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    Guy Hoofdstuk 5

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    20 tayangan16 halaman

    Guy Hoofdstuk 5

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    Guy Hoofdstuk 5

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    John Guy indian V&A Publications Caturmulha Mahadeva (caturmukialiiga, four-taced liga), detallStone,in situ Nachna Kuthara near Bhumara, Madhya Pradesh, sth contury.Amerian institute of indian Studies Iconography and Emotion — power and conviction of Indian temple sculpture is the product of two forces, Firstly, itresults from the use of a complex symbolic language that the lay devotee can read’ without priestly assistance much in the way that Christian iconography ‘was (and stills toa degree) a partof a shared visual language of the populace. Secondly, itis charged with aesthetic qualities that convey ~ through an appeal tothe senses~ of emotional states aimed at reaching into the heart of ‘the devotee. This tests the artist's ability to engage with the viewer's emotions This is of course the universal ingredient that separates mundane imagery from art.In Indian aesthetic theory this quality was formally recognized and defined as the study of rasa Expressing emotion and aesthetic delight: sa in Indian sculpture asa has.a variety of meanings, but can at its simplest be described as the essence of an experience, a state of heightened pleasure or bliss. The concept has had a place in Indian aesthetic theory since Bharata wrote his seminal treatise on the performing arts, the Natyasastra, dating in its present form from around the fourth or fifth century CE. Bharata explained rasa as an emotion or sentiment ‘capable of being tasted [with pleasure]! Itidentifies the satisfaction experienced bya connoisseur when heightened psychological states are evoked through the performing and visual arts.In this essential way rasa is analogous to bhatt, in that it expresses the ultimate aesthetic experience in just the way that bhakti expresses the peak of devotional passion. It is very probable that these parallels are not coincidental, as both concepts were formulated in their present forms ina shared intellectual climate in the second half of the frst millennium CE. ‘The Natyaéastra represents the codification of Indian knowledge on the Gramaticarts, dance, musicand aesthetics. The arts are duly ascribed divine origins: Brahma is credited with creating dance in orderthat celestial dancers (apsards) could perform this art for the first time, and Vivakarman, the divine architect, was instructed to build a dance hall (mandapa) in which they could perform. The dance mandapa is an integral part of every Hindu temple, as was a toupe of hereditary female temple servants (devadasi, slave of god), whose duties inchided dancing for the deity (pla38)? Dances characterized in the Natyasastra as having two aspects, ndtya (moire) and nrtya (pure dance).Both dramatic tools are employed to achieve a powerful ‘mood or emotion - the rasa — which combines elements of both the emotional and the aesthetic to achieve a heightened experience. These dramatic devices were employed in devotional and secular contexts. In the context of temple arts, the sculptors and painters were instructed to employ the dramatic tools of stagecraft gesture, expression, passion and colour to create their ownart, The of rasa is evoked as the central criterion for high aesthetic achievement in forming In his writings, Bharata identifies every arena of the arts, visual and p ‘ural panting depleting celestial dancers felebrating lord Sivaas Natasja at Edambaram.Bfhdahiivara (Rajarajesvara) pte, Tanjavr Tamilnadu, Early th century, ota period, Photograph by VX. Rajamani Siva Natarij. This dancing form of Siva conveys the majesty and suthorly of Siva asthe supreme treat Siva displays. a series of muds, hand gestures with specfciconographicmeanings fis two lower hands, thedovmtumed hand (geiamucd) gestures tothe shelter of his raised leg while the alsed hand with expesed palm gives reassurance and protection tothe devotee {abhayamadrdihisupper-ight hand holds the ‘ram (damorurudré),marking tie. Tanjavut ‘istic, Tamilnadu. Early