e s e p r o b l e m s by o b s e r v a t i o n of only physio-
logical and b i o c h e m i c a l mechanisms. It is i m p o s s i b l e to separ-
ate, as is c u s t o m a r y , t h e i n d u s t r i o u s motor a p p a r a t u s from the
mechanisms and s o u r c e of energy-acquisition for muscular work;
and to e x a m i n e them "in g e n e r a l " , o u t s i d e of their inter-condi-
tional functional perfectioning; under s p e c i f i c conditions of
systematic specialized training. T h e p i t f a l l s of such a separa-
tion b e c o m e a p p a r e n t w h e n o n e a t t e m p t s to extract some practical
recommendations, even from i n t e r e s t i n g e x p e r i m e n t a l material.
Further elaboration of the p r o g r a m m i n g q u e s t i o n should be
c a r r i e d - o u t by taking into a c c o u n t its general pedagogical prin-
c i p l e s , and based on a special e x p e r i m e n t a l s e a r c h . It is impor-
tant to p o i n t - o u t w i t h r e s p e c t to t h i s , that it is u n a c c e p t a b l e
to u n d e r s t a n d p r o g r a m m i n g as the following of some instructions,
p r e s c r i b i n g a rigid order in the o r g a n i z a t i o n of t r a i n i n g . Fur-
thermore it's a l s o s e n s e l e s s to v i e w it as the c r e a t i o n of an
a l g o r h y t h m for c h e s s . P r o g r a m m i n g in sport is an a r t , w h i c h is
based on s p e c i f i c p r i n c i p l e s , a l l o w i n g the coach c r e a t i v e i n i t i -
atives in making the final d e c i s i o n s .

1 76.
 In t h i s b o o k such p r i n c i p l e s are most clearly e x p r e s s e d by
the m o d e l s of t r a i n i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n in the y e a r - c y c l e . However,
practical utilization of these principles for programming
requires further e l a b o r a t i o n of n u m e r o u s -partial** methodical
questions. The latter c o n c e r n s the o r d e r i n g of loading in the
large t r a i n i n g s t a g e s and their c o m p o s i t i o n i n the m i c r o - c y c l e s ;
as well as rational w a y s of c o m b i n i n g t h e contents of these
micro-cycles into a s y s t e m , t a k i n g into a c c o u n t the s p e c i f i c type
of sport, the assigned loading, the period of training, the
a t h l e t e ' s q u a l i f i c a t i o n and his individual peculiarities.
It is the c o a c h ' s role to s o l v e such q u e s t i o n s . His p e d a g o -
gical mastery and m e t h o d i c a l experience should, in this case,
have t h e d e c i s i v e voicei but o n l y if he has sufficient k n o w l e d g e
of sport physiology. This is important for the practical
utilization and t h e f u r t h e r p e r f e c t i o n i n g of the principles of
programming training formulated in the book and for the very same
coach's professional preparation.

177.