Solution-3676 Environmental Pollution No Assignment 1

Department of Home & Health Sciences
Block No. 06, Sector H-8,

Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad.
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (3676)

Assignment No. 01
Submitted to:
Husnain Afzal Sab
Office of RE WAPDA
Room No. 30, Block - C
Old Naval HQ, Sector G-6 Markaz,
ISLAMABAD, (0300-6732334)
Email: husnainafzal@ymail.com
Submitted by:
Muhammad Hammad Manzoor
2nd Semester, Roll No. BN-523998
M. Sc Sustainable Environmental Design
OGIL, # 514, 5th Floor, Continental Trade Centre (CTC)
Block – 08, Clifton, KARACHI
Explorationist@gmail.com / (0332-527 2364)
Environmental Pollution (3676)
Q. No. 1: What are the different types of environmental pollutants? Explain the
phenomenon of environmental mobility of pollutants. (15 Marks)
Answer)
What are different types of Environmental Pollutants?
Environmental pollution is definitely a serious threat for the entire world in this age of
development and industrialization. The pollution levels in developed cities are rising at an
alarming pace. Environmental protection is the need of the hour, and countries across the
world are working on developing technologies, and imposing certain restrictions to reduce
or control this grave problem.
The following are the types of pollution perceived in our environment:
Air Pollution
According to the dictionary, air pollution is the contamination of air by smoke and harmful
gases, mainly oxides of carbon, sulfur, and nitrogen. Some examples of air pollution
include:
• Exhaust fumes from vehicles

• The burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, or gas
• Harmful off-gasing from things such as paint, plastic production, and so on
• Radiation spills or nuclear accidents
Air pollution is linked to asthma, allergies and other respiratory illnesses.
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By: M. Hammad Manzoor, M.Sc Sus. Env. Design, 514, 5th Floor, Continental Trade Centre (CTC), Clifton – 08, Karachi. (Roll No. BN-523998)
Land Pollution
Land pollution is the degradation of the Earth's surface caused by a misuse of resources
and improper disposal of waste. Some examples of land pollution include:
• Litter found on the side of the road

• Illegal dumping in natural habitats
• Oil spills that happen inland
• The use of pesticides and other farming chemicals
• Damage and debris caused from unsustainable mining and logging practices
Land pollution is responsible for damage done to natural habitat of animals, deforestation
and damage done to natural resources, and the general ugly-ing up of our communities.
Light Pollution
Light pollution is the brightening of the night sky inhibiting the visibility of stars and planets
by the use of improper lighting of communities. Some examples of what causes light
pollution:
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• Street lamps that shine light in all directions, instead of with a hood to point light
downward toward the street.
• Extra, unnecessary lights around the home
• Cities that run lights all night long
Light pollution uses more energy (by shining more light up instead of down, meaning you
need brighter bulbs for the same amount of light), may affect human health and our sleep
cycles, and most importantly, corrupts our kids telescopes and their curiosity.
Noise Pollution
Noise pollution is any loud sounds that are either harmful or annoying to humans and
animals. Some examples of noise pollution:
• Airplanes, helicopters, and motor vehicles

• Construction or demolition noise
• Human activities such as sporting events or concerts
Noise pollution can be disruptive to humans' stress levels, may be harmful to unborn
babies, and drives animals away by causing nervousness and decreasing their ability to
hear prey or predators.
Thermal Pollution
Thermal pollution is the increase of temperature caused by human activity. A few examples
of this include:
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• Warmer lake water from nearby manufacturing (using cool water to cool the plant
and then pump it back into the lake)
• Included in thermal pollution should also be the increase in temperatures in areas
with lots of concrete or vehicles, generally in cities
These kinds of environmental pollution can cause aquatic life to suffer or die due to the
increased temperature, can cause discomfort to communities dealing with higher
temperatures, and will affect plant-life in and around the area.
Water Pollution
Water pollution is the contamination of any body of water (lakes, groundwater, oceans, etc).
Some examples of water pollution:
• Raw sewage running into lake or streams

• Industrial waste spills contaminating groundwater
• Illegal dumping of substances or items within bodies of water
• Biological contamination, such as bacteria growth
• Farm runoff into nearby bodies of water
These kinds of environmental pollution are linked to health issues in humans, animals and
plant-life.
MORE TYPES OF POLLUTION

• Radioactive Pollution: It is mainly caused by the improper handling of nuclear
waste, accidents in nuclear power plants and uranium mining.
• Marine Pollution: It results due to contamination of the marine water bodies, and
causes a drastic and long-term impact on the marine flora and fauna, as well as on
humans. Main sources of this problem are due to excessive use of pesticides for
agricultural purposes, crude oil leakage, factory sewage, etc.
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• Thermal Pollution: It is characterized by excessive heat, and is mainly the result of

deforestation and power plants.
• Personal Pollution: This means the harmful effects of a bad and improper lifestyle
on the human body, which can lead to diseases and disorders. Smoking, drinking, and
irregular eating habits are the main causes of personal pollution.
To safeguard our environment, we must begin at a smaller and fundamental level for
curbing pollution. Only then will it make a difference to our planet, resulting in a significant
reduction of environmental pollution.
Priority Pollutants
The concentrations of various substances in water in dissolved, colloidal or suspended form

are typically low but vary considerably. Priority Pollutants refer to a list of 126 specific
pollutants that includes heavy metals and specific organic chemicals. The priority pollutants
are a subset of "toxic pollutants" as defined in the Clean Water Act (USA). These 126
pollutants were assigned a high priority for development of water quality criteria and effluent
limitation guidelines because they are frequently found in wastewater.
Many of the heavy metals, pesticides, and other chemicals listed here are on the priority
pollutant list:
• Heavy Metals (Total and Dissolved): "Heavy Metal" in the water treatment field
refers to heavy, dense, metallic elements that occur only at trace levels in water, but
are very toxic and tend to accumulate.
o Arsenic
o Cadmium
o Chromium
o Lead in industry or in households
o Mercury
o Zinc
Environmental Mobility of Pollutant

Effect of Pollutants on Soils
9 Some soil degradation processes are derived from anthropogenic activities like
salinization, contamination, use of harmful pesticides in agricultural practices, industrial
activities, urban and industrial development. These processes can lead to a decrease in soil
fertility, loss of biodiversity, a reduced ability to retain water, an alteration in nutrient cycles.
9 Soil degradation has a direct effect on water and air quality and on climate changes.
It can also influence human health and present a danger in terms of food safety.
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Q. No. 2: Explain the classification and properties of air pollutants. Also describe
the effects of air pollution in detail. (15 Marks)
Answer)
CLASSIFICATIONS OF AIR POLLUTANTS:
Air Pollution
Air pollution can be defined as the presence of toxic chemicals or compounds (including
those of biological origin) in the air, at levels that pose a health risk. In an even broader
sense, air pollution means the presence of chemicals or compounds in the air which are
usually not present and which lower the quality of the air or cause detrimental changes to
the quality of life (such as the damaging of the ozone layer or causing global warming).
Air pollution is the human introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological

materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living things.
Air pollution can also cause damages to the natural environment and to the atmosphere.
Classification of Air Pollutants

The variety of matter emitted into the atmosphere by natural and anthropogenic sources is
so diverse that it is difficult to classify air pollutants neatly.
However, they are classified in different ways as follows:
A. According to Origin:
Primary air pollutants are directly emitted from the sources into the atmosphere.
Typical air pollutants included under this category are:

(i) Inorganic gases such as SO2, NOX, H2S, CO, NH3, CO2, HF.
(ii) Particulate matter like ash, smoke, dust, fumes, mist, spray.
(iii) Olefinic and aromatic hydrocarbons.
(iv) Radioactive compounds.
B. According to Sate of Matter:

1. Gaseous pollutants
2. Particulate pollutants
3. Aerosols
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4. Metallic components
5. Radioactive pollutants
6. Pesticides
Secondary Pollutants are those which are derived from the primary pollutants due to
chemical or photochemical reactions in the atmosphere. Pollutants such as SO2, NO2, O3,
sulphate and nitrate salts, aldehydes and peroxyaceiyl nitrate (PAN) are included in this
category.
GASEOUS POLLUTANTS:
Nitrogen Oxides, NOX:

The oxides of nitrogen are N2O,
NO, NO2, N2O3, N2O5. The
atmospheric background
concentrations are: N2O (0.25
ppm), NOx(0.1 to 2 ppm) and
NOX (0.5 to 4 ppm). In air, NOX is
converted into nitric acid by
natural processes which is one
of the constituents of acid rain.
Sulphur oxides, SOX:

Combustion of sulphur bearing materials produces SO2 and a little quantity of S03. Global
emission of SO2 from natural sources like biological decay (H2S), sea spray and volcanic
activity is 90, 40 and 5 million tonne per year while from anthropogenic sources such as
coal, petroleum, smelting and sulphur production, it is 92, 26, 14 and 2 million tonne per
year respectively.
Carbon monoxide, CO.:

CO, produced by incomplete combustion of fuel, is the major individual pollutant with a
tonnage matching that of all other pollutants together. Global emission of CO from natural
sources amounts to 3364 million tonne per year.
Anthropogenic sources of CO emission include: transportation (70 MT/year), fuel
combustion (1.6 MT/year), industrial processes, (7.8 MT/year), solid waste disposal (7.8
MT/year), others (8.5 MT/year) amounting to 95.7 MT/year.
Particulate Pollutants:
Small solid particles and liquid droplets are termed particulates. Their number varies from
several hundred per cm3 in clean air to more than 100,000 per cm3 in highly polluted air.
Man made sources for particulate emission include flyash from power plants, smelters, fuel
combustion, industrial operations, refuse burning etc. Every year natural sources discharge
800 to 2000 million tonne and man-made sources 200 to 500 million tonne of particulates.
Adverse Effects of Air Pollutants:
Effects of Air Pollutants on Human Health:

Acute exposure of NO2 in man causes bronchiolitis fibrosa obliterans, emphysema, lung
cancer, pneumonia and silofilter’s disease. NO2 is also known to be transformed into
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methaemoglobin in blood. SO2, a severe allergenic agent, may cause watery nasal
discharge, sneezing, dyspnoea, desqumation and bronchial spasms.
CO, when inhaled, passes through the lungs and diffuses directly into blood stream where it
combines with haemoglobin to form carboxy haemoglobin. CO has affinity for haemoglobin,
210 times more than O2. Haemoglobin is thus unable to transport O2 to body tissues
causing asphyxiation (lack of O2). Its long exposure may cause dizziness, unconsciousness
and even death.
Particulates with SO2 cause silicosis, bronchitis and increased absenteeism among older
workers.
Effects of Air Pollutants on Plants:

1. NO2 results in necrosis (dead areas on a leaf), chlorosis (reduction of chlorophyll),
epinasty (downward curvature of leaf) and abscission (dropping of leaves).
2. SO2 causes bleached spots, chlorosis and affects photosynthesis along with ozone and
PAN.
3. CO at higher levels (100 to 1000 ppm) causes leaf curling, leaf drop, reduced leaf size
and interference with cellular respiration.
4. PAN results in silvering of lower surface of leaf, damage to sensitive leaves and
suppressed growth.
Effects of Air Pollutants on Materials:

1. NO2 fades away dyes in clothes like cotton, rayon, causes cracks in rubber and produces
photochemical smog with O3 and PAN.
2. CO2 damages fabric, leather, paint, paper and historic monuments. H2SO4 attacks
marble causing stone leprosy. The CaSO4, so formed on the surface of masonry is twice as
bulky as CaCO3 which looks leprous.
Hydrocarbons induce chemical alterations in textile, paper, rubber and polymers making
them more brittle and fragile.
Effects of Air Pollutants on Animals:

Air-borne contaminants accumulate in forage and poison the animals when they graze it.
Live-stocks near smelters suffer arsenic poisoning with symptoms like salivation, thirst and
liver necrosis.
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Q. No. 3: What are toxic water pollutants? Elaborate their effects on human and
environment. (15 Marks)
Answer)
Water pollution
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies
(e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater), usually as a result of human
activities. Water pollution is one of many types of pollution which results
from contaminants being introduced into the natural environment. Pollution causes adverse
change. Water pollution is often caused by the discharge of inadequately
treated wastewater into natural bodies of water. This can lead to environmental
degradation of aquatic ecosystems. In turn, this can lead to public health problems. For
example, people living downstream may use the same polluted river water for drinking or
bathing or irrigation.
Types of water pollution
There are many types of water pollution because water comes from many sources. Here
are a few types of water pollution:
1. Nutrients Pollution
Some wastewater, fertilizers and sewage contain high levels of nutrients. If they end up in
water bodies, they encourage algae and weed growth in the water. This will make the water
undrinkable, and even clog filters. Too much algae will also use up all the oxygen in the
water, and other water organisms in the water will die out of oxygen starvation.
2. Surface water pollution

Surface water includes natural water found on the earth's surface, like rivers, lakes, lagoons
and oceans. Hazardous substances coming into contact with this surface water, dissolving
or mixing physically with the water can be called surface water pollution.
3. Oxygen Depleting
Water bodies have micro-organisms. These include aerobic and anaerobic organisms.
When too much biodegradable matter (things that easily decay) end up in water, it
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encourages more microorganism growth, and they use up more oxygen in the water. If
oxygen is depleted, aerobic organisms die, and anaerobic organisms grow more to produce
harmful toxins such as ammonia and sulfides.
4. Ground water pollution

When humans apply pesticides and chemicals to soils, they are washed deep into the
ground by rainwater. This gets to underground water, causing pollution underground.
This means when we dig wells and bore holes to get water from underground, it needs to
be checked for ground water pollution.
5. Microbiological
In many communities in the world, people drink untreated water (straight from a river or
stream). Sometimes there is natural pollution caused by microorganisms like viruses,
bacteria and protozoa. This natural pollution can cause fishes and other water life to die.
They can also cause serious illness to humans who drink from such waters.
6. Suspended Matter
Some pollutants (substances, particles and chemicals) do not easily dissolve in water. This
kind of material is called particulate matter. Some suspended pollutants later settle under
the water body. This can harm and even kill aquatic organisms that live at the bottom of
water bodies.
7. Chemical Water Pollution

Many industries and farmers work with chemicals that end up in water. This is common
with Point-source Pollution. These include chemicals that are used to control weeds,
insects and pests. Metals and solvents from industries can pollute water bodies. These are
poisonous to many forms of aquatic life and may slow their development, make them
infertile and kill them.
8. Oil Spillage
Oil spills usually have only a localized effect on wildlife but can spread for miles. The oil can
cause the death to many fish and get stuck to the feathers of seabirds causing them to lose
their ability to fly.
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Other causes of water pollution.
Sewage and waste water

