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 PETROLEUM REFINING
TECHNOLOGY

Dr.RAM PRASAD
B.E.(HO~S.),M.Tech., Ph.D.
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING HARCOURT BUTLER TECHNOLOGICALINSTITUTE,

KHANNA PUBLISHERS
Operational Office: 4575115, Onkar House, Room No. 3-4, Ground Floor,
Darya Ganj, New pelhi-110002
Phone: 23243042 Fax: 23243043
Despatch Office: 11, Community Centre, Ashok Vihar, Phase 2
Delhi-110052. Phone : 27224179
Regd. Office: 2-B, Nath Market, Nai Sarak, Delhi-110006.
Ph. 23912380
Published by :
Romesh Chander Khanna
for KHANNA PUBLISHERS
2-B, Nath Market, Nai Sarak -,*
Delhi- 110 006 (India) It givesme a great pleasure in presenting the book on "Petroleum RefiningTechnology'
.The relvant topics for working Chemical/Petroleurn Engineers in Petroleum-Refineries have.",,
been covered.
The first chapter gives an account of theories of oil and gas formahon, methods f o p ,
exploration and drilling for oil and gas. It highlights the development of petroleum refininB
industry in India. ,. <

The knowledgeof chemisty and compositionof crude oil isessentialin the selectionof the
Q All Riehfq,Regerv,ed , , refining processes. The characteristics, constituents and classification of crude coils have been.
discussed.in chapter 2.
This book orpart thereof cannot be tmnslated or reprodued i n any form (exceptfor review or
criticism) without the written permission of the Author and the Publishers. Indian crudes such as Bombay l-hgh,Assam are waxy in nature. These require sped;
method for transportation. The problems related to the handling of waxy crude oils and their
feasible solutions have heen discussed in chapter 3. --
Quality control of petroleum-productsisa necessity if the products are to give satisfactory
wrformance to the customers. Bureau of ,lndian~Standard; New Delhi sfandaLdizes ~rocedure
ind issues specifcationsfor eachpetroleumproducts.~efktion,methodandsignifi-eof the
various laboratory tests have been given in chapter 4.
Chapter 5discusses manufacture,properties and uses of petroleum products. Thischapter
First Edition covers LPG, naphtha, gasoline, kerosine, ATF, diesel fuel, fuel oil, hydrocarbon solvenk " '
Fifth Reprint :2008 lubricating oils, petroleum waxes, bitumen and petroleum coke.
Petroleum refining processes have been discussed in six chapter (611). Crude ou
distillation is the first unit in the refinery and carried out in two stages-atmosphericand vacuum,
Before discucssing these processes the removal of impurities by electrical desalting process ha,
Price :Rs. 185.00 been discussed.The influenceof the process variables on the opera tion of a fractionatingcolumn
?.*
and the scope for improvement have been discussed in Chapter 6.
Crude oil distilltion produces reside which is to be upgraded. Thennal conversio~~..
processes for this purpose include visbreaking and coking. These processes have been discussea
Computer Typeset and Figures designed by : in chapter 7. lh

Steps Computers, D-2/77, Dayd Pur, Delhi 110 094 Catalytic conversion processes use catalyst and either change carbon number or carbon/
Ph. 218-1367 hydrogen ratio. The most important processes include fluid catalyticcracking, catalytic reform- -
ing,hydrocracking,catalyticalkylation, isomerizsltion and polymeriza tion Catalytic isom& tion
neither changes carbon number nor carbon/hydrogen ratio. These processes have been dis-,.
cussed in chapter 8.

Printed at.. Print India. Delhi-95

Finishing processes are necessary to make the petroleum products suitable for use with .
respect to performance,corrosivity, suitabilityon storage,odour etc. Various finishing processes
such as hydrogen sulphideremoval processes, sulphur recovery processes, sweeteningprocess-,,.
es, solvent extraction processes and hydrotreating processes have been discussed in chapter 9.
 (iv)
L@~&&@p@b*ould possess and maintain proper viscosity, flow as liquid at thehandling and
operatingtemperature and have good thermal and oxidation stability. Lubricating oils of various
grades are manufactured by mixing of the selected lubricating oils base stock and additives. A
modem lube oil complex consists of vacuum distillationunit, solvent deasphalting unit, solvent
extraction unit, solvent dewaxing unit and hydrofinishing unit. These processes have been
discussed in chapter 10. The details on the manufacture of petroleum waxes have also been
presented ir\ this chapter.
k 1 PETROLEUMEXPLORATION,PRODUCTION AND REF~NING 1-14
Chapter 11discusses the manufatture of bitumen from crude oil. 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
Generationof process engineershave accepted corrosion as a fact of life, an incurablevirus 1.2 FORMATION OF OIL AND GAS 2
1.3 OIL AND GAS EXPLORATION 2
whose progress may be slowedbut never stopped. Corrosioh can reduce the lifeof refinery units. 1.4 DRILLING FOR OIL AND GAS 3
Chpater 12 disucsses typk and forms of corrosion and their control in crude oil distillation, 1.5 PRODUCTION OF CRUDE OIL AND NATURAL GAS 5
thermal cr?cking, fluid catalyticcracking,amine gas processing,and steamand condensatelines. 1.6 PETROLEUM REFINING, OPERATION AND OPTIMIZATION 8
1.6.1 Selection of Processes for Optimization 9
Air, water and soil are vital of life on this planet. These resources are to be protected and 1.6.2 Optimization in a Running Refinery 10
used wisely. Chapter 13 discusses air pollutions, water pollution and sludge treatment and 1.6.3- Refining Capacity in India 11
disposal. 2'
Chapter 14, highlights, designs and operation of pebbleurn processing equipments. -
2 CRUDE OILS CHEMISTRY AND COMPOSITION 15-28
It is hoped that this book in its present form will be useful for the students of chemical 2.1 INTRODUCTION 15
engineering. i 2.2 CHARACTERISTICSOF CRUDE OILS 15
2.3 CONSTlTUENTSOF CRUDE OILS 16
I will be highly grateful, if short comings of this edition inform of contents, errors are 2.3.1 Hydmarbons 17
highlighted to me. 2.3.2 Non-Hydrocarbons 22
2.4 CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE OILS 25
-Ram Prasad 2.4.1 Characterization Factor 26
K ~ ~ P W 2.4.2 Correlation Index 28
2.4.3 Method of Structural Group Analysis 28

f
3 TRANSPORTATION OF WAXY CRUDE OILS 29-44
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 PIPELINE TRANSPORTATION
3.3 WAXY CRUDE OILS
I 3.3.1 Definitions of Rheological Parameters
3.3.2 RheologicalClassification of Fluids
3.4 FLOW PROPERTIES OF WAXY CRUDE OILS
3.5 PUMPABILITY CHARACTERIS~CSOF WAXY CRUDE OILS
3.5.1 Temperature
3.5.2 Yield Stress-Model Pipeline Test
3.5.3 Flow at Restart
- - -