roth century fate Pallava-erly Chola period. Copper alloy 68.6em.VEAIM.2-1934. Bequest of Hadley Parvatl relaxing with Nandi at her fet, waiting {ortheir Lord Siva, Parvati’ casual department Captures tie tender and pted mood of theerotle mood vinggar. Retief on the main sanctuary vim), Kalésanatha temple, Kanchiparam. Early 8th century, Cola period. Photograph by the author eight ‘sentiments’ moods or lavours,'as named by Brahma’ Each is assigned how these moods translate into the emotional ire of Indian sculpture: the erotic (sringgara)(pls.1q0-1),the comic (hasya), aname,and we canat once re ‘the pathetic (earuna), the furious (rawdra)(plaga),the heroic (vira},the terzi (bhayanaka), the odious (bibhasta) and the marvellous (adbhuta)(pls.144-5). Bharata goes on to provide a shortlist of ‘durable psychological states'—love, mirth, anger, energy, terror, disgust and astonishment (p142} together with a longer list of thirty-three complementary psychological states and theiz identifiable states of distress (sdttvika), and histrionics conveyed through gest (mudtra)? The experience of rasa can be generated by any one of the sentiments prevailing, but it will embody elements of many emotional states. Reviewing the astonishing range of emotions explored through the medium. of temple sculpture it is easy to see how the aesthetic theories devised for the dramatic arts provided a vast repertoire of sentiments that could be given expression in sculpture and painting. The artist could do this in full confidence that the audiences of the day would readily comprehend the intended messages. Bharata does acknowledge that not all will respond equally tothe experience of art, and identifies the connoisseur (rasta) as the most susceptible to rasa. As the fourteenth century commentator on aesthetics Visvanatha wrote in his Sahitya Darpana { Mirror of Composition’),'pure aesthetic experience is theirs in whom. the knowledge of ideal beauty is innate; it is known intuitively in intellectual ec: rasa is described by Bharata as being the result of a complex dialectic process of complementary elements generating a‘churning ofthe heart, out of which arises a higher emotional state, He draws the analogy cof fine cooking, in which each of the foodstuffs and spices contributes to the pleasurable taste; in the same way each of the emotional moods or sentiments contributes to the total experience ofthe state of rasa. Bharata explains the dynamics of the process further ~each mood is seen as linked to another in a causal relationship, hence the eight sentiments arise out ofthe original four, namely the erotic, furious, heroic and odious, Hence, ‘a mimicry of the erotic is \d the result of the furious is the pathetic, the result of the marvellous, and that which is odious results in the terrb] Colours are assigned to these emotional states: the eroticis green, the comic ey, the furious red, the heroic yellow, the terrible blac! se emotions is then explicitly sy’ Arriving at a state called the comic heroic is called the white, the patheti he odious blue and the marvellous gold. Each o jentified with a prominent Hindu deity: ICONOGRAPHY AND EMOTION ss © A processional con of Siva as Bhikgafana (Lord ofthe Ascetic) the divine ascetic wth skull ‘up nis hand, Siva ins form asa wandering ‘mendicant entored forest hermitage, much to theconsteration ofthe Brahman community, hose wives failed t conceal thelr desie forthe beautiful lod This subjecisunfalingly treated inahighly charged sensual manner invoking the erotic sentiment of sringgara Svetavanesvara temple Tirwenkadu, Tanjavur Dstect,Tamilaadu, Photograph bythe author April 1993 ‘Mural painting depicting woman expressing astonishment, embodied nthe pathetic mood of karune, Ajanta, Mabarasthr. 6th century, Vakataka dynasty. Photograph by the author 1981 16 Vignuis the god of the Brotic Pramathas/Ganas the Comic Rudra (Siva) the Furious Yama the Pathetic ‘Mahaikila the Odious Kala theTerible Indra the Heroic Brahma the Marvellous We can therefore readily see the manner in which the moods expressed as rasa, developed as an aesthetic theory to explain the power of the dramatic arts, had such immediate application in the visual arts of painting and sculpture. 