Every day, we cook, do laundry, flush the toilet, wash our cars, shower and do many things
that use water. Think about how we use water in schools, hospitals and public places.
Where do you think all the water, liquid waste, poop and urine end up? In many developed
communities, wastewater and soluble waste (called sewage) is treated, cleaned and
dumped into the sea or river. Even though they are treated, they are never the same as
fresh water.
In some not-so-developed countries, the sewage is not treated but quickly dumped into the
sea or water bodies. This is VERY dangerous because they contaminate the environment
and water bodies and bring many deadly diseases to us.
Septic Tanks
Every domestic (home) toilet is connected to septic tank usually located outside the house.
Each time poop is flushed down the toilet, it goes into this tank, where the solid part is
separated from the liquid part. Biological processes are used to break down the solids and
the liquid is usually drained out into a land drainage system. From this stage, it can escape
into the soil and nearby water bodies.
Ocean and marine dumping

Again, think of the rubbish we all make each day. Paper waste, food waste, plastic, rubber,
metallic and aluminum waste. In some countries, they are deposited into the sea. These
waste types take some time to decompose. For example, it is known that paper takes about
6 weeks, aluminum takes about 200 years and glass takes even more years. When these
end up in the sea, they harm sea animals and cause a lot of water animal deaths.
Underground storage and tube leakages

Many liquid products (petroleum products) are stored in metal and steel tubes underground.
Other sewage systems run in underground tubes. Over time, they rust and begin to leak. If
that happens, they contaminate the soils, and the liquids in them end up in many nearby
water bodies.
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Atmospheric
Atmospheric deposition is the pollution of water bodies caused by air pollution. Each time
the air is polluted with sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, they mix with water particles in
the air and form a toxic substance. This falls as acid rain to the ground and gets washed
into water bodies. The result is that water bodies also get contaminated and this affects
animals and water organisms.
Effects of water pollution on human and environment.

You will notice in the previous pages that water pollution is very harmful to humans, animals
and water life. The effects can be catastrophic, depending on the kind of chemicals,
concentrations of the pollutants and where there are polluted. Below, we shall see a
summary of the effects of water pollution.
The effects of water pollution are varied and depend on what chemicals are dumped and in
which locations.
Many water bodies near urban areas (cities and towns) are highly polluted. This is the result
of both garbage dumped by individuals and dangerous chemicals legally or illegally dumped
by manufacturing industries, health centers, schools and market places.
• Death of aquatic (water) animals

The main problem caused by water pollution is that it kills organisms that depend on these
water bodies. Dead fish, crabs, birds and sea gulls, dolphins, and many other animals often
wind up on beaches, killed by pollutants in their habitat (living environment).
• Disruption of food-chains
Pollution disrupts the natural food chain as well. Pollutants such as lead and cadmium are
eaten by tiny animals. Later, these animals are consumed by fish and shellfish, and the
food chain continues to be disrupted at all higher levels.
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• Diseases
Eventually, humans are affected by this process as well. People can get diseases
such as hepatitis by eating seafood that has been poisoned. In many poor nations,
there is always outbreak of cholera and diseases as a result of poor drinking water
treatment from contaminated waters.
• Destruction of ecosystems
Ecosystems (the interaction of living things in a place, depending on each other for
life) can be severely changed or destroyed by water pollution. Many areas are now
being affected by careless human pollution, and this pollution is coming back to hurt
humans in many ways.
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Q. No. 4: Explain different sources of water pollution in the context of Pakistan.

(15 Marks)
Answer)
Water pollution in Pakistan
Water pollution is one of the major threats to public health in Pakistan. Drinking water
quality is poorly managed and monitored. Pakistan ranks at number 80 among 122 nations
regarding drinking water quality. Drinking water sources, both surface and groundwater are
contaminated with coliforms, toxic metals and pesticides throughout the country.
Various drinking water quality parameters set by WHO are frequently violated. Human
activities like improper disposal of municipal and industrial effluents and indiscriminate
applications of agrochemicals in agriculture are the main factors contributing to the
deterioration of water quality. Microbial and chemical pollutants are the main factors
responsible exclusively or in combination for various public health problems.
Sources of water pollution in Pakistan

• Lakes
• Rivers
• Reservoirs
• Underground water
In Pakistan, poor water quality is one of the main environmental and health-related
concerns. Both surface and groundwater in the country are polluted with microorganisms
and various toxic compounds (Azizullah et al. 2011). Bad living conditions and natural
disasters coupled with mismanagement frequently contaminate drinking water in the
country (Rasheed et al. 2009). Water treatment plants exist only in a few cities, but they are
also not properly working and leave episodes of microbial contamination undetected (Hisam
et al. 2014; WB-CWRAS 2005). As a result, a great majority of the population in the country
is deprived of safe drinking water. National statistics reveal that 56 % of the total population
in Pakistan has access to safe drinking water, but in rural areas safe water is hardly
available to 45 % of the population (Farooq et al. 2008). Other statistics reveal that 70 % of
the rural population in Pakistan has no access to safe water, while in urban areas only 40–
60 % of the people have access to potable water (Amin et al. 2012).
As a result, 20–40 % of beds in Pakistani hospitals are occupied by patients suffering from
waterborne diseases including cholera, diarrhea, dysentery, hepatitis, typhoid, etc., and one
third of all deaths in the country occur due to waterborne diseases (Pak-SECA 2006).
Among the various pollutants of drinking water, microbial contamination has been regarded
as the most serious threat to public health in Pakistan (Azizullah et al. 2011; PCRWR
2005). Many individual studies reported that drinking water in different parts of the country
had microbial contamination above the permissible limits; however, quantitative data on this
issue have not been systematically gathered and intercompared in the past.
Microbial contamination of drinking water

Contamination of drinking water with pathogenic microorganisms is one of the most serious
threats posed to humans causing serious diseases in many parts of the world.
Consumption of water contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms causes several
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diseases like diarrhea, cholera, typhoid, paratyphoid, hepatitis A, dermatitis. enteric fever,
etc. as well as several permanent health defects (Butt and Iqbal 2007). Waterborne
diseases usually arise due to the contamination of water with fecal matter, particularly
human feces that contain pathogenic organisms. Due to the acute health risks of microbial
contamination even from a single time consumption of water, in contrast to chemical
contaminants which cause chronic health problems, microbial quality assessment is
considered as the single most important water quality test (New Hampshire Department of
Environmental Services 2010).
Microbial contamination of drinking water in Pakistan

Several individual studies have been conducted in different regions of Pakistan regarding
microbial contamination of drinking water. However, country-wide uniform attempts have
rarely been made to obtain a picture of overall water quality in the country. The Pakistan
Council for Research in Water Resources (PCRWR) has taken good initiatives and
conducted some initial studies in major cities which revealed frequent presence of coliform
and fecal coliform in water.
About 65 and 35 % of the total 344 groundwater samples collected from different spots in
the country were contaminated with total coliforms and E. coli, respectively, while all
samples collected from 20 surface water bodies across the country had bacterial
contamination of both total coliforms and E. coli (PCRWR 2005). Since surface water is
usually directly used for human consumption without any prior treatment, its contamination
with coliforms can pose a risk to the public. In the Federal Capital Islamabad, of the total 27
water sources tested, 74 % were polluted with coliforms and 41 % with E. coli (PCRWR
2006). The situation was similar in other major cities of the country.
For example, in Bahawalpur, Faisalabad, Gujranwala, Lahore, Multan, Rawalpindi and