3.5.4 Effective Pipelie Viscosity

3.6 METHODS FOR PIPELINE TRANSPORTATION OF WAXY CRUDE OILS
3.6.1 Use of Pow-Point Depressants/Flow Improvers
3.6.2 Mechanism of Flow Improvement
3.6.3 Point of Additive kijection
3.6.4 Pour point Reduction by Additives
3.6.5 Effect of Flow Improvers on Yield Stress and Viscosity
3.6.6 lncorporation of Low Pour Point Crudes in Waxy Crudes
3.6.7 Crude Oil Conditioning
 (vii)
5.2.3 Usesof Naphthas
OF
4 --Q~~&JTY~ONTR OPETROLEUM
L PRODUCTS 45-64 5.3 MOTOR SPIRIT
4.1 INTRODUCTION 5.3.1 Spark-Ignition Engine
5.3.2 Composition of Gasolines
4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF LABORATORY TESTS 5.3.3 Properties of Gasolines
4.3 DISTILLATION
4.4 VAPOUR PRESSURE 5.3.4 Types of Additives Used in Gasolines
5.3.5 New Gasoline Blending Components
4.5 FLASH POINT AND FIRE POINT
4.6 OCTANE NUMBER 5.3.6 Alternative Gasoline Fuels
5.4 KEROSINE
4.7 PERFORMANCENUMBER
4.8 CETANE NUMBER / 5.4.1 Manufacture of Kerosines
5.4.2 Composition of Kerosines
4.9 ANILINE POINT
4.10 DIESEL INDEX 5.4.3 Properties of Kerosines
4.11 CALCULATED CETANE INDEX 5.4.4 Uses of Kerosines
4.12 CALORIFIC VALUE 5.5 AVIATION TURBINE FUELS
4.13 SMOKE POINT 5.5.1 Composition of ATFs
4.14 CHAR VALUE 5.5.2 Properties of ATFs
4.15 VISCOSITY 5.5.3 ATF Additives
4.16 VISCOSITY INDEX 5.5.4 Storage and Handling Problems
4.17 PENETRATION TESTS
4.18 FREEZING POINT Y' FUELS
5.6.1 Compression-Ignition (Diesel) Engine
4.19 CLOUD POINT AND PQUR POINT 5.6.2 Composition of Diesel Fuels
4.20 DROP POINT OF GREASE 5.6.3 Properties.of Diesel Fuels
4.21 MELTING AND SEITING POINTOF WAX 5.6.4 Additives for Diesel Fuels
4.22 SOFENING POINT OF BITUMEN 5.6.5 Alternative Diesel Fuels
4.23 INDUCTION PERIOD OF GASOLINE T,~NELOILS
4.24 THERMAL STABILITY OF JET FUELS @ 5.7.1 Nature and Composition of Fuel Oils
4.25 GUM CONTENT 5.7.2 Properties of Fuel Oils
4.26 TOTAL SULPHUR 5.7.3 Combustion of Fuel Oils
4.27 ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY 5.7.4 BumersCharacteristics and Applications
4.28 COPPER-STRIPCORROSION TEST 5.7.5 Storage, Handling and Preparationof Fuel Oils
4.29 SILVER-STRIPCORROSION TEST FOR AVIATION TURBINE FUELS 5.8 PETROLBUM HYDROCARBON SOLVENTS
4.30 ASH 5.8.1 C~ppositionof Hydrocarbon Solvents
4.31 CARBON RESIDUE 5.6.2 Classificationof Hydrocarbon Solvents
4.31.1 Conradson Method 5.8.3 Manufacture of Hydrocarbon Solvents
4.31.2 Ramsbottom Method 5.8.4 Properties of Hydrocarbon Solvents
4.32 COLOUR
4.33 DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
--.
4.34 GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY OF PETROLEUM GASES AND LIQUIDS
d3w 5.8.5 Uses of Hydrocarbon Solvents
LUBRICATING OILS
,, 5.9.1 Mineral Oil-Based Lubricants
4.35 REFRACTIVE INDEX OF HYDROCARBON LIOUIDS
4.36 LEAD IN GASOLINE
--- - - vt!'d 5.9.2 Synthetic Lubricants
5.9.3 Basic Functions of Lubricants
4.37 WATER SEPAROMETER INDEX (MODIFIED) (WSIM) 5.9.4 Automotive Engine Oils
4.38 DUCTILITY 5.9.5 Indushial Lubricating Oils
5.9.6 Electrical Insulating Oils
5.9.7 Jute Batching Oils
S PETROLEUM PRODUCTS 65-176 5.9.8 White Oils
5.9.9 Steam Turbine Oils
5.1 LIQUEFIED PEIROLUEM GASES LC
5.9.10 Metal Working Oils
5.1.1 Composition of LPG 5.9.11 Miscellaneous Oils
5.1.2 Properties of LPG 5.10 PETROLEUM WAXES
5.1.3 Production of L K 5.10.1 Types of Petroleum Waxes
5.1.4 Uses of LPG 5.10.2 Properties of Petroleum Waxes
NAPHTHAS 5.10.3 Manufacture of Petroleum Waxes
5.2.1 Methods of Manufacture of Naphthas 5.10.4 Uses of Petroleum Waxes
5.2.2 Composition of Naphthas 5.10.5 Quality Requ~rements-Industry-wise/End-use wlsr
 A 1 BITUMENS
5.11.1 Asphalts 7.5.6 Maximization of Diesel Oil Production
5.11.2 Petroleum Bitumens 7.6 SOAKER VISBREAKING
5.113 &lty Specificstiow of Bitumens 7.6.1 Conventional Soaker Visbreaking
5.1 1.4 Physical and Chemical Characteristicsof Bitumens 7.6.2 High Conversion Soaker Visbreaking
5.11.5 Uses of Bitumens 7.7 COKINC -
5.12 PETROLEUM COKE 7.8 DELAYED COKING
5.12.1 Types of Petroleum Cokes 7.8.1 Process Description
5.12.2 Properties of Petroleum Cokes 7 8.2 Process Variables
5.12.3 Storage and Transportation of Petroleum Cokes 7.8.3 Typical Operating Condi tions
5.12.4 Uses of Petroleum Cokes 7.8.4 Typical Yield Pattern
7.8.5 Needle Coke Processing
7.9 FLUIDCOKINC
6 CRUDE OIL DISTILLATION 177-191 I 7.9.1 Rocess Description
7.9.2 Typical Operating Conditions
6.1 INTRODUCTION 177 7.9.3 Typical Yield Pattern
6.2 IMPURITIES IN CRUDE OILS 177 7.10 REXICOKING
6 3 NEED FOR DESALTING OF CRUDE OILS 178 7.10.1 Process Description
6.4 ELECTRICAL DESALTING OF CRUDE OILS 178 7.10.2 Dual Gasification Flexicoking Process
6.4.1 Process Description 178 7.10.3 Comparison of Conventional and Dual Gasification Proresses
6.4.2 P r o m Variables 180 7.11 OTHER COKING PROCESSES
6.4.3 Typical Operating Conditions 181 7.12 CALCINATION OF GREEN COKE
6 5 CRUDE OIL DrsTnLATION 181 I
7.12.1 Process Description
6 6 ATMOSPHERIC DISTILLATION OF CRUDE OIL 182 7.12.2 Typical Calcination Data
6.6.1 Process Description 182
6.6.2 Prefractionation 184
6.63 Typical Yield Pattern 8 CATALYTIC CONVERSION PROCESSES
6.7 VACUUM DISTILLATION OF REDUCED CRUDE OIL 222-266
6.7.1 Process Description 8.1 INTRODUCrlnN
6.8 OPERATION OF FRACTIONATING COLUMNS -
6.8.1 Temperature 8.2.1 Development of Fluid Catalytic ~ r a c h g
6.8.2 Column Pressure 8.2.2 Technological Aspects of Fluid Catalytic Cracking
6.8.3 Flow Rates 8.2.3 Principles of Operhtion
6.8.4 Reflux 8.2.4 Process Description
6.8.5 Reboiler/Stripping Ste? . 8.2.5 Process Variables-Reactor Section
6.8.6 Stability of Column Ope; hon 8.2.6 Process Variables-Regeneration Section
6.9 IMPROVEMENTS IN FlZACTIONATINGCOLUMNS 8.2.7 Feedstock Characteristics
8.2.8 Typical Operating Conditiow
8.2.9 Typical Yield Pattern
'4. THERMAL CONVERSION PROCESSES 192-221 8.3 CATAI.YTIC REFORMING
8.3.1 Reforming Reactions
7.1 INTRODUCTION 192 8.3.2 ReformingCatalysts
7.2 THERMAL CRACKING REACTIONS 193 8.3.3 Process Description
7.3 THERMAL CRACKING 194 8.3.4 Process Variables
7.3.1 Process Description 195 8.3.5 Typical Operating Conditions
7.3.2 Typical Operating Conditions 195 5.3.6 Typical Yields and Product Quality
7.3.3 Typicak Yield Pattern 1% 8.3.7 Pretreatment of Catalytic Refomer Feedstock
7.4 VISBREAKING 196 8.3.8 Catalytic Reforming For Aromtics Production
7.5 CONVENTIONAL VISBREAKING 196 8.4 HYDROCRACKNG
7.5.1 Process Description 197 8.4.1 Applications of Hydrocracking
7.5.2 Process Variables 138 8.4.2 Types of I-lydrocracking
7.5.3 Typical Operating Conditions 199 8.4.3 Hydrocracking Reactions
7.5.4 Typical Yield Pattern 200 8.4.4 Hydrocracking Catalysts
7.5.5 Decoking of Furnace Tubes 200 8.4.5 Process Description
8.4.6 Typical Operating Conditions
 (4 (xi)
8.4.7 Typical Yield Pattern 10.3 VACUUM DISTILLATION
8.5CATALYTIC ALKYLATION 10.3.1 Process Description
8.5.1 Alkylation Reactions 10.3.2 Typical Operating Conditions
8.5.2 H,SO, Alkylation Processes 10.3.3 Typical Yield Pattern and Product Quality
8.5.3 HF Alkylation Processes 10.4 SOLVENT DEASPHALTING PROCESS
8.5.4 Process Variables 10.4.1 Process Description
8.5.5 Typical Operating Conditions 10.4.2 Process Variables
8.5.6 Comparison of %SO, and HF Alklation Processes 10.4.3 Typical Operating Conditions
18.6 CATALYTIC ISOMERIZATION 10.4.4 Typical Yield Pattern and Feed/Product Quality
8.6.1 Chemistry and Catalysts of the Process 10.5 SOLVENT EXTRACTION OF LUBE OIL FRACTIONS
8.6.2 UOP Butamer Isomerization Process 10.5.1 Comparison of Furfural, NMP and Phenol
8.6.3 UOP Penex Process 10.5.2 Process Description
8.7 CATALYTIC POLYMERIZATION 10.5.3 Typical Operating Conditions
8.7.1 Chemistry and Catalysts of the Process 10.5.4 Typical Yield Pattern and Feed/Product Quality
8.7.2 UOP Catalytic Polymerization Process 10.6 SOLVENT DEWAXWG PROCESS
8.7.3 IFP Dimersol Process 10.6.1 Process Description
10.6.2 Typical Operating Conditions
10.6.5 Typical Yield Pattern and Feed/Product Quality
10.7 HYDROFINISHING PROCESS
10.7.1 Process Descrition
9.1 INTRODUCTION 10.7.2 Typical Operating Conditions
9.2 HYDROGEN SULPHIDE REMOVAL PROCESSES 10.7.3 Feed and Prod:lct Quality
9.2.1 Absorption by Regenerative Solvents 10.8 MANUFACTURE OF PETROLEUM WAXES
9.22 Adsorption on Solid Beds 10.9 WAX SWEATING-PRINCIPLESAND APPLICATIONS
9.3 SULPHUR CONVERSION PROCESSES 10.10SOLVENT DEOILING
9.3.1 Claus Process 10.10.1Fundamentals of Solvent Deoilig
9.3.2 Selective Oxidation Processes 10.10.2Process Description
9.3.3 Wet Oxidation Based on Aqueous Solutions 10.10.3Process Variables
9.3.4 Thermal Cracking of Y S 10.10.4Typical Operating Conditions
19.4 SWEETENING PROCESSES 10.10.5F i s h i n g of Waxes
9.4.1 Caustic Treatment
9.4.2 Solutizer Process
9.4.3 Doctor Treating Process 11 MANUFACTURE OF BITUMENS 320-327
9.4.4 Copper Chloride Sweetening
9.4.5 Hypochlorite Sweetening 11.1 INTRODUCTION
9.4.6 Air and Inhibitor Treating Process 11.2 SELECTION OF CRUDE OIL
9.4.7 Merok Processes 11.3 METHODS OF MANUFACTUREOF BITUMENS
9.4.8 Sulphuric Acid Treatment 11.3.1 Distillation
9.4.9 Clay Treatment 11.3.2 Solvent Precipitation
9.5 SOLVENT EXTRACTION PROCESSES 11.3.3 Air Blowing
4.5.1 Edeleanu Process 11.4 AIR BLOWING PROCESS
9.5.2 Udex Process 11.4.1 Process Description
9.53 Sulfolane Process 11.4.2 Process Variables
9.6 HYDROTREATING PROCESSES 11.4.3 Typical Operating Conditions
9.6.1 Applications of Hydrotreating 11.5 TYP!CAL REFINERY PRODUCTION
9.6.2 Hydrotreating Reactions 11.5.1 Cutback Bihunens
9.63 Hydrotreating Process for Distillate Desulphurization 11.5.2 Bihunen Emulsions
9.6.4 Hydrotreating Process for Smoke Point Improvement 11.6 HANDLING AND DISTRIBUTION