8 sections titled ‘Gesture of major and minor limbs’ catalogues a repertoire of dramatic gestures and assigns specific emotions to each. Under ‘Gestures ofthe head! is a section ‘Glances to express the sentiments’ describing in remarkable detail the correct manner in which glances should be used to express specific rasa Witness the glance bhayanaka (terrible), in which ‘the eyelids are dravm up and fixed, and the eyeballs are gleaming and tuming up.It indicates a great fearandis, used in the Terrible Sentiment,’ or the raudri (cruel), ‘the pitiless glance in which che eyeballs are rough, red, raised, and the eyelids are still,and the eyebrows knitted. Itis used in the Furious Sentiment, (pl.43). A contrasting expression is vira (heroic), in which ‘the glance is bright, fully open, agitated, serious, and in which the eyeballs are at the centre of the eye. Itis used in the Heroic Sentiment. The expression of love (a loving glance’}is conveyed through snigaha, the facial expression of tender sweetness (pl.146). Invaluable to sculptors was the guidance offered on hand gestures and movernents of the body's limbs, Sixty-four gestures of the hand (mudrds) are described, each intended to convey a specific meaning, either a particular action oran emotion, Not all aspects of Bharata's descriptions of staged body gesture: translated readily into static arts —the repeated references to the flashing of eyes {in anger or fear) and the movement of eyelashes, for example —but enough did +o enable sculptors and painters to draw much inspiration from the Natydsastra, as the later silpasastras extolled them to. One of the most famous of these texts, the Visnudharmottara, compiled around the fifth-seventh centuries, contains in its section the Citrasatra, passages extolling the importance of rasa as a quality to be striven for in sculpture and painting. Mimicking the Natyasastra, the commentator cites the same principal sentiments as desirable in painting (and sculpture). The authors of the Citrasiitra then proceed to add instructions for the rendering of postures, préportions, charm, detail, faithfulness to nature, foreshortening and so on. It states that INDIAN raMetescuteTuRE Sivm slaying Andhaka, embodying the fury and ‘adasiva. The supreme expression of Siva's ine form cach face expressing contrasting odor sentiment. Onthe lefts Sivaasthe ‘roome form of Sivals aghara aspect, opposite the sot Features ofthe feminine aspect of “as nature, Vamadeva-Parvat, and in the centre he divinely calm and meditative Siva asthe stem yogi Mahadeva. Rockcut reli, pants, Maharastra, 350, Vakataka dynasty. Jercan institute of nian Studies sudo Sakyamun seated in ‘Smisperiamudrt the Buddha reprsentedin ‘ postuteis calling the earth (goddess) to thes: hisunshaken calm nthe face of Mia's sth and temptations. This Buddha conveys the istry of supreme yogic discipline. The effect is createan image at whic tomarvel adbhuta {) Thismonumental image would have ‘pied sanctuary none ofthe many large anastic complexes in medieval Bihar. Found in tthern Ghar. rith-1ath century, Pala period Ickschiet. Height 138 m. VBA 2-906. ven by the Architectural Assocation a work of art has failed that lacks good postures, likeness or sentiments (rasa) ‘The achievement of rasa, then, was a necessary component of a praiseworthy painting or sculpture from at least the latter part of the first millennium CE. ‘The technical manuals (Z4stras) pertaining to the visual arts are thus generally accepted to have grown out of a dialogue with those written to dizect the dramatic arts,as discussed in Chapter 2. Not all works of art are necessarily imbued with sufficient levels of emotion to allow ther to achieve rasa. The language of symbolic action, central to the dramatic arts, carried over into the pictorial language ofthe representational arts of painting and sculpture. Because the sculptor has to achieve his dramatic message ina single statement, expressed as an action frozen in time, he has jievea heightened level of expressiveness. Thus temple sculptures tend tomore often reach a higher aesthetic and dramatic leve often settles for verisimilitude, nature as seen in a mirror. To achieve its full theatrical