Sialkot in Punjab, Abbottabad, Mangora, Mardan and Peshawar in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,
Quetta, Ziarat, Khuzdar and Loralai in Balochistan, and Karachi and Hyderabad in Sindh,
the majority of the water sources had indicator microorganisms beyond the permissible
limits of the WHO.
In the biggest city of the country, Karachi, which is home to more than 10 million people, 86
% of the total 28 tested water sources were unsafe for drinking due to the presence of
coliforms above the permissible limits (PCRWR 2006). Another country-wide study
revealed that 64 % (from a total of 190 samples), 67 % (from a total of 46 samples), 83
% (from a total of 55 samples), and 80 % (from a total of 66 samples) of the water
samples from the four provinces of Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Sindh, and
Balochistan, respectively, were positive for colifom bacteria (Soomro et al. 2011).
Punjab, the largest province of the country in terms of population, has low-quality water due
to widespread contamination with microorganisms as revealed by several studies
(Table 1). In Lahore, the second largest city of the country and provincial capital of
Punjab, the public is exposed to unclean water. An analysis for drinking water quality
in Lahore showed that of the 530 samples tested, 37.2 % were unfit due to coliform
contamination above the permissible limits (Anwar et al. 2010).
Frequent and widespread pollution of water with microorganisms has been observed in
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of the country. The water is not safe even in the
provincial capital and largest city of the province, Peshawar, due to the presence of
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coliforms and fecal coliforms above the WHO permissible limits (Table 1). Water from
tube wells, distribution networks, and storage tanks of the urban areas in Peshawar
was contaminated with total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and E. coli (Amin et al. 2012).
People are exposed to unclean water not only at home but also at working places and
educational institutes. For example, a survey of water quality at 19 schools in
Peshawar revealed that in more than 50 % water quality was unsatisfactory due to the
presence of total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and E. coli above the WHO standards (Ali
et al. 2011a).
Very little attention has ever been given by researchers to water quality in the Balochistan
Province, and reports can hardly be found on water quality of this province except
those by PCRWR (2006). Water samples from four major cities of the province,
Khuzdar (11 total samples), Loralai (11 total samples), Quetta (34 total samples), and
Ziarat (10 total samples), had total coliforms and fecal coliforms in 68– 100 and 47–
100 % of the samples, respectively (PCRWR 2006). The governmental and
nongovernmental organizations and research institutes in the country may give special
attention and initiate studies on evaluating water quality in this area.
Health impacts due to microbial contamination of water in Pakistan

Drinking water contamination with pathogenic microbes has been the cause of serious
diseases in many parts of the world (Dufour et al. 2003; Jain et al. 2005). It has also
been regarded as a major cause of waterborne diseases like diarrhea, nausea,
gastroenteritis, typhoid, dysentery, and other health problems in Pakistan (PCRWR
2005; Shar et al. 2008a). In 2006, around 4.5 million cases of diarrhea were reported
in the country, 14 % of which were in children under the age of 5 years (Hakim et al.
2014). Waterborne diseases have been the cause of a mortality rate as high as
128/1,000 per year (UNICEF and Meta-Meta 2009), and about 230,000 infants (below
the age of 5 years) in Pakistan die every year due to waterborne diseases (DigiTex
2013). According to other estimates, more than three million people in Pakistan are
suffering from diseases due to low-quality water, out of which 0.1 million lose their
lives every year (Kahlown et al. 2006).
Approximately 70 % of the drinking water supplied by the government authorities in

Pakistan is not safe and is responsible for many serious waterborne diseases (WWF
2007). For example, in a study conducted in Gujrat, urban Punjab, 90 % of the people
interviewed reported that they or their families had suffered from waterborne diseases
quite often (Tanwir et al. 2003). In three towns of the Bahawalpur City, viz. Islamic
colony, Shahdrah, and satellite town 36, 22 and 18 % people, respectively, were
reported to be suffering from waterborne diseases like diarrhea, cholera, and typhoid
etc. (Mohsin et al. 2013).
Similarly, polluted water has been responsible for the frequent occurrence of water-linked
health problems like diarrhea (27 %), skin infection (23 %), typhoid (20 %), hepatitis
(13 %), eye infection (13 %), and cholera (7 %) in the urban population of Abbottabad
(Jabeen et al. 2011). In the same city, consumption of contaminated water has been
responsible for typhoid, diarrhea, dysentery, hepatitis, abdominal pains, and skin
infections in students of various academic institutes (Ahmed et al. 2014).
A detailed survey conducted by Khan et al. (2013b) reported that poor water quality in the
Charsadda District of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa has caused gastroenteritis, dysentery, and
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diarrhea in 40–50, 28– 35, and 47–59 % respondents of the survey, respectively
(approx. 20,000 respondents belonging to 4,740 households). Other health problems
like hepatitis A (32 to 38 %), hepatitis B (16–19 %), hepatitis C (6–7 %), poor appetite,
constipation, vomiting, and abdominal pain were also attributed to poor water quality in
the area (Khan et al. 2013b). From an epidemic point of view, 2005 was the worst year
for Pakistan as several epidemics occurred in the country. In Hyderabad and Karachi,
three major gastrointestinal epidemics occurred which affected hundreds of people. In
Hyderabad, more than 500 people suffered from this illness out of which three lost
their lives (Rasheed et al. 2009).
Similarly, in the same year, an outbreak of waterborne diarrhea occurred in Karachi (Essa
Nagri colony) which affected 200 people and claimed two lives. It was worst when the
same outbreak occurred again in this colony, which affected more than 800 people
and claimed another nine lives including three children (Rasheed et al. 2009). In Nek
Muhammad village (Karachi) in 2004, an outbreak of typhoid fever along with other
waterborne diseases including diarrhea, dysentery, and gastroenteritis affected more
than 300 people and claimed three lives within 1 week. Investigations revealed that
this outbreak was due to the microbial contamination of a drinking water source in the
area (Farooqui et al. 2009).
The few available data at local hospitals, for example those at Sukkur, Karachi, and
Khairpur, showed that water-linked diseases like diarrhea, cholera, gastroenteritis,
typhoid, and dysentery are very common in the country.
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Q. No. 5: Describe different sources of noise pollution. What are the auditory
effects of traffic noise on human health? (15 Marks)
Answer)
Noise Pollution
A form and level of environmental sound that is generally considered likely to annoy,
distract or even harm other people. Most industrial plants operated by a business located
near a residential area will need to be respectful of others residing within earshot regarding
their production of noise pollution. Also called sound pollution.
Or
Sound, a normal feature of our life, is the means of communication and entertainment in
most animals, including human beings. It is also a very effective alarm system. A low sound
is pleasant whereas a loud sound is unpleasant and is commonly referred to as ‘noise’.
Noise can be defined as an unpleasant and unwanted sound.
Whether a given sound is as pleasant as music or as unpleasant as noise depends on its

loudness, duration, rhythm and the mood of the person. But loudness is definitely the most
significant criterion which converts sound into noise. Exposure to loud noise is indeed
annoying and harmful too.
Noise is a physical form of pollution and is not directly harmful to the life supporting systems
namely air, soil and water. Its effects are more directly on the receiver i.e. man. Noise
pollution is the result of modern industrialized urban life and congestion due to over
population.
Even though noise pollution is not fatal to human life, yet its importance cannot be
overlooked because repeated exposure to noise reduces the sleeping hours and
productivity or efficiency of a human being. It affects the peace of mind and invades the
privacy of a human being.
The importance of noise pollution as environmental problem is being recognised as the ill
effects of noise on human health and environment are becoming evident with each passing
day.
Sources of Noise Pollution:

Major causes / sources of noise pollution are:
(i) Industrial Sources:

Progress in technology (industrialization) has resulted in creating noise pollution. Textile
mills, printing presses, engineering establishments and metal works etc. contribute heavily
towards noise pollution. In industrial cities like Kolkata, Ludhiana, Kanpur etc., often the
industrial zones are not separated from the residential zones of the city especially in the
case of small scale industries.
These operate from workshops located on the ground floors of the residential areas and
cause annoyance, discomfort and irritation to the residents exposed to the noise that is
inevitably produced. The situation is much better in modern planned cities like Chandigarh
19
where the industrial area is kept away from the residential areas and both are separated
from each other by a sufficiently wide green belt.
(ii) Transport Vehicles:

Automobile revolution in urban centers has proved to be a big source of noise pollution.
Increasing traffic has given rise to traffic jams in congested areas where the repeated
hooting of horns by impatient drivers pierce the ears of all road users.
Noise from airplanes constitutes an increasing serious problem in big cities like Karachi &
Mumbai. Airport situated in the vicinity of population centres and the air planes pass over
residential areas. Heavy trucks, buses trains, jet-planes, motor-cycles, scooters, mopeds,
jeeps—the list of vehicles is endless but the outcome is same — noise pollution.
(iii) Household:
The household is an industry in itself and is a source of many indoor noises such as the
banging of doors, noise of playing children, crying of infants, moving of furniture, loud
conversation of the inhabitants etc. Besides these are the entertainment equipment in the
house, namely the radio, record-players and television sets.
Domestic gadgets like the mixer-grinders, pressure cookers, desert coolers, air-
conditioners, exhaust fans, vacuum cleaners, sewing and washing machines are all indoor
sources of noise pollution.
(iv) Public Address System:

In Pakistan, people need only the slightest of an excuse for using loud speakers. The
reason may be a religious function, birth, death, marriage, elections, demonstration, or just
commercial advertising. Public system, therefore, contributes in its own way towards noise
pollution.
(v) Agricultural Machines:

Tractors, thrashers, harvesters, tube wells, powered tillers etc. have all made agriculture
highly mechanical but at the same time highly noisy. Noise level 90 dB to 98 dB due to
running of farm machines have been recorded in the state of Punjab.
(vi) Defence Equipment:

A lot of noise pollution is added to the atmosphere by artillery, tanks, launching of rockets,
explosions, exercising of military airplanes and shooting practices. Screams of jet engines
and sonic booms have a deafening impact on the ears and in extreme cases have been
known to shatter the window panes and old dilapidated buildings.
(vii) Miscellaneous Sources:

The automobile repair shops, construction-works, blasting, bulldozing, stone crushing etc.
are other sources of noise pollution.
Effects of Noise:
Noise is generally harmful and a serious health hazard. It has far-reaching consequences
and has many physical, physiological as well as psychological effects on human beings.
20
(i) Physical Effects:

The physical manifestation of noise pollution is the effect on hearing ability. Repeated
exposure to noise may result in temporary or permanent shifting of the hearing threshold of
a person depending upon the level and duration of exposure. The immediate and acute
effect of noise pollution is impairment of hearing (i.e. total deafness.)
Human ears have sensory cells for hearing. If these cells are subjected to repeated sounds
of high intensity before they have an opportunity to recover fully, they can become
permanently damaged leading to impairment of hearing. Besides the sensory cells, the
delicate tympanic membrane or the ear drum can also be permanently damaged by a
sudden loud noise such as an explosion.
(ii) Physiological Effects:
The physiological manifestations of noise pollution are several as mentioned below:

(a) Headache by dilating blood vessels of the brain.
(b) Increase in the rate of heart-beat.
(c) Narrowing of arteries.
(d) Fluctuations in the arterial blood pressure by increasing the level of cholesterol in the
blood.
(e) Decrease in heart output.
(f) Pain in the heart.
(g) Digestive spasms through anxiety and dilation of the pupil of the eye, thereby causing
eye-strain.
(h) Impairment of night vision.
(i) Decrease in the rate of color perception.
(j) Lowering of concentration and affect on memory
(k) Muscular strain and nervous breakdown.
(l) Psychological Effect
The psychological manifestations of noise pollution are:

(a) Depression and fatigue which considerably reduces the efficiency of a person.
(b) Insomnia as a result of lack of undisturbed and refreshing sleep
(c) Straining of senses and annoyance as a result of slow but persistent noise from
motorcycles, alarm clocks, call bells, telephone rings etc.
(d) Affecting of psychomotor performance of a person by a sudden loud sound
(e) Emotional disturbance
For a talkative person, the most important effect of noise pollution would invariably be that
noise interferes with our conservation. So, noise is annoying and the annoyance depends
on many factors not merely the intensity of the sound but also repetition, because even a
sound of small intensity (e.g. dripping tap or clicking of clock) may become annoying,
simply by repetition.
Some of the well- known effects of noise on human beings and the relation of noise
pollution level and its harmful effects are shown.
21
Noise Pollution Level and its Harmful Effects:
Level (in db) Effects
up to 23 RRRRRRRRR.. No disturbance
30—60 RRRRRRRRR.. Stress, tension, psychological (illness, heart

attact) effects especially at upper range.
60—90 RRRRRRRRR.. Damage to health, psychological and

vegetative (disturbance in stomach-gall
function, pains in muscles, high blood
pressure, disturbance in sleeping)
60—120 RRRRRRRRR Damages to health and ontological (ear

diseases) effects
Above 120 RRRRRRRR. Painful effects in long run.
Noise - Auditory Effects

Noise exposure can cause two kinds of health effects. These effects are non-auditory
effects and auditory effects. Non-auditory effects include stress, related physiological and
behavioral effects, and safety concerns. Auditory effects include hearing impairment
resulting from excessive noise exposure. Noise-induced permanent hearing loss is the main
concern related to occupational noise exposure.
22
EXAMPLES OF AUDITORY HEALTH EFFECT

The main auditory effects include:
Acoustic trauma:
Sudden hearing damage caused by short burst of extremely loud noise such as a gun shot.
Tinnitus:
Ringing or buzzing in the ear.
Temporary hearing loss:

Also known as temporary threshold shift (TTS) which occurs immediately after exposure to
a high level of noise. There is gradual recovery when the affected person spends time in a
quiet place. Complete recovery may take several hours or days (up to 48 hours).
Permanent hearing loss:

Permanent hearing loss, also known as permanent threshold shift (PTS), usually
progresses constantly as noise exposure continues month after month and year after year.
Most individuals do not notice the impairment at first. The hearing impairment is noticeable
only when it is substantial enough to interfere with routine activities.
At this stage, permanent and irreversible hearing damage has occurred. Noise-induced
hearing damage cannot be cured by medical treatment and worsens as the noise exposure
continues.
When the noise exposure stops, the person does not regain the lost hearing sensitivity. As
the employee ages, hearing may worsen as "age-related hearing loss" adds to the existing
noise-induced hearing loss. Permanent hearing loss can also occur from a single traumatic
event.
23
Q. No. 6: Explain the biological effects of radioactive pollution in detail with the
help of examples. (10 Marks)
Answer)
Radioactive Pollution:
Radioactivity is a phenomenon of spontaneous emission of proton (a-particles), electrons
(ß-particles) and ?-rays (short wave electromagnetic waves) due to disintegration of atomic
nuclei of some elements. These cause radioactive pollution. Radiations are of two types
ionising and non-ionising. Non-ionising radiations affect only those components which
absorb them and have low penetrability. Ionising radiations have high penetration power
and cause breakage of macro molecules.
Man-made sources of radiation pollution are mining and refining of plutonium and thorium,
production and explosion and nuclear weapons, nuclear power plants and fuels and
preparation of radioactive isotopes.
There are commonly three types of radiation, namely:

• Alpha particles, can be blocked by a piece of paper and human skin.
• Beta particles can penetrate through skin, while can be blocked by some pieces of
glass and metal.
• Gamma rays can penetrate easily to human skin and damage cells on its way
through, reaching far, and can only be blocked by a very thick, strong, massive piece
of concrete.
•
Sources and Methods :
We can classify major sources that lead to radioactive pollution to the following categories:
• Nuclear power plants
• Nuclear weapon
• Transportation
• Disposal of nuclear waste
• Uranium mining
Types and Effects of Radioactive Pollution
1. UV Rays : Short waves having wavelength 100-300 nm and having high energy UV rays
of 260nm wavelength are most effective against DNA. It damages the cells of cornea
leading to permanent blindness. It injures cells of germinative layer of skin and produces
blisters and reddening of skin (skin cancer). Normally our skin possess pigmentation to
protect against UV rays but some lack this pigmentation and are more probable cases. This
state is called xeroderma pigmentosum. UV rays increase incidences of cancer and
mutations in man.
2. Cosmic rays : They have radiations less than 0.001Å having high energy sufficient to
disintegrate every organic compound on which they fall. But fortunately they are trapped in
stratosphere and only a little amount reaches the earth.
• Other radiations are X-rays, background radiations from nuclear fall out which have
reached to such an extent they have slowed evolution of various organisms on earth.
24
• Effects were noted in 1909 when uranium miners were found to suffer from sun
burns and caner. High altitude plants have developed polyploidy as a protective
mechanism against radiations. During a nuclear fall out immediate effect is through
isotopic I-131 and Sr-90. Radioactive I-131 get concentrated in thyroid gland like
ordinary iodine (I-127). It causes damage to WBCs, bone marrow, spleen, lymph
nodes etc. It impairs eyesight and produces sterility, skin cancer and lung tumours.
Radioactive Sr-90 is mistaken for calcium and enters bones to cause bone cancer
e.g. Historic examples of heinous nuclear fall out are atomic bomb dropping at
Nagasaki and Hiroshima (Japan, 1945).
Biological effects of radioactive pollution :

• The amount of injury caused by a radioactive isotope depends on its physical half-
life, and on how quickly it is absorbed and then excreted by an organism. Most
studies of the harmful effects of radiation have been performed on single-celled
organisms. Obviously, the situation is more complex in humans and other
multicellular organisms, because a single cell damaged by radiation may indirectly
affect other cells in the individual. The most sensitive regions of the human body
appear to be those which have many actively dividing cells, such as the skin,
gonads, intestine, and tissues that grow blood cells (spleen, bone marrow, lymph
organs).
• Radioactivity is toxic because it forms ions when it reacts with biological molecules.
These ions can form free radicals, which damage proteins, membranes, and nucleic
acids. Radioactivity can damage DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) by destroying
individual bases (particularly thymine), by breaking single strands, by breaking
double strands, by cross-linking different DNA strands, and by cross-linking DNA and
proteins. Damage to DNA can lead to cancers, birth defects, and even death.
• However, cells have biochemical repair systems which can reverse some of the
damaging biological effects of low-level exposures to radioactivity. This allows the
body to better tolerate radiation that is delivered at a low dose rate, such as over a
longer period of time. In fact, all humans are exposed to radiation in extremely small
doses throughout their life. The biological effects of such small doses over such a
long time are almost impossible to measure, and are essentially unknown at present.
There is, however, a theoretical possibility that the small amount of radioactivity
released into the environment by normally operating nuclear power plants, and by
previous atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons, has slightly increased the
incidence of certain cancers in human populations. However, scientists have not
been able to conclusively show that such an effect has actually occurred.
• Currently, there is disagreement among scientists about whether there is a threshold
dose for radiation damage to organisms. In other words, is there a dose of radiation
below which there are no harmful biological effects? Some scientists maintain that
there is no such threshold, and that radiation at any dose carries a finite risk of
causing some biological damage. Furthermore, the damage caused by very low
doses of radiation may be cumulative, or additive to the damage caused by other
harmful agents to which humans are exposed. Other scientists maintain that there is
a threshold dose for radiation damage. They believe that biological repair systems,
which are presumably present in all cells, can fix the biological damage caused by
extremely low doses of radiation. Thus, these scientists claim that the extremely low
doses of radiation to which humans are commonly exposed are not harmful.
• One of the most informative studies of the harmful effects of radiation is a long-term
investigation of the survivors of the 1945 atomic blasts at Hiroshima and Nagasaki
25
by James Neel and his colleagues. The survivors of these explosions had
abnormally high rates of cancer, leukemia, and other diseases. However, there
seemed to be no detectable effect on the occurrence of genetic defects in children of
the survivors. The radiation dose needed to cause heritable defects in humans is
higher than biologists originally expected.
• Radioactive pollution is an important environmental problem. It could become much
worse if extreme vigilance is not utilized in the handling and use of radioactive
materials, and in the design and operation of nuclear power plants.
Examples:
• Biological Effects of Radiation can be broken into two groups according to how the
responses (symptoms or effects) relate to dose (or amount of radiation received)
• The First Group of biological effects are Stochastic Effects
• The Second Group of biological effects are Deterministic Effects
Stochastic Effects
• Stochastic Effects are those effects which have an increased probability of
occurrence with increased dose, but whose severity is unchanged
• Example; skin cancer and sunlight. The probability of getting skin cancer increases
with increasing exposure to the sun
• Stochastic Effects are like a light switch; they are either present or not present
Deterministic Effects
• Deterministic Effects are those responses which increase in severity with increased
dose
• For example; sunburn. The more you’re exposed to the sun, and the higher the
‘dose’ of sunlight you receive, the more severe the sunburn
Comparison of Radiation Dose
Chest X-Ray
Average PSU RSEC Worker
Natural Background
Radiation Worker Limit
Lethal Dose
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
26
Q. No. 7: What are the sources of solid waste pollution? Explain the situation with
reference to Pakistan scenario. (15 Marks)
Answer)
Solid Waste
Solid waste means any garbage, refuse, sludge from a wastewater treatment plant, water
supply treatment plant, or air pollution control facility and other discarded materials
including solid, liquid, semi-solid, or contained gaseous material.
In Simple Words - Solid wastes are any discarded or abandoned materials. Solid wastes
can be solid, liquid, semi-solid or containerized gaseous material.
Various Sources of Solid Waste