10 LUBE OIL MANUFACTURING PROCESSES 296-319 12 CORROSION CONTROL IN REFINING PROCESSES 328-338
10 1 INTRODUCTION 296 12.1 TYPES OF CORROSION
10.2 EVALUATION OF CRUDE OILS FOR LUBE OIL BASE STOCKS MANUFACTURE 296 12.2 FORMS OF CORROSION
 2 PETROLEUMRERNlMp TECHNp4OQY
1.2 FORMATION OF OIL AND GAS
There are two theories of the genesis of petroleum: the organic theory and non-orgMc
theory. The former holds that petroleum is of an organic origin and is the currently
favoured proposal. It predicts limited reserves worldwide; moreover Indian reserves are
predicted as minimal. The latter maintains that it is of non-organic genesis, supposedly of
primordial origin. On the basis of this theory, oil reserves would be much larger than those
predicted by the organic theory. India, oil-poor in the organictheory, is predicted to be oil-rich
in the non-organic one.
The non-organic theory that was much prevalent earlier suggests that oil is formed
by the action 'of waikr on metallic caibides or by atmospheric radioactivity or by cosmic
radiation. ?he rme occurrence of oil in,meteorite~,igneous dykes and in petrozoic rocks
weighs in favour of the non-organic theory.
The organic theory which is the most prevalent today, suggests that the petroleum
was formed from remains of plants and animals that died millions of years ago and accumu-
lated on ocean floors. Tiny, minute marine animals and plants comprising mainly algae,
fungi, diatoms and foraminifera used to float on the surface of the sea and were abundant
during the Mesozoic (about 225 million years back) and Cainozoic (about 65 million years
back) period. On the other hand, rock surface and land are continuously getting eroded.
Broken pieces of material like sand, clay, lime are carried away by rain and subsequentJy
depamted on beds of oceans. In millions of years the sediments pile up to a great height
(several thousands of metres) and subsequently, pressure and temperature continue tq rise
in *ose rocks. Shells and skeletons of dead planktong, sponges and jelly fish sublime.on sea
bed and subsequently get buried under the piling sediments. Aerobic bacteria present infie
ocean flgor and sediments act as scavengers and attack the organic patter. Some complex
chemical bansformation takes place that is facilitated by the enormous overburdeq,:pres-
sure, rising temperature and the absence of oxidizing agent. The process continues
through various complicated stages and chemical reactionsforming fats, amino acids, lipids
and finally into oil and gas. Oil is produced within the temperature range of
100-200DC. Source rock when subjected to greater overburden pressure and temperature
beyond 160°C for a long period does not generate liquid oil but gas.
Amongst the different sedimentary rocks like sandstones, shales, clays and limestones,
the clays are more suitable for formation of oil and serve as 'source rocks'. With the piling
up of sediments, lower sediments get progressively compressed and the fluids in them are
squeezed out. Oil formed in the clay rises up or sideways and if the rock above is,like a
sandatme with pore spaceo, fissures and fractures, the oil tends to get accumulated in such
a reservoir, provided this upward and sideways migration is prevented by the intervention
of an impervious layer of rock known as cap rock from moving further. This layer traps the
oil. In a normal oil pool gas remains at the top, oil below i t and water further below. These
pools remain intad till disturbed by earth.
1.3 OIL AND GAS EXPLORATION
Oil exploration is a complex process. It begins with prognostication and involves au
entire gamut of activities. m e hunt for the hydrocarbons is focused at the favourable
or promising areas based on geological considerations. Geological survey aims at selection
'and mapping of such areas which satisfy the criteria of being sedimentary rocks preferably
of marine origin with the presence of anticline structures of Mesozoic (50 percent of oil
produced belongs to this era), Cainozic (40 percent of oil produced belongs to this era) and
Paleozic (10 percent of oil produced belongs to this era) periods.
kfikwkr;~ x ~ t ~ ~ A ~ ~ o h ; ~ AND
R b REFINING
~ a r c n o ~
Owing to the presence of fault planes and fissures, a seepage of oil to ihe surface may take
place. The analysis of surface samples of soil, water and oil or gGy'in such cake$'; for
detection of oil and gas is known as geochemical prospecting.
Magnetic surveys are then done. Magnetometer survey is carried out either on the
ground or from the air by air-borne magnetometer. It is based on the principle that the
magnetic attraction on the surface depends on the magnetic intensities of the rocks and their
distance from the surface. It helps to delineate the nature and possible dip angle of the
subsurface rocks. Dip is the angle that a geological stratum makes with a horizontal plane
(the horizon): the inclination downward or upward of a stratum or bed. The same principle
can be applied to the measurement of the gravitational attraction at the surface by a
gravimeter. These two methods together help in demarcating areas having thicker pile of
sediments with better chances of oil.
The seismic method of oil and gas exploration involves generation of a series of shock
waves in the subsurface and picking up the reflected waves by sensitive geophones which
are laid along a line on the surface. The time taken for the return signifies the velocities
through the subsurface rocks and these can be interpreted to assess the nature of rocks and
their angle of dip.
The field studies are supported by an e q u d y elaborate testing of samples in the
laboratory. Sophisticated modern equipment like Electron Microscope, Mass
Spectrograph, X-rays Chromatograph, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR),Spectroscopy,
Infia-red, Ultra-violet and Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA) are indispensable aids. On
the basis of all these studies, the most suitable places where oil is likely ta be found is
selected for drilling.
1 1~ Q L ~ NFOR
G OIL AND GAS
The drilling equipment (shown in Fig. 1.1)consists of a tall huge tower called 'derrick'
anchored to the ground, engines, Qd pumps, water tanks, draw-works and many other
modules. The travelling block is suspended from the crown block (a large pulley at the top of
the derrick). The swivel, attached by a large hook to the travelling block, can rotate freely,
and the kelly is fitted onto this. Rotary table at the centre of the derrick floor holds the kelly
(which has a square or hexagonal cross-section) and can be rotated at a desired speed by
the engine. To begin drilling, the kelly is hauled up the derrick, its bottom is fitted with a
drill bit and lowered through the rotary table until that bit is resting on the earth. With the
starting of the engine, the rotary table rotates the kelly and the drill bit which is pressed
hard against the earth by the weight of the drill string above, cuts and penetrates the rock
at the bottom.
Much of the success of drilling depends on the quality of mud which is a specially prepared
slurry of water, various chemicals and adhesives like barytes, bentonites, xanthanite. It is
pumped through the drill column to carry out several important functions such as removing
cuttings to the surface, cooling the bit (heat generated is due to friction), lubricating the
bit, providing buoyancy to the drill string to reduce the hook load, retaining the side wall of
the well from caving in, allowing to examine the hole by lowering' a variety of instruments
and balancing the formation pressure that prevents the formation fluids from running into
the well. With the increase in depth of the open hole, the side walls of the well tend to collapse.
To avoid this, a casing pipe is introduced into the hole. The annular portion between the hole
and the casing pipe is cemented. M h e r drilling is carried out with smaller diameter bit, and
at a certain depth a smaller diameter casing is introduced and cemented in the same manner.
v
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s't ID . OPg: P3 xgEi

pores. Second limitation is,$hat,the advapcing. water f q n t :bypaqsessjgpif~qt.~rt$n?~~of
the reservoir due to difficult :wellplacements and wexpe+g:.,geologi+ c d g u r a t i ~ n s .
This lack of a perfect!sweep efficiency is responsible for leavingbehind crude oil'$ -!as not
reached by water.flood. ,.
Anumber of methodsltechniques are employed to recqver the rem&ing oil. The diffkrent
techniques may be ,broadly classified into three categories:
( a )Miscible/immiscible displacement process
Miscible hydrocarbon displacement (LPG enriched gas & lean gas)
o Carbon dioxide injection
Inert gas injection (Nitrogen, air, etc.)
( b )Thermal recovery processes
Steam stimulatibn
Steam flooding (including hot water)
In-situ combustion
(c) Chemical flooding processes
Suifactant$olyrnei injection
Polymer injection
Alkaline flooding
Selection of a suitable EOR method requires a careful analysis of reservoir
configuration and the oil properties. Trapping and release of fluids from porous media is
a complex phenomena. For a spe.cific system, trapping behaviour is controlled by Ci), the pore
geometry of rock matrix, (ii) fluid-rock properties, in particular, wettability and (iii)
fluid-fluid i n t e r a ~ o n sincluding viscosity, rock density difference, interfacial tension
and, partition coefficient. The general properties of pore system, its shape, size and
distribution in the rock plays an important role in trapping of oil. It is established that (1)
Trapping of fluids occurs in unique and reproducible patterns which are controlled by
capillary forces, (2) Nearly complete networks of interconnected equal size pores exist
throughout the pore size distribution, (3).individual pores have good accessibility with
adjacent pores, thereby allowing alternate paths of flow around igolated immobile phases, (4)
Fluids can be trapped at pore constrictions for all degrees of wetting. Non-wetting
pqases are trapped in discontinuous masses whose lengths are largely determined by
interfacial tension and potential gradient. For selection of suitable EOR methods
laboratory investigation under simulated conditions of reservoir are necessary. Mathemati-
cal models (3 phase, 3 dimension) are used to analyze the reservoir geometry. The past
performance of the reservoir is matched to predict the performance of reservoir under
different operating conditions. Based on these modelling studies, the most suitable EOR
methoais selected for maximum~productionof the oil in place.
In India, the increase in crude oil production is not significant during the last 4 5
years. No new oil fields with substantial reserve is discovered. The percentage of
primary recovery in the total oilgroduction is gradually decreasing. Rate of production from
Bombay High is reported to have already shown the declining trend. Some of the old oil
fields of Assam and Gujarat under prevailing price structure have already reached their
economic limit. On economic terms, both ONGC and OIL may prefer to plug the well, pull
ptliwUk, .:: .;,
'' ; ~ t o ~ A n o ~ ; ~ ~ bAND
~ uRERNING
cno~
&:'A
the pipe and abandon t h e lfield. It is beWr ts use EOR meth6da after primary recovery.
It is imperative that proper assessment of EOR potential in the country is required for making
recovery plans. The successful application of any EOR process depends on its viability. The
price of oil is the most important factor for how much will be produced and when. Gas
injection may not find wideapplication in India. It is true that natural gas or associated gas,
propane, enriched gas and lean gas are available in India. But the pressure required to liquefy
the gas is high and it may not suit the shallow Indian reservoirs. So is the case with air and
nitrogen gas injection. But in some reservoirs carbon dioxide could be injected. Again it
depends on the availability of low cost carbon dioxide in plenty. It is estimated that about
4-6 million cubic feet of CO2 is required to recover a barrel of crude oil, Although thermal
methods predominate as most successful EOR processes, they may not be applicable on a
large scale in India. Depq of the Indian reservoir and API values of 28 - 45 restrict the
injection of steam or hot water for additional recovery because of apparently unattractive
cost benefit ratio. Of course in Western sector it may be successful in some reservoirs. In-situ
combustion is the most difficult method to predict properly. Moreover, it is economical
and successful in heavy oil recovery only. It appears that the chemical flooding viz.
polymer flooding or surfactant-polymer flooding may prove successful in India. For
alkaline flooding, acid number of the crude must be high which is not so with Indian crudes.
Polymer flooding method may become more popular in India not only for its easy handling but
also for the economic returns. Surfactant/polymer flooding is required to be assessed
properly, particularly the non-compatible nature of surfadant to various monovalent and
bivalent metal ions and in Indian reservoimkhese metals are plenty.
The production of crude oil in India is given in Table 1.1.From a meagre 0.5 million
tonnes of oil produced from one of the oldest oilfields in the world-Digboi in Assam, the
indigenous crude production is expected to go up to 44.45 MMTPA (million metric tonnes
*r d u r n ) by the turn of the century. Till 1947, India used to produce around 0.5 to 1.0
MMTPA of crude oil from Digboi and Naharkatia fields of Assam. After independence in
1947, two public sector companie~wete formed by Government of India, namely Oil &
Natural Gas Commission (ONGC)and Oil India Limited (OIL)to explore and produco oil and
liatural gas in India from both onshore and offshore fields. Up to 1960, India was
practically depending on imported crude oil.
ONGC first struck oil in Cambay in 1958-59 and in Ankaleahwar fields (Gujarat)in 1960,
followed by oil finds in other pmta of Gujarat such as Nawagam, Ahmedabad, Mehsana,
Gandhar, Kalol, Tapti basin, 'etc. Biggest oil field struck by ONGC was Bombay High
offihore fielda in Arabian sea in 1974. In 1976, ONGC found a large sour gas r e s e ~ o i at r
South Bassein, south of Bombay High offshore fields. Also, gadoil was found in smaller
quantities a t Heera, Panna, Ratna and Neelam offshore fielda in Arabian sea.
Crude production in the country has been going through fluctuating fortunes. From a
high of 34.09 million tomeu in 1989-90, it dipped to 26.95 million tomes in 1992-93 and
stayed a t that level in the following year also. But in the past couple of years there has been
a recovery and the crude production was 33.865 million tomes in 1997-98. The offshore
reserves account for about 63 percent of total oil produced in the country. This reveals how
poor the country is in on shore oil reserves and how much it is dependent on Bombay High.
The production of natural gas in the country is currently about 74 million standard cubic
metres per day and the total gas availability for sale is about 61 million standard cubic metres
per day.