potential, temple sculpture must ernbody, ina distilled form, essence of dramatic action. Anything isachievedismerely narrative, three-dimensional storytelling. In either case, the ability of a temple icon or relief sculpture is also dependent for its impact on the knowledge and understanding of the subject mattera brings to the encounter. toac ‘an painting, which ography that the viewer-devotee A02¥ AND EMOTION 9 as > Sus anPanati(Undmabesvra} wth sa represented \jkiyina Dla the Givine export ofthe ssn de eupe trmbody in gesture and expression thelving {dance th sigdho moot, ebay agen, ‘Aimora ist tar Pradesh hcontuny, Katyrperiod rey peenstee Helge Vaiss Reading the signs The emergence of a complex set of iconographic forms in religious sculpture reflected a need to make manifest complex ideas and abstract notions of divinity and divine power. Much of this imagery demanded expression in supra-hurman form, with gods displaying multiple arms and heads, or metamorphosing into hybrid creatures, part human and part animal. Bssentially these representations ‘were the result of early attempts to give physical form to both complex abstract ideas and imagery evoked in creation myths. Usually this zesulted from a desire toconvey the multi-dimensional personality of the deity, as vividly witnessed in ‘the earltest representation of Siva in androgynous form, Atdhandrisvara, which appear in the early Kushan period (p57). This image has less to do with sexual ambiguity and more with inclusiveness, Siva as the all-embracing god who encompasses all aspects of the male and female in his personality, capable of creating and sustaining the universe! ‘This is most sublimely represented in the large rock-cut relief version of this subject in the mid-sixth-century Cave at Elephanta, near Mumbai, The generous use of the flexed posture (bhariga) allows the fernale aspect to prevail, This ‘feminine aspect of Siva’s personality is also given milder expression as the left face of the monumental Sadasiva relief at Blephanta, where the gentle features of Varmadeva-Parvati align with the meditative and serenely majestic Siva ‘Mahadeva in the centre, and both contrast with the wrathful ugra aspect on the right (pL4q). Each of the faces depicted embodies a different emotional state or rasa, This rock-cut masterpiece is arguably the quintessential expression in Indian religious art of the concept of Siva as his Ultimate Form, five aspects concentrated into one. The Elephanta Sadasiva depicts three aspects, the fourth (behind) and th (upper) are conceptually present but are implied, not depicted In this form, Siva follows the concept of the paficamukhalirga {five-faced lirga), the most ancient and complete artistic expression of Siva's unknowable form. (see pp37-41). This sculpture remains the greatest anthropomorphic representation of Siva known tous. Deities are represented according toa given set of conventionsas defined by the Sastricliterature (see Chapter 2).Essentially, the deities are represented in fourmodes: 2. Meditative (yogic) (pls. 144-5) 2, Pleasurable (bhoga), enjoying worldly pleasures, and central to bhakti cults 3. Heroic (vira), the favourite of kings and warriors 4, Terrifying (abhicarika) (pls48-9 and 152) 7 Accordingly, they must observe specific postures, gestures, ornaments and bodily ‘and facial expressions appropriate to their roles, Postures are specified. Deities are represented either standing (sthanaka, straight or fiexed), or seated (Asana), sometimes ona designated animal that serves as their vehicle (vahana). Very occasionally they are depicted reclining (Sayama), as in the case of Visnu in his cosmic sleep on the serpent Sena, or prostrate, as Siva trampled beneath Kali,or ‘the Buddha's passing into nirvana. Other postures are designated for specific devotional goals. Deities seated in rajalilésana are worshipped by those seeking a boon of worldly satisfactions; seated yogdsana posture is worshipped by those seeking self-realization (yoga) and liberation (mokga). Other deities are seated ina manner tohhelp in overcoming and destroying one's enemies. n this latter form, the animal vehicle (vihana) is replaced by a demon (rdtsasa},and so on. Inall, some eighty-four