Everyday, tonnes of solid waste is disposed off at various landfill sites. This waste comes
from homes, offices, industries and various other agricultural related activities.
These landfill sites produce foul smell if waste is not stored and treated properly. It
can pollute the surrounding air and can seriously affect the health of humans, wildlife and
our environment. The following are major sources of solid waste:
Residential
Residences and homes where people live are some of the major sources of solid waste.
Garbage from these places include food wastes, plastics, paper, glass, leather, cardboard,
metals, yard wastes, ashes and special wastes like bulky household items like electronics,
tires, batteries, old mattresses and used oil. Most homes have garbage bins where they can
throw away their solid wastes in and later the bin is emptied by a garbage collecting firm or
person for treatment.
Industrial
Industries are known to be one of the biggest contributors of solid waste. They include light
and heavy manufacturing industries, construction sites, fabrication plants, canning plants,
power and chemical plants. These industries produce solid waste in form of housekeeping
wastes, food wastes, packaging wastes, ashes, construction and demolition materials,
special wastes, medical wastes as well as other hazardous wastes.
Commercial
Commercial facilities and buildings are yet another source of solid waste today. Commercial
buildings and facilities in this case refer to hotels, markets, restaurants, go downs, stores
and office buildings. Some of the solid wastes generated from these places include plastics,
food wastes, metals, paper, glass, wood, cardboard materials, special wastes and other
hazardous wastes.
Institutional
The institutional centers like schools, colleges, prisons, military barracks and other
government centers also produce solid waste. Some of the common solid wastes obtained
from these places include glass, rubber waste, plastics, food wastes, wood, paper, metals,
cardboard materials, electronics as well as various hazardous wastes.
27
Construction and Demolition Areas

Construction sites and demolition sites also contribute to the solid waste problem.
Construction sites include new construction sites for buildings and roads, road repair sites,
building renovation sites and building demolition sites. Some of the solid wastes produced
in these places include steel materials, concrete, wood, plastics, rubber, copper wires, dirt
and glass.
Municipal services
The urban centers also contribute immensely to the solid waste crisis in most countries
today. Some of the solid waste brought about by the municipal services include, street
cleaning, wastes from parks and beaches, wastewater treatment plants, landscaping
wastes and wastes from recreational areas including sludge.
Treatment Plants and Sites

Heavy and light manufacturing plants also produce solid waste. They include refineries,
power plants, processing plants, mineral extraction plants and chemicals plants. Among the
wastes produced by these plants include, industrial process wastes, unwanted specification
products, plastics, metal parts just to mention but a few.
Agriculture
Crop farms, orchards, dairies, vineyards and feedlots are also sources of solid wastes.
Among the wastes they produce include agricultural wastes, spoiled food, pesticide
containers and other hazardous materials.
Biomedical
This refers to hospitals and biomedical equipment and chemical manufacturing firms. In
hospitals there are different types of solid wastes produced. Some of these solid wastes
include syringes, bandages, used gloves, drugs, paper, plastics, food wastes and
chemicals. All these require proper disposal or else they will cause a huge problem to the
environment and the people in these facilities.
What Is Pollution Caused by Solid Waste?

Solid waste pollution is when the environment is filled with no biodegradable and non-
compostable biodegradable wastes that are capable of emitting greenhouse gases, toxic
fumes, and particulate matters as they accumulate in open landfills.
These wastes are also capable of leaching organic or chemical compositions to
contaminate the ground where such wastes lay in accumulation.
Solid wastes carelessly thrown in streets, highways, and alleyways can cause pollution
when they are carried off by rainwater run-offs or by flood water to the main streams, as
these contaminating residues will reach larger bodies of water.
The Effects of This Pollution to Climate Changes

Studies by scientists at the National Academy of Sciences reveal that the Earth’s surface
temperature has increased by one degree Fahrenheit in the last century. However, what
was alarming was the noticeable acceleration of warming temperatures during the last two
decades. Stronger evidences have connected the acceleration to the mounting presence of
greenhouse gases, namely:
• Carbon Dioxide
• Methane
• Nitrous Oxide .
28
Most of these greenhouse gases emanate from the chemical compositions widely used for
human activities during the past 50 years. Scientists believe that the increase in carbon
dioxide by at least 30 percent can be traced back to the initial years of industrialization.
Additional human activities, which involved the use and consumption of industrially
manufactured products, including the use of automobiles and its fossil fuel, all contributed
to the sudden surge of heat-trapping greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere. In
addition, power generating plantsused by industries and consumers alike, contribute 98
percent to carbon dioxide emissions, 24 percent to methane emissions and 18 percent to
nitrous oxide.
However, use and consumption are one thing, the accumulation of the non-biodegradable
waste in landfills is another. The discarded materials still containing much of the chemical
ingredients used in the manufacture of these products created mountainous landfills. The
concentration of solid wastes reacting to heat, moistures and air as they lay exposed to the
environment also meant a concentration of greenhouse gas emissions.
While in this state, they contributed to the release of greenhouse gases in the Earth’s
warming atmosphere. A 1997 survey of total global greenhouse gas emissions showed that
about one-fifth of these emissions emanated from the United States.
This is why solid waste management solutions are considered important, in order to lessen
the greenhouse gas being added by solid wastes, to global warming climate change.
Brief on Solid Waste Management in Pakistan

Solid waste collection by government owned and operated services in Pakistan’s cities
currently averages only 50 percent pf waste quantities generated: however, for cities to be
relatively clean, at least 75 percent of these quantities should be collected.
Unfortunately, none of the cities in Pakistan has a proper solid waste management system
right from collection of solid waste upto its proper disposal. Much of the uncollected waste
poses serious risk to public health through clogging of drains, formation of stagnant ponds,
and providing breeding ground for mosquitoes and flies with consequent risks of malaria
and cholera. In addition, because of the lack of adequate disposal sites, much of the
collected waste finds its way in dumping grounds, open pits, ponds, rivers and agricultural
land.
29
Urbanization Pattern:
According to the 1981 census, of the 5.92 million persons who had migrated within the
country, 87.6 % moved from rural to urban areas, while only 12.4% moved in the opposite
direction. Over 50% of them permanently settled in cities.
During the last several decades, migration has occurred from rural to urban areas, the chief
factors responsible for this migration are: slow progress in the agriculture sector, low crop
yields, lack of alternate employment opportunities and environmental degradation due to
water logging/ salinity, deforestation and desertification.
The large rural influx has, in turn, contributed to the overburdening of urban infrastructure
and urban services. There has not only been a rapid decline in the quality and availability of
basic urban resources and amenities, such as housing, potable water,
transportation,electricity, gas, drainage and sewage but also mushrooming of katchi abadis
(squatter settlements), often located on the most marginal land. Today, squatter
settlements account for about 25 to 30% of Pakistan’s overall urban population. The
municipal institutions do not have sufficient resources and technical capacity to
accommodate the needs of increasing urban population.
According to a study, the selected cities are growing at a growth rate from 3.67% to 7.24%
which is much higher than the overall growth rate of Pakistan, i.e, 2.8%. Major cities in
Pakistan are estimated to double their population in next ten years. These cities are
generating high amounts of solid waste which is increasing annually with the respective
population growth.
Growth in Solid Waste Generation