*
Table 1.1 Production of Crude Oil4n &dia
1.6 PETROLEUM REFINING, OPERATION AND OPTIMIZATION
Crude oil in its raw form has got very limited use. By adopting various refining processes
in the refineries, crude oils are separated into a number of fractions which are suitable for
various uses. Crude oils received from oil fields are stored in refinery storage tanks. .From
these takes crude oil is fed to the atmospheric distillation unit. All the crude oils are basically
mixture of hydrocarbons which can be physically separated in groups of different boiling range
by the conventional process of distillation. The fractionation of crude oil yields the following
streams in the order of rising boiling ranges :
Methane, Ethane and Propane mixture
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
NaphthasfGasoline fractions
KerosindAviation Turbine Fuel (ATF)
High Speed Diesel Oil (HSD) and Light Diesel Oil (LDO)
Reduced crude oil (RCO)
Depending upon the crude oils properties and impurities present in them, the above
products are further treated to meet the required specification. Reduced Crude Oil is further
distilled under vacuum to recover some more lighter fractions. This process produces light
vacuum gas oil (LVGO),heavy vacuum gas oil (HVGO) and vacuum residue (VR).In order to
meet the viscosity specification of fuel oil, heavy residues such as HVGO, RCO and VR are
processed in visbreaking unit to reduce their viscosity. To produce bitumen, the vaccum
residue is air-blown in Bitumen Blowing Unit. To maximize the production of middle distil-
lates, heavy residues such as HVGO are processed in fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) unit,
hydrocracking unit and coking unit. Straight-run naphtha of low Octane Number is processed
in catalytic reforming unit to enhance its Octane Number. Reformate rich in benzenhluene
~FTR[31;ELlM,~ERPTORATION~~ODUCTION
AND REFINING a r9
is used as feedstock-fonUdex unitito prPduce benzene an& toluene. Kerosine fkacti~nsfrom
-
certain crudes such as Assam crude do'not meet specification on amoke point due to higb -
aromatic content. To improve smoke point of these fractions, Edeleanu process is usually
employed.
1.6.1 Selection of Processes for Optimization
Optimization is the process of determining the best poseible way of selecting the proces.
scheme and fixing the unit capacities etc. The selection of procesdprocessing scheme is to be
optimized considering all the objective functions. The following factors would influence + .
decision making in the selection of processes and process scheme for a given refinery :
Type of crude
Product slate
Product specification
~nve*tme;t and operating costs
Merits/demerits of alternative processes.
L Type of crude. The tyRe of c v d e to be processed in a refinery yill have a bearipg on t;
process scheme? For example, crudes containing high sulphur require the iqstallation of
desulphq+ation processps/sweeteningprocesses for streams. Kerosine from Aghajari c n
has a peculiar problem of colour dekrioragon on ptorage which cannot be corrected by treating
I
in an Merox upit apd hence desulphurieatiop w i t would be req%ed. Some crudes are I
suitable for m&ing lubricabg oils, a n d , q p ~are
e not suitable for making bitumen. In some
cases the prodpcts do not require any tieatment like some of the in9genous crudes e+-
Therefore, each and every stream from the crude distillap?,n unit has to be evaluated tol
making a suitable scheme of treatmentdsecondq processing facilities.
e o d u c t slate. The capacity of the refiney, the type (lube or non-lube) and size oft.,
secondary groceseiffgwjb is largely governed by the product slate which jn turn is decided
by the dem,pd of petroleum,~roducts,The process scheme is selected so as to match with t-
product slate. b Indiq, generally the yaximization of middle distillates is,the main criteria.
J In U.S.A., the production ,of light djetillateq particularly, motor spirit is maximized in F r '
unit by keeping high severity operations, If the objective is to maximize HSD in a refinery
processing high sulphur crudes, it would be advantageous to provide an FCC unit with 9
desulphurisation unit either for straight-run gap oil or cycle oils so as to,upgrade the heavl-.
ends to the maximum poaeible extent as limited by sulphur specifications. For extreme
maximization of middle distillates, a hydrociacker can also be considered which upgrades t
heavy ends to the middle distillates (ATFkerosineiHSD)better than any other knownprocess.
Yield of kerosin$HSD from a hydracracker is of the order of 80 to 85 percent as compared
about 50 percent from FCC unit.
Product specifications. Geaerally the treatment processes are governed by tF
specifications of the products. Depending on the type of crude processed and the quality or
streams, a judicious selection of treating processes has to be made from a simple chustic wash
Merox sweetening units to a hydro=deeulphurisation unit. The flash point of the midc.-
distillates are often relaxed, with a view to m-ize these products. Therefore, to take
advantage of such relaxed specifications, it would be desirable to provide a naphtha splitt
column inthe process scheme, sa that heavy naphtha can be injected into kerosinddiesel cuts.
Investment and operating aosts, This is a very important point to be kept in view whil-
fixing the refrnery capacity, selecting the processes and sizing the unit capacities. However,
the selection of process technology at times may entirely be'governed by the products demand
rather than by investment cost limitations. Investment costs are function of refinery size ar.-

i t & a s n p ~ ~ ~ ~ y t ~ f ~ h ltihe e tm'1~1wmp1~xityi~ze6ults
:fox~ as!the capa@f increases.
~ n v 8 8 k r n ~ n ~ p e m ~ r w e s s i n g , c a p progressively
acity go,down.h some cas$s,,apartidar
planh~siree~~~eomeieW~miud~md k s o m e othea w e e it maypot be.ecoaomie;JI. For
example; some oil companies do not consider it economical to provide FCC Unit of less than
0.6 MMTPA capacity. Similarly, the latest trends are to provide single crude distillation unit
of 8 to 10 MMTPA capacity. i , i -
,I-
.. .-$Qxp~f$he,plants*tveconsuming high amount of fue1,ahd utilities. This aspect has to be
kept i P ~ X i e w ~ ~ w ~ ~ s e 3 eacprocess-For
ting. example, inxase ofhyQrgcracker, thetotal energy
c ~ n s ~ p t ' i bo spr ~ b ~ $
u.6
t times than that of Fluid catalytic cracker. Fufiher, a substantial
quantity,q&p~pSlthai~ copsumed to meet the hydrogen, requirelpent of h y & g c ~ ~ & n gThe
. the bperating costs of its units. In order to achieve this, the operatjng conditions of
total energy consumption in a fuel refinery would.be of the order of 10 to 11percent.
One has to be cautious in the selection of new process technology keeping in viey the
situation, location and availability of local expertise. Some of the technol~giesfor upgradation
of the heavy residues may not be straight way made applicable @ Indian conditions. Develop
ments like continuous catalyst regeneration may not be verJ;atractive to refineries which
upqaSI&qaphthaf?r #e production of motor spirit ?f bqder*te o c h k q u m ~ t . ' ~ e s u l P h ~ s a -
tio~iof Gel oil which i s $ow being practiced elsewhere with7 the okijedive df rMucing$ollution
in concd+qa$ed @au$+al flrei-i? rimy-not &e appli,cable+@s?in_e other situations, y h e p
p:ol$t$m - h @ s a$$ow. HydroqackinP ddugb a "e$j yitd pmck$s fo; h&hiking'niiddle
distillates h p a soEh@dcatkdmi!llurgy and ikgu+ea szecid operatibnd &d rnewnqnce
c a i e : ~ o c e s , o , w a@ted,forJFct hydiocrack@g"ofreeidu'es abuld call yo; s f i & q t high
i'?vestm~tsand Gg'hop,perqkirig costs becaube df the hjrdrdgen rkquirementh,,pa&~ularlykor
high &l@.u&des'.'R.eddced d v d e oil; fiod indigent& crucY$d because oftheir low ?ulpRur
and metal conbl;t$ &ohla dre better suitedto thiktype of te&ology.
Me$ta/demqets OF alterqdivq pyoces&ir: There may be more than qne prvess to do
the '&me m e OF operatidin. Fbr exhljk, th'e'r~are various'types of swebtenihgl$hce~sfor
naphtha@and ultihat&ly chohh has to be & b e on the meritk &&demerits of aeihdiyidual
processes, opkrating cpqp t+d quality of t&e pfoduct etc. Fo* extractipn of aromatics:fiom
kerosine, apart from conventional Edelead~prdcess one coqd possibly choose shlfolane
process or &d,hydr"dgenation in orddr to irp~rovethec'amoke'poiht. For the extraction of
arqmatics f r ~ m t h lube e oil distillates either furfural or phenol extraction could be adopted.
1.6.2 ~ ~ t & i ? h t iin
~ an R ~ n n i n Refinery
g these capacity additions in 1999, Essar's refinery atrJamnagaris likely to be commissioned in
dPtimization ofthe operition bf a runxi&;! refineiy is sutij&d to the influence of various
factors. There are, some factors which are beyond refinery's control. These include :
(a) c h h e mixture I
P E 7 R r % g E U M f E X W a ~ ~ ~ E I M : T lAND
O N REFINING rw
(c) To.plan(shut downs of vari6us unitsratoptimum time tu avoid the&@?&ed htiiitieb
consqmptions. 1 ,,I,,
(d) Various streams obtained f ~ diffvrent
m pftcesslirg units a i 6<ikgntilized to
produce the finishedprodncts. Several streams can be utilized in the production of
more than one product. The blenditigphttern of some products likembtor spirit and
HSD &o significantly influence the consumption of high priced intpbtted chemicals
like antiknock compounds, cetane improvers etc. This aspect should also be kept in
view while routing the different streams for production of these products.
(e) The profitability of a refinery can,be increased considerably by slight reduction in
the unit should be optimized by optimizing the reflw ratios of columns, excess air
in the heaters and maintaining a proper control on utilities and chemical composi-
tions in these units.
1.6.3 RefJning Capacity in India
l'hd total xefm$g.i{payjty in I?$+ as' on,\.Qi1997 stands at 61.55 MMTPA of which 58.55
MSd'I'PA is a c c b u n ~ dfor by the puljlic sector refineries @able 1.2). ~ ' ~ R P L
accduhts for the
btlbce. ~jt$'the ~ngoi~~gcomh$,~ioning of IOC'a Pqnipat re@ery,,+e,~@re~in$capacity
wh ri?ach k~67.55 ~lk'&~.'~e"el'alexpansion projectk ahd grassfoot ikfineries hive been
planned to enhance the,rehipg capaqity in the c o m S . About 31 myion tonnes of adqtional
&.dIAi%k 'capacityi s li~e1Ptb bki cr'@~d'ibB e ?omtry 1b9 Ftii'th: commi&i6:n$k of a
li&ge ~riv@f$sector refine'rj. a$d completion'of the eXli+dion, p~dq-es &p Public
s&&r/jdint sector r'efineries. Thi'major con9biition is e,xpected to c6rne4fi6h +! riiinery
being set up at Jamnagar'by Reliance: The compii(y has heeled up thd capacity #%refine*
to 27 MILITPA from the-earlier plan of 15,MMTPAreFnery. Among the public secp~!efineries,
IdC's Gujarat refinery has undertaken a h.749 crore programme to exband its ~apacityby
3 MMTPA. HPCL's Visakhapatnam refinery has undertaken a Rs. 998 crore programme to
expand its capacity by 3 MMTPA. MRPL, the joint venture between HPCL and the Aditya
Birla group is expanding itsccapaditYbjr 8 MMTPAat'&e'stirhatedlcost of Rs.3490 crore. IOC
Barauni refinery has an installed capaciwof3.3 MMTPA. The capacity is primarily limited
due to crude supply constraints from Assam oilfields. Now, the Haldia-Barauni crude pipeline
Iins been laid and is under commissioning to supply imported crude to Barauni. Apart from
Xinrch 2G02. The refinery was planned with a 9 MMTPA capacity, but Essar has since scaled
u p the capacity to 12,MMTPA.