dsanas are specified in the gastric literature, Hand and arm gestures (mudras and hastas] play an important role in INDIAN TEMBLE SCULPTURE ‘Door guardian (drape) one ofa pate _anking’a temple sanctuary entrance cra south india. cx7th-xBth century alychromed wood. Height 28 em, [8A5.22-1980 communicating the deity’s message, and employ the language of gesture borrowed from dance (pla39}. These are shared by deities of al faiths in India. The ‘most universal hand gesture is that of abhayarnudra, in which the deity extends protection to the devotee with an upturned hand, palm exposed (pls.54 and 58), Next is that of varadamudrd, the granting of boons or blessings; hete the hand is down-tumed,also with the palm exposed to the devotee. The Hindu repertoi ‘snot so extensive, nor is that of Jainism, in which the twenty-four meditatin thankaras have little need of a large language of gesture. Rather, itis the Buddhists, with their emphasis on didactic instruction and the use of narrative, who most developed the use of the meaningful hand gesture. There isa great number of these gestures, many of which are associated specifically with the mote‘advanced’ schools of Buddhism, especially Vajrayana. The latter share much of the more esoteric gestural vocabulary with Hindu ritual and Tantrism, The hand positions are often supplemented by the holding of sets of attributes. This is universally the case in Hinduism, and in some Buddhist contexts. These can be symbolic indicators of intangibles, such as the Vajra nunderbolt’ sceptre associated with early storm gods and inherited by Indra, and by Vajrapant in the Buddhist context. Some are symbols of the deities’ nature, asin the lotus (padma), especially favoured in a Buddhist context as a symbol of purity. Most typically, however, these attributes are associated with combat Visnu’s discus (cakra) is a battle weapon to be feared, as isthe sound of the conch trumpeted on the battlefield to instil fear into the enemy. Siva sports his tistla, with which he slays his crazed errant son Andhaka as portrayed at Elephanta and Ellora (plq3), and Durga displays all the divine weapons lent her by the male gods to defeat the demon Mahisa (p52) These attributes al serve as symbolicidentifiers, and reflector allude to the god's identity. Very occasionally the attributes are represented in human form, as in the anthropomorphic personification of Visnu's weapons (éyudhapurusa), ‘the Cakrapurusa, the discus personified as a man and Gadadevi, the female personified club. More typically, it isthe personifications of nature that accompany the deity. Hence we see medieval representations of Siirya the Vedie sun god flanked by attendants and guardians and at his feet, the dirninutive figure of his principal consort Prabha (Brightness, rays oflight);he is served by two female archers, Usa and Pratyiisa, who personify dawn and drive off the hosts of the night (frontispiece). ‘A number of systems has come into operation for the classification of Indian religious imagery. Central to these are notions of hlerarchy, in which one god prevails and to whom others defer. This results ina central god and a cast of secondary deities to whom devotion can be directed, according to the devot INDIAN TEMPE SCULFTURE 8 Mahia, wrathfuland vengeful 1 nestation of Sva Bhairav, whose name ams he Groat Destroyer [of Time]. Mahakala re fames emanating from his head and wears jemi entwined snakes anda garland at homan slalls He tramples remorseless on erorpse while wielding a skull-cup laying knife seg skull mounted eldent {ria} He embodies rsomeness. Vajrayana Buddhism quickly "opted iz as thelr wrathful guardian par ecellnce and tis imagery was transmitted to ‘Tetan Budi. Eastem india, possibly Orisa Tat century Eartem Ganga period. Basalt Height 109 cm, V&AcIM30~-1930 Bhairava, Siv's deadtul and violent ugra emanation is widely worshipped in Nepal. Heis apeillycolebrated during the annual Ina “ja festival, when images suchas this one are txposed tothe public Kathmandu, Nepal.7th entry Malla period, Repoussé copper with filing and point, and inset with stones Hight 6g em. VEMay2—193 t “eemonurental fig of Maryam,

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