Presently it is estimated that, 54,888 tons per day of solid waste is generated in Pakistan.
The Ministry of Environment undertool a study during 1996 on “Data Collection for
Preparation of National Study on Privatization of Solid Waste Management in Eight
Selected Cities Pakistan”. The study revealed that the rate of waste generation on average
from all type of municipal controlled areas varies from 0.283 kg/house/day in all the
selected cities. It shows a particular trend of waste generation wherein increase has been
recorded in accordance with city’s population besides its social and economic development.
Waste Generation Estimates
30
Keeping in view the population growth of 2.61% per year, an estimate of solid waste
generation has been made as follows:
Solid Waste Generation on the basis of Population for 2004
It is important to note there is a big difference in Pakistan between solid waste generation
and the amounts reaching final disposal sites. In developed countries, the two figures are
usually much the same since most waste arising must be disposed of formally.
The situation is made worse in Pakistan as there are no weighing facilities at disposal sites
and no tradition of waste sampling and analysis. Furthermore, the types and quantities of
waste arising and reclaimed vary with the locality and, to some extent, with the season; and
areas with more traditional lifestyles tend to generate relatively small quantities of waste,
and segregation and reclamation practices are more widespread.
Solid Waste Management Scenario- Strategic Challenges

Solid waste in Pakistan is generally composed of plastic and rubber, metal, paper and
cardboard, textile waste, glass, food waste, animal waste, leaves, grass, straws and fodder,
bones, wood, stones and fines to various extents. The detailed physical compositions of
waste are given in the table below:
Physical Composition of Waste in Selected Cities (%age Wise)
31
The typical composition of municipal waste in Pakistan is shown below;
Typical Composition of Solid Waste in Pakistan Cities (%)
Presently domestic waste in Pakistan has not been carried out in a sufficient and proper
manner in collection transportation and disposal regardless of the size of the city. Solid
waste management by municipalities as a whole is quite inefficient as it collects only 51 to
69% of the total waste generated.
No weighing facilities are installed at disposal sites. The scavengers play an important role
as they separate recyclable at various steps of existing solid waste management.
Hazardous hospital and industrial wastes are being simply treated as ordinary waste. Open
burring of waste especially non-degradable components like plastic bags are adding to air
pollution. Municipalities have been reported to spend considerable portion of their budgets
on solid waste management but as a return receiving nothing (no tax) from the population
being served.
32
1. REFERENCES & RESEARCHES CITED:
Q.1 https://helpsavenature.com/different-types-of-environmental-pollution
http://www.sustainablebabysteps.com/kinds-of-environmental-pollution.html
https://www.corrosion-doctors.org/NaturalWaters/Pollutants.htm
https://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Books/Handbook.htm
https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/causes-and-effects-of-soil-pollution.php
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12071649
Q.2 https://www.environmentalpollutioncenters.org/air/
https://ourworldindata.org/air-pollution
http://www.biologydiscussion.com/pollution/air-pollutants/air-pollutants-classification-and-
adverse-effects/16725
https://www.scribd.com/document/313340887/Air-Pollutants-Their-Types-and-
Classification-3
Q.3 http://eschooltoday.com/pollution/water-pollution/effects-of-water-pollution.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution
http://www.theworldcounts.com/stories/how-does-water-pollution-affect-humans
Q.4http://www.pcrwr.gov.pk/Publications/Water%20Quality%20Reports/Water%20Quality%
20Monitoring%20Report%202005-06.pdf
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/47814952_Water_pollution_in_Pakistan_and_its_i
mpact_on_public_health_-_A_review
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21087795
Q5 http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/noise-pollution.html
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/noise-pollution.html
https://www.environmentalpollutioncenters.org/noise-pollution/
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/speech/noise-pollution-definition-sources-and-effects-of-
noise-pollution/28295
http://eschooltoday.com/pollution/noise-pollution/sources-of-noise-pollution.html
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/noise_auditory.html
Q.6https://www.thebigger.com/biology/pollution/what-are-the-effects-of-radioactive-
pollution/
http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/environment/envi_pollution_intro%20-%20radioactive.html
Q.7 http://www.environment.gov.pk/images/environmentalissues/BriefSWMPak.pdf
https://www.scribd.com/doc/24944967/Solid-Waste-Pollution
file:///C:/Users/Hammad/Downloads/solidwastemanagementppt-141201231450-conversion-
gate01.pdf
https://juniperpublishers.com/rapsci/pdf/RAPSCI.MS.ID.555586.pdf
https://www.brighthub.com/environment/science-environmental/articles/92943.aspx
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/42bf/d5b1694ac0b425fbdd31baa879af0924ce9f.pdf
http://web.mit.edu/urbanupgrading/urbanenvironment/sectors/solid-waste-sources.html
https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/sources-effects-methods-of-solid-waste-
management.php
33

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Department of Home & Health Sciences

Block No. 06, Sector H-8,

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (3676)

What are different types of Environmental Pollutants?

The following are the types of pollution perceived in our environment:

• Exhaust fumes from vehicles

Air pollution is linked to asthma, allergies and other respiratory illnesses.

• Litter found on the side of the road

• Airplanes, helicopters, and motor vehicles

• Raw sewage running into lake or streams

MORE TYPES OF POLLUTION

• Thermal Pollution: It is characterized by excessive heat, and is mainly the result of

The concentrations of various substances in water in dissolved, colloidal or suspended form

Environmental Mobility of Pollutant

CLASSIFICATIONS OF AIR POLLUTANTS:

Air pollution is the human introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological

Classification of Air Pollutants

However, they are classified in different ways as follows:

Typical air pollutants included under this category are:

B. According to Sate of Matter:

Nitrogen Oxides, NOX:

Sulphur oxides, SOX:

Carbon monoxide, CO.:

Adverse Effects of Air Pollutants:

Effects of Air Pollutants on Human Health:

Effects of Air Pollutants on Plants:

Effects of Air Pollutants on Materials:

Effects of Air Pollutants on Animals:

Types of water pollution

2. Surface water pollution

4. Ground water pollution

7. Chemical Water Pollution

Other causes of water pollution.

Sewage and waste water

Ocean and marine dumping

Underground storage and tube leakages

Effects of water pollution on human and environment.

• Death of aquatic (water) animals

Q. No. 4: Explain different sources of water pollution in the context of Pakistan.

Water pollution in Pakistan

Sources of water pollution in Pakistan

Microbial contamination of drinking water

Microbial contamination of drinking water in Pakistan

For example, in Bahawalpur, Faisalabad, Gujranwala, Lahore, Multan, Rawalpindi and

Health impacts due to microbial contamination of water in Pakistan

Approximately 70 % of the drinking water supplied by the government authorities in

Whether a given sound is as pleasant as music or as unpleasant as noise depends on its

Sources of Noise Pollution:

(i) Industrial Sources:

(ii) Transport Vehicles:

(iv) Public Address System:

(v) Agricultural Machines:

(vi) Defence Equipment:

(vii) Miscellaneous Sources:

(i) Physical Effects:

(ii) Physiological Effects:

The physiological manifestations of noise pollution are several as mentioned below:

The psychological manifestations of noise pollution are:

Noise Pollution Level and its Harmful Effects:

Level (in db) Effects

30—60 RRRRRRRRR.. Stress, tension, psychological (illness, heart

60—90 RRRRRRRRR.. Damage to health, psychological and

60—120 RRRRRRRRR Damages to health and ontological (ear

Above 120 RRRRRRRR. Painful effects in long run.