(b) Type of processing units Table 1.2 Refining Capacity i n India

(c) Demaqd pattern
(d) Movement constraints Refinev CapacityMMTPA
(as on 1.4. 1997),
Company
(el Product specifications
E a r n a l streams IOC Guwahati 1.0
(g) Industrial relations. Barauni 3.3
Those factors which are within refinery's control are given below. 9.5
Gujarat
(a) To investigate the possibilities of improving over processing capacities not only for
Haldia 3.75
crude oil but also for secondary processing units.
(b) To adopt various effective measures of controllingthe erosion/corrosionin processing Mathura 7.5
units to improve their service factors. Digboi* 0.65
 P p , Q L E U W E v b P R w Q M ; PblQpUGTION AND REFININ0

*AOC,Digboi was taken over by the government in October 1981 and merged with IOC
Table 1.4 Consumption of Petroleum Products in India
The refinery production and consumptionof petdeqm+productsi s giyen$Tables 1.3-1.4. (In Thousand Tonnes)
In In$a the consumption of light.and heavy distillateshave beensfagnatkdgver t$epe.eod of
last Siie years. How+, the demand foi midd1,e ,&atjljates'ia'~'&ei$big's@ong'50 h$
.ip
r e c k t times. In order to meet :the' increasing d.em?d for, middle disFla%s:!60-65%),'the
second& and tertiary processink f@$ilities' . becoming$& bf1;1.bd.y~
. &e yelink$
. . cpmplqxts.
' . . .. ..
.::...., '
H 4 t o pmqesscrud? bib,?= gpttihgg+temati&awti6n:L d$&l?*%~+&<~j$?s ki+
efficienqies.'@e n,eedto co'nv* bottomcif:?+eb,arrelil:iii$ocleiitofuel
couM 'increase i h e r e f i n e ~
as~~mes,si~ific.mtim~;twce, ipIn,$a p@icul,+lyj@ 09pool 4aficit,c?nt$etddb$lwh a&d
India costiflues to dep,pnd feafly on impoited crude 'oil. '&e.,e$sting refineries skbuld
therefore upgrade,t&eirtechnologies, o p ~ i z e s n e r g y : c @ s ~ p*dt i ~fmpro+e&fficiencyof
furnaces and process equipmeritsto kclude the f1exib;iQt.yt;d p+c&g the broad spect,mm . . .c ~ d e
oil.

Tablg 1.3 Refinery Production in India

(In Thousand Tonnee)

ATF I 1001 1519 . ... . 1801 1636

HSD [ 7371 14624 $j85 ' , 1, 18289
LDO 1108 1177 1609 1453
3. Heavy ends 7907 10016 18196 13389
Furnace oil 4041 3791 4879 6358
.- , LSHSHSHWRFO 2079 4164 4550 4044
 PETRQLCUM1REFINING TECHNOLOGY

.. 1.S. Abbas, p e noxi-orgapic theory of the genesis of petroleum, Current Science, Vol. 71,
NO,9, ppF877-684 (1996X,
"
2. P. Dutia, The oil refining industry in India, Chemical Industry Digest, pp. 103-110
(hhrch 1997).
3. A. Borthakur, K.V. Rao and B. Subrahmanyam, Recent trends in enhanced oil recovery
by chemical methods, Chemical Engineering World, Vol. XXXII,No. 4, pp. 83-86 (1997).
4. A.X'~r0r.a:Status. &projectionsin the oil refining sector, Chem. Engg. Progress, Vol.
XXXE.N,o. 4, pp. 87-88 (1997).
-
CRUDE OlLS CHEMISTRY AND COMPOSITION
5. Aqonymous. India still lagging potential as major player on worid energy markets, Oil &
Gas J., pp. 19-22 (Feb. 12,1996).

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Petroleum, etymologically, means rock oil. It is natural organic material composed
principally of hydrocarbons which occur in the gaseous or liquid state in geological traps. The
liquid ,part obtained after the removal of dissolved gas is commonly referred fto as crude
petroleum or crude oil or simply crude.
Crude oil o c m in many different parts of the world, and its structure and composition
variestaccording to its source to such an extent that each producing area, and field, and
reseryoir bears its own profile just as individually as finger prints identify man.

2.2 CHARACTERISTICSOF CRUDE OlLS

Crude oil has been defined as a naturally occurring mixture, consisting predominantly of
hydracarbons andor of sulphur, nitrogen andor oxygen derivatives of hydrocarbons, which is
removed &om the earth in a liquid state or is capable of being removed. Crude oil is commonly
accompanied by varying quantities of extraneous substances such as water, inorganic matter
and gas. The removal of such extraneous substances alone does not change the status of the
mixture as crude oil. If such removal appreciably affeds the composition of the oil mixture,
then the resulting product is no longer crude oil.
Crude oils range widely in their physical and chemical properties. Typical properties of
several crudes are given in Table 2.1. Crude oils are brownish (light oils having large amounts
of distillates) to brownish black (heavy oils) in colour. Heavy oils have an unpleasant odour
(garlic like) due to the sulphur compounds, while the light crudes have pleasant aromatic like
smell. Though general, this is-not $ways true. Data for a considerable number of crude oils
indicate the specific gravities between 0.73 id' 1.02; most crudes gaving specific gravities
lying -&tween 0.80 and 0.95. These values are for surface conditions of temperature and

!
pressure. The kinematic viscosities vary from 0.7 to 1300 cSt a t 37.8"C; the bulk of the values
being in the range of 2.3-23 cSt.
In terms of elements, crude oils are composed principally of carbon and hydrogen. Of the
other elements present, sulphur, nitrogen and oxygen appear as heteroatoms in hydrocarbon
I derivatives, some of which occur as petroporphyrins, i.e. complexes involving traces of metals
I (mainly vanadium and nickel). Carbonthydrogen ratio is usually between 6 and 8. A wide range
I of metallic elements have been found, generelly as traces, in the small amount of ash obtained
by burning many crude oils. The elemental composition of crude oils is given in Table 2.2.
!

G
16 PETROLEUM REFININGTECHNOLQGY

2.3 CONSTITUENTS OF CRUDE OILS ~ h l b r b i ,pi,iphyrin&,a+e

~~~. tj.eeII'1y$,d8 &.sinam,;af d @ + ~ . ~ # & ~~.. ~ & -. l... ~ P %C.$ $ e
& l A,%.
The main constituents of crude oils are hydrocarbons. The proportions of the different compoun$s indicate a contributio? from,plant 6Ou,Kei3, a ~ o ~ ~ ~pr $!uk ~ ~ ~
types of hydrocarbona vary from one crude oil to another. Many members of each type are Hi$tp~ji,dnd hob$ljly B ~'ed$cin&eriiri~iiibnf: @&l$pi iio@hynnshm%%dn
presegt. Naphthenic acids, complex nitrogen compounds, and mercaptans account for some of i.a *&&: bd+it.i$b0$ b o w n h b t c61p"hli $~vh~s':inkP+$~<&{~&~#&,
the-yxygen, nitrogen and sulphur present in crude oils. In additioq, the resinous and asphaltic &egikihblebomilaht tjbdrees: 1 s o j x i d hy&r:,brbo$s 8'iG been r.e~<&~ed:th'e'~:bFdd$&%ai
substances present in some crudes contain oxygen and sulphur. Inorganic sulphur can be have structurkri tjrpital of substaixes'formea biologically: Other hydrocarboiii'st~u~tu~es~~ith
present as hydrogen sulphide (HzS) dissolved in the oil. Crude oil also contains trace elements biol'dg;icali*ni&, li'a"sbeen.detecb'd. .', . ,- <;:: :, . ; : . , ;: . <.;; <:.;
: . -

suth as metals, mostly in -small quantities-some contained in water impuritieg and some :;:<.Th& w&&p, &#b&ted .with ?oil:ma.gas & c c u m y l ~ t ~$8: o :usually
n~ - jn&&$aljris~lifiB)i and
existing as complexes in the hydrocarbon phase. appears Mmany fnstmces to' be modified$eaWater,tkepnncipa1:diKere'nc~s~bei~ a'deficiency
in sulphates, relatively less magnesium and commonly.,greaterconcentration than normal sea
Table 2.1 Typical Properties of Crude Oils water. Traces of hydrocarbons andorgrtllic acids are pksent.

2.3.1 Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are compounds composed solely of hydrogen (H) and carbon (C). The main
types of hydrocarbons present in crude oils are alkanes, cycloalkanes, arenes and hybrids
involving combination of these types. They range widely in boiling point, and many cannot be
distilled under atmospheric pressure without breakdown.
Alkanes.These are open-chain saturated hydrocarbons. They are also known asparaffins.
They can be divided into two types:
Straight chain alkanes - x~ormal
Branched chain alkanes - iso or neo
When carbon atoms are connected in a straight chain, they are known as straight chain
alkanes. When carbon atoms are connected in a branched fashion,they are known as branched
chain alkanes. '
'
Alkanes have a general formula Cn H2n + 2, where n is the number of carbon atoms. The
names ofthe alkanes end in -me. The first four alkanes have specialnames (methane, ethane,
propane, butane) related to their histories
H H H H H H H H H H
I I I I 1 I I I I I I,
H-C-H H-C-C-H H-C-C-C-H H-C-C-C-C-H
I I I I l l I I I I
H H H H H H H H H H
methane ethane propane butane
15. ( ~ econtent,
h wt. % ( - ( 0.0047 ( 0.006 ( 0.004 1 - ,tif

16. (KUOP ( 12.0 1 11.8 1 11.7 ( - From pentane (C5 Hlz) onwards, Latin or Greek numerals are used to reveal the number
of carbon atoms per molecule. A few examples are given below:
Table 2.2 Elemental composition of crude oils
CH3 - CHz - CHZ- CHZ- CH3 CH3 - CHz - CHz - CHz - CH2 - CHz - CHz - CH3
n-pentane n-octane ,
- Element Amount, w f 8
C 83.9-86.8 From butane (C4Hio) onwards, alkanes may exist in two or more forms (isomers)differing
H 11.0-14.0 in structure. For example, butane may exist in two forms as follows:
S 0.06-8.00
N 0.02-1.70
n-butane I
---- 0 0.08-1.82 cH3
--- Metals 0.0-0.14 isobutane
Ill
 , , ~ m & ~ , . p e ! m n ~ ~ i n ~ b t ' ; s....~ ~- ...~ ~ ; d i i ~ b ~ ~ b ~ ~5 ~,: 3F.j ~ ~ I w
ine f B h ~ i i ~ ~ ~ O ~ ~ ' b ~ f i v ~ ~ t i ' 6 ~ . ~di.;~!
,;

amY1um for nsmr

pentylenes may supersede this. For the higher members of the series the IUPAC system is
used. For example,
'H
I
H %HI
-C-H H

Blphenyl Naphthalene Anthracene Phenanthrene

The moat common mononuclear ammatics found in crude oils,are toluene and m-xylene.
The possible constituents of crude oils. include polynuclear species containing up to a t least
eight condensed rings. Many polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons present in petroleum are
carcinogens.
Alkenes. ,These are openchain unsaturated hydrocarbons,c o n w g a carbon-cirbon
d&&rh:!b. 7 ona; T
' ~tgn&~ the
~ : , chbbn-h,+ddi6h
~ pr!op,c~~hk.xrPi.it:~'d 'driabsgj,cli,c
..I .......f......
*em rs o C ~ Wl ~ l
m4;'th
*t{a%ahe;.
*e., we .' '.. iS( ; .GoS
CiH,, , e i e l y i:A,
fe :
pF&, .Ad$&.& 6 4 ?',le;&:,6f
eak.e)i :, ,an.d,,:& ?-1;'d;a:vi8r
.$&.&;::hd& $
,p&
*ivLfds&dtutai,is&h&&:&po8diti1;,d'e ped&g,,od ,&ei'&Pti:bh' s;i hl,&Ij:6$d
within the basic hainmu.&
, for =hpr8', . ~ 6 : i t i ~ g h c ~ w & ' b ~ & n nljre~ ~ 6 . a ~
expected, as follows:
p,@adlene . . . . . ! .:; : . l;'3-butadl@ne: ,:&penWeriw
:I -..:. .I3,
;b'he~ttiine
H H H H ,. ! : .: :'
t ':. ' .
.. ; , ,<, ;,! 2
H H H H . . . ; ;, ,!. .'; ; ; . < !.:. v. ' .' ,

I l l 1 I I I I A l ~ e e ~ ~ e e . a r e o p e n - c h a i n ~ h y d r o e a rcboo~ntsa h i n onecarbon-ctybon
g triple bond.
C=C-C-C-H H-C-C=C-C-H The fin&.member:o$thi~~s~eesi~acetylene, Cfia,:wbich,appe~~8;injexten44 f o h ' l a as:the
I I linear molecule: H-CGH. Additional members of the alkyne seriea:.comphe,-open-chain
H H
but-2-ene molecules somewhat similar to the higher alkenes but with each double bond replaced by a
t r i ~ l ebond. The.IWAC system of nomenclature.ri~pliesthroughout t h e series as with the
The number indicates the number of the first of the doubly bonded carbon atoms, alcenes, but t h e des&tem treats tho!~~htah&abers. as d&vativee,:of acetylene. Thus, .I:
numbered from the end nearer the double bond. In addition, the typical side-chain isoniei is for example,. H.arnWfijjcbuld . be d e s d & d !& .&itherbut-l--ge' b i s&ylacetylene. The ,

expected, that.is . . . ... . . . . . > I ! ; , ; , . ,,.

.,:, ,
boiling and relative densities of the alkynes are slightly higher than those of the
, , I ' ,.: : corresponding alkanes. , .,
H3C H ;j, VC,,.

' I
C=C
.. , .-8 , : .; ,. Cycloalkanoarenes. These, also called naphthenoaromatics, are mixed polycyclic
' I
H3C H
hydrocarbons and possess structures involvingfusion of aromatic with alicyclic rings, and may
carry aliphatic side chains. These h y $ ~ ~ & ~ ~ ; ~ Q appearing
u$ in the kerosine fraction,
...

-
I . I increasing in concentration in the higher-boiling dbtillaticn fractions and residues. Bicyclic
isobutene (2methylpropene)
~?!p~t$enp~~m~$c.. $nee.tu.prn~ti-~ r h g . &dfpop alicxy&c).ingee.?:p.$+in and..theic,alkyl
The two possible geometrical isomers of but-2-me are the foliowing: 4$vativ$ 3;" r'la!jiy$~.+&dadt' .9,keroeifte..apd:h& gas ,oi4,
. . ......<... ..... ,Ew , . -pl of+ , C:Q ~ P O ~ W &
7 L.

present
. . . giyen.belpw :
are. ...
: . . I. . . . . .
H-C-CH3 CHR-C-H . . > . . .

... . . .

. . . .

These isomers are classified by the Latin preiixes cis (on this side) and trans (across) i.,. ! : ., . .
indicating the relative locations of the two end methyl groups. Coneequeptly, there are four I n ~ a n O ' ( ~ ~ " ,'::o"~ . . . I .k(~ln.~Cio,H,2).. .. ...,,. . .. .
- ..
isomeric butenesin all. (1,2, 3, Ctetrahydmnaphaalene)
d '
2.3.2 Non-Hydrocarbons CH3 CHSCHCH3
I I
Crude oils contain appreciable amounts of organic compounds with structures incorporat- CH3 CH3
(CHI CHdz S
ing one or more (the same or different) atoms of sulphur, nitrogen, or oxygen in addition to 3-thiap'entane 2,4-dlmethyl-3thiipentane
carbon and hydrogen and some of these are associated with metals such an vanadium and (dlethyl sulphlde) (dhwrwyl sulphide)
nickel, i.e. they are organometallic in nature. A
Sulphur compounds. Sulphikr'is th8 mast.abundant atomic constituent of &de oils,
otherthan carbon and hydrogen. One of the origins of sulphur compo.ydsin the c v d e oils is -
~~&~~tcird:kulphiw~h-*~i;it .dtigs;siie$.bf&e.filarit
and'mirriLl $&&;ns'd;po&ted,&
.;<, :<,.. , .,< .,,! m ~ h e x a n a m w p h l d e )
geological beds. The other origin is the biogenic reduction ~f'"dil$h'&.~'&de oil* "&-y As in the case of thiols, the sulphides are generally very malodouroue.
considerably i n their sulphur content ranging from a few hundredths by weight to as ;puch Afew low molecular weight disulphides (dithiaabnw) have also beenshownto be present
#rceht OT sdbhdi. ~ u l b h u ycokedf of 13.95% foddd $ d a d p o i n t (inetah State in in crude&.The accurrence of disulphides in;prudeoile may be owing to the secondary reaction
. I :.. record&
Ui$.;Aj?.is #e,&ghkst . sulphur cdptent of any cqde:oil.. . .,.. I'. .
'. . . , *
of thiols with tln olriaant such as air or free sulphur. Organic disulphides are isologs of the
The * u l p h ~com~~unds~'~re'se'nt in c k d e oils can' be dividedlinto thiolq, &on& and organic peroxides, ROOR, but are much morestable. Examplea are given below:
.
Wlphides and thiophenes. (': i- @-
. .
" >.,v.-

.Thiolsi.alsocalled mercaptans,-are&hesulphur ana1ogues:ofthe alcohols (i.d.thiodcohols)

and characterized by the presence of the sulp-hydryl group, -SHd which takes the place of a
hydrogen.atom in,an alkane-p~:cycloalk.ane molscule.;Thiols:are.t&amain;sul$hur.compo~ds 23-dlthlabutane CHs
of lower~boiling.(.petroleum~~fraotioh~ (blow 200°C). Etamples uf.this'dltrss ohaul~hurCOW- (methyl dlsulphlde) 2-memyC3!&lthiehuxane
~ a ~ ~ . d l s u l p h I d e )
pounds are givep belaw:

CH3 SH QHGHzSH '(CHsh Ck SH

methapethld , e@anethiiol ~sopropanethlol
(methyl mercaptan) (ethyl,merw~tan) (~sopmp$imercaptan) Some examples of thiophenes found in crudes are given below:

thlophene 2-emytthlophene benzo(b)thlophene

'The #resence of thiols:'in the.~~etr~~c!u~il"hattions

ca;i+ies -cofp5sioR,I!rcibkems, c'talyit
p&sdin& an.d ~ple'&*t'i~60rata~,&d pf& oaouis. mbjg:a'te n& bMc:h&lj; poi*oi;d&
'.

.?C,.. .. I ..

~.
in low concentration, however, and they are often used as odourants iii LPQThe ibwer thibls
are the inost malodourous..One part in 50 million of ethanethiol can be detected in air by the
human nose. The odour is strong at 0.6 ppm arid distinct at 0.03-0.07 ppm. In high concentra-
tions, the odour ohanges to something like that of chloroform.
Thiols are stronger acids than alcohols, and use is made of this to remove low molecular Thiophene and its alk$ dNvativee are n o ~ y , r ~ l a t i v ~ I y . sconstituents
c~ce of crude
weight thiols from light gasolines with caustic soda solution. Hydroprocessingtechniques are oils, but condensed system-benzothiophenes, dibenzothiophenes, and higher polycyclics (e.g.
employed to desulphurise other oil fractions and here combined sulphur is eliminated as benibnaphth~thio~henes) are impartant component8ofall high aulphur crudes. Thiophene
hydrogen sulphide from all type of-compoundcontaining this heteroatom. derivatives are p d c u l a r l y abundant in erude oils containing high proportions ofmmatics,
resins and asphaltenes.
syao~spaaj jo d0n)Fse nam se .-a 'leaq ag!aads 'queqsuoa blpad-bq!soasr~ 'ququo3 uaSorp6q
s-e qans savadord i a q o pue d0nx u a a w q pado~a~ap suo!+81auoa Lxequaura~duroaaqq
u! saq lo33ej a w j o etlaqnJasn u y u r a q , 'uo!qaeq a w u! suoqieaolplCqjoadLq ~ep!+%d re jo
aaueu!uropa~da w q e 3 ! p ~03 pasn aq trea suogaeq wna~oqadjo donxjo sanIea aq? ' m u
0'11 - 0'6 sa!lamoxv
0'zT - 0.11 sauayqqd8~
O'ET - 9'ZT sugsisd

910aplu3 JO uo!pa&ssa13 j o - p o q l a ~ go
d npamg
~ Sn p.g e l q ~ ~

:shio~~ojSB am su0q~eoo"pbqjosassel:, p a r a m 103dbnx j o f ~ ~ r i p A

.s!sap.jq+am E uo angppe SF l g a e j uoge5pajSs.req3 s m spuqq LO s a q q x rod .pa,ws!p
s3tim1onguaarad (jdp w ( ~ '09
i "0s '01 qF! samqe&&&q' ~*'I@BX$AB Kq ahma u o r p m s i ~ ~
N J , u10~~~paqe$4ds~~1oga~rg
~ rtrna~oiqada 9 3 0 qqod ~Utfi0~'&833~%?
aqL . 3 ; g 9 a 9 ~ / 3 0 ~ b ' g
3~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ? qij & p~s :7 i
~ p'P :yo 'F& xZ;!~:dq a s e ~ a ~a w e r! u a:?qm
(TIZ)---
1 I ,
-
3 = aonx
(9J)
:uqskdi& B p o n d J ap7 q ' 8 r @ p ~ o m'k+efi~gaads
' q q y $$dd Z q o q &qqa.uoa IWBJ
'(*03~s?sn~q'E@ti,61arimn) sodidq p&~aAap%! 'donx 'i$$b& u o ~ e ~ ~a bu q' j
I i o ~ ~ ~ 1 . ~v ~ ~ o ~
, , I , , t .

~ P a q d ~ g ~?F
q EI!O;aP!v
. 30 uoRe~J!$m % ?I.! W+:(PUO!TW. Xaq, s y ~ ~ ? ~ , ? ~ , ; ~ ~ ) , j o ~ ~ & y e @
? K J ! ? ~R
~ SY
~ Wp a s ~ w .ys a u ! m ~ n e a m psn<eyqs39*np3033a ~I!Q,a p r u ~ j o , ~ w p ~ m ~ ~ ~ 1 r 3 ~ a ~
 2.4.2 Correla$inqJn~@xi .. : .,;:,
. . - ~c~oe~ F index
p ((311, developed by US Bureav of ~ i n e s is, Biven by the following
empiiiical eqfiation:;
,.
11 ., ..,.
: ..,
.
: ,:I.,: ;
..
,u
, i',.

TRANSPORTATION OF WAXY CRUDE OILS

where fi ie'the average boiling point, OR ,'determined by the standard-BureaU8'dfMbes
distillation method and G is the specific gravity at 15.56°C/15.560C.
CI values of a petroleum fraction between 0 and 15 indicate that the components of the
fraction are'predominantly paraffinic in nature. CI values between 15 and 50 indicate a
predominance either of naphthencs or of mixtures of paraffins, naphthenes a d qomatics in
the p&roleum fraction. CI values above 50 indicate a predominance of aromatics in the
fraction. , I ,
. .
2.4.3 Method of structural Group Analysis
The methodi?f.siyctyd group analysk.,deseribq?the .ch$ajier; qf.the fraction in terms
of elements constituting a h theticalaverage p.., , molecule2Pavingthe chemical and pbxeiqal
..! . . . I . . . '
properties of the eumof ' e .indiiridual comporien&..,p;f;@2:Bacti,on,. awprdb..to .thek
concentration.This methodclarjsifiesthe crude.oilsinto:.sev& Classes (Table 2.7).
Table 2.15Denomination and Classification of Crude Oil Classes
Class Denomination of crude oils
- -
Class delimitation by structuml in& values
I Parec %C, 2 72
I1 Parfinic-naphthenic %CP 2 50; %CP + %CN 2 90
1. G.D. Hobson (ed.), Modem Petroleum Technology, Part 1(Chapter 91, 5th edition,
John Wiley & Sons, New York, (1984).
2. L.F. Hatch and S. Matar, From Hydrocarbons to Petrochemicals, ~ u lPubyishing
f for production and transportation systems. Conversely, problems with wax can be addressed
Company, (1981).
3. L.F. Hatch, A chemical view of refining, Hydrocarbon Processing, Vol. 48, No. 2,
77-78 (1967).
4. B.B. Agrawal and I.B.Gulati, Trace metals in petrolem and petroleum products;
Part I - Occurrence, nature & significance, Petroleum and Hydrocarbons, Vol. 6,
NO.4, 193-197 (1972).
5. B.B. Agrawal and I.B. Gulati, Trace metals in petroleum and petroleum produds ;
Part 11 - Individual constituents and their significance. Petroleum and Hydrocar-
bons, Vol. 6, No. 4, 198-202 (1972).
6. P. Jones, The presence of trace elements in crude oils and allied substances, The
Institute of Petroleum, 73-76 (AprilJ u n e 1988).
3.1 INTRODUCTION
, Crude oils contain a mixture of light and heavy hydrocarbons. Typically, a stabilized oil
may contaitl paraffinic, naphthenic and aromatic components as heavy as Cso. In addition,
poli& ahd asphaltenes M& also be'present. The lighter componentsin the crude oil kdep the
he&d& toxhpohents in solution. This solubility depends very strongly on the temperature. If
the temperature of the oil is decreased, the soldbility of the h e a w hjkirocarbons atiy be
sufficientlyreduced to cause precipitation of these components in the form of solid wax crystals.
The polars and asphaltenes may also co-precipitate with wax crystals. The phenomenon of
wax separation from petroleum fluids at low temperatures has been a problem to users of
-
petroleum products for a long period. It can occur in lubricating oils, residual fuels and crude
oils. '
The presence of wax crystals changes the flow behaviour of the crude oil from Newtonian
to non-Newtonian. The wax crystals usually lead to higher viscosity with increased energy
consumption for'pumping and a decreased capacity. In addition, if the oil is cooled during
transportation, the wax crystals tend to deposit on the colder pipe wall. Wax deposits can lead
to increased pipeline roughness, reduced effective diameter, more frequent pigging require-
ment and potential blockage. If these deposits get too thick, they can reduce the capacity of
the pipeline and cause problems during pigging. Wax deposition in process equipment may
lead to more frequent shutdowns and operational problems. In extreme cases, wax crystals
may also cause oil to gel and lead to problems of restarting the pipeline.
Great potential savings can be derived from accurate prediction of wax formation. The
knowledge of the magnitude of wax deposition can lead to reduction of insulation requirements
in an early stage of a project so that sufficient thermal insulation is planned for instead of
1 expensive chemical injection and loss in capacjty or loss of availability. Process heat loads can
be reduced by increasing efficiency of heat transfer. Capacity reduction in heat exchangers
I can be overcome.This reduction results from blockage or vibration problems. The size of export
i pump8 and flow lines c+ be reduced by an accurate knowledge of the effect of,waxformation
on crude viscosity. The minimum pigging frequency can be estimated. In addition, problems
I
I
I
1
related to start up and shutdown can be solved cost effectively.
The crystallization of wax in crude oils causes severe difficultiesin pipelining and storage.
The crystallization of waxes at low temperature causes reduced liquidity of waxy crude oils
which considerably w p e r s the transportation of crude oils through long distance pipelines.
I Several methods exist for handling waxy crudes for ease of transportation. For example,
1 pigging the pipeline is useful for removing thin layers of wax only. A highly waxy crude may
 PETROLEUM'REFININGTECHNOLOGY
require fiequent.piggingtokeep the wax accumulation manageable. Apigging operation often
rattires significant amounts of costly offshore man-hours. Taking into consideration all the
&o-economic aspects additive treatment is reported to be the most suitable method for the
t k w o r t a t i o n of waxy crude oil, which can depress the pour point and improve the flow
characteristics at low temperatures.
,\,
~.$+~P~~~U~~'~R~NSPORTATION
For the transportation of large quantities of crude oils, pipelines are the most economic
means. Under safety aspects, transportation by pipeline guarantees the best protection for the
environment. Further, there is no handling of other traffic and no disturbance by noise or air
pollution. A continuous supply to the refineries is normally assured and this is not endangered
by weather conditions such as fog, icy roads, or traffic conditionsalong inland waterways, such
as high or low water level, ice, etc.
However, each pipeline system requires very high investment which should be used most
economically. The most economical and efficient operation of a pipeline could be reached by
maintaining a continuous constant flow rate without any interruption. Also, ip respect of a
reliable and continuous supply to the refineries, a steady-state throughput, with some seasonal
fluctuations due to market requirements, should be envisaged. Otherwise, additional storage
volume has to be provided for large quantities of crude oil and this would be very expensive.
Interruptions by shutdown of a pipeline are by no means desirable. However, a shutdown
may occur due to the following operational reasons:
(a)There ia an inadequate stock of oil in the terrnind. This could be caused by distribution
in tanker schedules, for instance, due to weather conditions.
(b) There are no delivery requirements by the refineries fed by pipeline. This could be
caused by disruption in operations sf one or more of the processing units of the refineries, for
instance, due to equipment breakdown.
(c) A pressure test for leakage control of the pipeline has to be performed.
( d ) Repair, maintenance work on the pipeline system including pumps is required.
(e) The pipeline might be shutdown automatically by exceeding the operational safety
limits.
These shutdowns are not expected to last longer than 3-4 day. Under extreme conditions
one could think of extraordinary long shutdowns. The reasons might be government action,
earthquake, strike, war, etc. However, under normal conditions, they are'not expected.
I n e n transporting waxy crude oils, these operational points of view'are of considerable
importance.
3.3 WAXY CRUDE OlLS
The crude oils pumped in pipelines up to the early sixties generally showed normal
characteristics in respect of pumping conditions such as viscosity'and low pour point. nowever,
the opening up of remote oil fields in North Africa and India in the 1960's to exploit the low
sulphur (but waxy) crudes in these locations, and the need to pump tKese oils through the
much colder pipelines has led'oil producers to study the pumpability of waxy crudes at
temperatures below the pour point limit. The advantages of these crude'oils in respect of high
reserves, low sulphur content, good distillate product yield and its low dscous flow under fair
temperature conditions are, however, partly compensated by the disadvantage of high wax
content, which results in a high pour point and under certain conditions of low temperatures
could create operational difficulties after a long-term shutdown of the pipeline. Worldwide,
one can distinguish about 1500 varieties of crude oil of which 10 to 20 percent are considered
TRASPORTATIQNQR WAXY,CRUDE OILS 31
to be the:waxy. Such a,classificatioo~wasbased-on the wax content.oEthe,cmdeaad itspour
point; The,characteristics of some of these crudes are given in-Table3:l. In-contrast,mos$of
the MiddleEast crude oils have a pour pointbelow 0 OC and wax contentless than 7wt.kand
therefore pose no problems in pipeline transportation even at low temperatures.
Waxy crude oils exhibit non-Newtonian behaviour a t temperatures below about 10°C
above the pour point. The wax can crystallize as the crude is cooled to form gel or a partial gel.
Under static conditions a rigid gel is formed, but if the crude is cooled while in motion, the
apparent viscosity will increase but the material remains fluid: Therefore, the rheological
properties are functions of temperature, shear rate, shear stress and past history. Problems
in pumping these crudes will occur if the temperature drops and the fluid becomes non-New-
tonian and if gel formation occurs after a shutdown. The pipeline facility must be designed to
recover from these problems or prevent them. A realistic approach should be developed based
upon an extensive evaluation of the rheological behaviour of the crude oil under representative
temperature and shear conditions. The two rheological parameters of which knowledge is
indispensable for transporting waxy crude oil through pipeline are viscosity and yield stress.
Before we go further into rhealogical behaviour of the crude oils, a few relevant terms that will
be frequently used are defined below.
able 3.1 Characteristics of Waxy Crude Oils
I
I
3.3.1 Definitions of Rheological Parameters
SHear stress. Consider the steady flow of a fluid in a horizontal pipe of circular cross-sec-
tion. The fluid flows with an average velocity of U in apipe of inside diameter D. The pressure
difference between two points 1 and 2, separated by a distance of L is (Pi - P2).
q e decrease in pressure in the fluid reflects the applied force causing the fluid to flow
and if the flow is steady (i.e. no change in the flow and hence velocity), this force must be
counter-balanced by a shear force of equal magnitude at the wall of the pipe. If r, is the shear
stress at the pipe wall, then force acting on the fluid at the wall must be - 71 DL rw.The
negative sign indicates that this force acts in a direction opposite to the direction of flow. The
force acting upon the fluid due to pressure difference is (Pi - P2). In steady state (no
1
1 acceleration), the sum of these two forces is zero. Therefo;e, w6 can write
 I /

TRA&&RYAT~ON OF WAXY CRUbE OILS

The above eQUatibh rneteliy shews thaCthe,sheaps&ss at-thepipe w l i@jUsti&pther . / 2

s e*@&ioh bP"dti%n~losd.-~rbin
~ e a n of E1$,3j1, itfdlfowru that.avddab1e~hear'strgSs~or a ,For laminar flow in pipes, friction loss ie given by
particular pipeline depends,on the leligtbd the line between twa,pump stations! and the &. -(PI
= -P2) 32 p U
pressure difference. The availdble sheatj $tress can<be1 increased by increasing the initial /
L o2
pressure, PI, and/or, reducing the section length of pipe, L. An example of calcu\ati~nof which can be rearranged in the form
available shear 'stress is given,below. -
[(PI P2)DI4LI -- TW
'= (8UD) -(8UD)
STATION : VIRAMGAN TO ABU ROAD Therefore, for laminar flow, . .
SVatic head at Viramgan Rate of shear = 8U/D J3.3)
Static head dt";sb'u Road
and for turbulent flow,
Pump puction Rate of shear = (SU/D) Cr *..(3.4)
Differentialheaq of each of the pumpa at rated flow
where Cri3 correction factor which depends upon Reynolds number.
Two pumps willtbe operated in series.
Ressure drop ah Abu Road
Yield stress. It measures the ability of fluid to restart its flow aRer shutdown of the
transportation system. The yield stress of an oil, at a given temperature is defined as the shear
Resdure dtop in the liile stress required to initiate flow. It can thus be directly compared with theshear stress available
or allowable in a pipeline. The yield stress of waxy crudes ie influenced by-ite temperature
Density of crude at pumping temperature history, shear history, aging and composition.
:. Pressure drop
3.3.2 Rheological Classification of Fluids
There exists a rate of shear and shear stress at each point in a flowingfluid. In determining
Inside diameter of line the rheology of fluids, any one of the following b a i c behaviour patterns (fluid types) may be
Line length found upon agitation of the fluid a t constant temperature.
Newtonian fluids.A Newtonian fluid is one whose visco~itya t a given temperature ie
Shear strees
independent of the rate of shear. There is a linear rdationship between the shear streas and
the rate of shear for a Newtonian fluid. The viscosity of a Newtonian fluid a t a given
= 0.000339 psi temperature is constant regardless of the velocity, previous agitation or shearing of the fluid.

= 23.4 dynes/m2
If the available shear stress is equal to or more than the.
overcome the shear streas at the.innersqfape of the pjpe, $hen tbe,flow 3 forcp peeded to
l$e initiated.
Shear rate. consider two p&allq;lplanes of area A, separated by &:d~erqntiai&jtance
dr. The space between the two planes is filled with a fluid. The lower plane is fixed. A small
P Fluids

force F applied to the upper plane wiv give it a velocity dU in the direction of the force. If there
is no slip between the wall and the flGd, the fluid adjacent to the upper plane or wall &q also
have a velocity dU in the direction of the applied force and the fluid next to the lower plane or Purely viscour flddr
whll will have a zero velocity. Thus, a unifoy velocity gradient of magnitude dU/&ris set up
in the fluid since the shear force F is uniform across the distance dr;The velbcity gradient,
dU/cir, is commonly referred to as the rate of shear. The shear force per unit area, F/A, is called

P
the shear stress.
Time dependent
Viscosity. It measures the ability of fluid to flow during steady state condition. It is the
property of a fluid that resisp a shear force. It can be thought of as the friction resulting when
one layer of fluid moves relative to another. Viscosity, p, can be defined as the ratio of the shear
stress to the rate of shear.

I
Flg. 3.1 RheologlcalclasslficaUon of lulds.
I
 -
I

WRASPORTATIONOF WAXY CRUM,OILS

35

Non-Newtonian fluids. A non-Newtonian fluid is one whose viscosity at a given tempera-

ture is dependent on the rate of shear. A fluid having a viscosity greater than 20 Pa.s is likely / 2
to be non-Newtonian. The viscosityof non-Newtonianfluids may increase or decrease with the
rate of shear, depending on the type of fluid. The classification of non-Newtonian fluids is
depicted in Fig. 3.1.
Time-independent non-Newtonian fluids. A non-Newtonian fluid is said to be time-
independent if the shear stress at any rate of shear is constant with time. The properties of
such fluids dependonly on the magnitude of theimposed shear stresses and not on theduration
of the stresses.
If the viscosity decreases with increase in the rate of shear, the fluid is known as a
pseudoplastic fluid. This behaviour,is generally restricted to a certain range of shear rates. At
a very low or high shear rate, fluid,maybe Newtonian.
If the viscosity inkeases with increase in rate of shear,the fluid is known as dilatpnt fluid.
Bingham-plastic fluids exhibit a definite yield stress below whith no flow occuis (the
behaviour is that of a solid). A finite force must be applied to produce movenlent. The line*
relationship between the rate of shear and shear stress for Bingham-plastic fluids does not
pass thmugh the origin.
Time-dependent non-Newtonian-fluids, A non-Newtonian fluid is said to be time-de-
pendent if the shear stress changes with the duration of shear. In other words, the viscosity
of such fluids at any time depends on the amount of previous agitatidn or shearihg of the fluid.
A fluid whose viscosity decreases with time at a given shear rate is called thixotropic.'If the
viscosity of a fluid increases with time at a given shear rate, We fluid is called rheopectic.
1)
Viscoelastic fluids. These exhibit many characteristics of solids. Their resistance to
deformation is proportional to the usual viscous effect, plus an elhticeffect that is a a c t i o n
of time. When the rate of strain of such a fluid is suddenIyincreased, there is a relaxation time
during which the stress changes from its origidal to a new steady-state value. Equations
developed for pseudoplastic fluids can be applied to the steady-state flow of viscoelastic fluids.

Figure 3.2show8 thevariation of viscosity with shear rate for different types of fluid. Curve
number 1 is typical of the response of a Newtonian fluid. A Bingham-plastic fluid is charac-
terized by a flow curve 2 which is a straight line having an intercept b on the shear stress
axis. The stress is called the yield stress which must be exceeded for flow to commence. The
Shear rate -
flow behaviour is described by an equation fig. 3.2 Typical non-~ewtionionfluids.

for a statically cooled pipeline (the fluid was above the pour point while flowing and allowed
.,-.-, to cool during shutdown of the pipeline) than for one that has been dynamically cooled (the
With pseudoplastic behaviour, the fluid displays increasing viscosity with decreasing fluid was already below pour point when pipeline was sl~utdown),i.e. the cooling occurred due
--

shear rate. This means that there is a non-hear relationship between shear stress and shear to the flow of the crude in the pipeline.
rate. Curve number 3 represents pseudoplastic behaviour. Dilatent beheviour is depicted by
curve number 4. 3.4. FLOW PROPERTIES OF WAXY CRUDE OILS
Most waxy crude oil gels exhibit thixotropic or occasionally rheopectic behaviour. When a The viscosity of crude oil is perhaps it. most important physical property. For most crudes,
waxy crude oil is allowed to cool below its pour point under static condition in a pipeline, the at sufficientlyhigh temperature, the viscosityat a given temperahue is constant and the crude,
paraffins will crystallize causing the entire mass of crude to gel. To initiate flow again, a finite although chemicallyverymmpl?~,is a simple N e v is reduced,
pressure is required. For waxy crudes, yield stress is an inverse function of temperature and however, the flow properties of a crude oil can readily change
increases with decreasing temperature. With the crude oil that is below its pour point, the wax very complex flow b e h a w due to the crystallization of
crystal structures in the oil start to breakdown as flow begins. This breakdown depends both of asphaltenes. The waxes basically consist of
on the time and rate of shear. form an interlocking structure of plates, needle or malformed ~ s t a l sThese. crystals Can
Start up pressure depends to a large extent on whether the oil is cooled under static or entrap the oil into a gel-like struehue that is capable of forming thick deposits in pipes and
dynamic condition. For instance, the additional restart pressure will be substantially higher

Correlation of the model pipeline test results for actual pipeline d e s i p ie tlormally based
on the previous experience. Some of these correlations are developed by the designers by pilot
plant tests simulating the field conditions in a test loop.
A general equation for calculating restart r e q ~ r e m e for
h a cooled line is
p=-YLC
A ...(3.6)
where P is the pressure required, Y is the yield stress of gelled crude (thitr value must be
determined in laboratory tests and is different for static and dynamic cooling), L is the line
length, C is the circumference of inside pipe wall and A is the cross sectional area of pipe.
3.5.3 Flow a t Restart kc
At the time of restart of the pipeline because of very high viscosity,the flow rate is ejrpected
to be low. This, however, depends on available shear stress as compared to thejrield stress. In
any case, the minimum flow conditioris of the pumps have to be investigated. If a pump is
operated at a very low flow rate, additional wear due to unbalanced flow is expected. Further,
due to the poor efficiency,the oil will be heated and, after a short while, the allowable maximum
temperature will be exceeded. This limits the allowable time for the operation of the pumps
with low flow.
If the restart flow rates do not meet the pump requirements, gpecial pumps with ap-
propriate characteristics h i g h head, low flow) have to be used for restart of the pipeline.
3.5.4.Effective Pipeline Viscosity
For determining pressure gradients in the pipeline, effective pumping viscosities have to
be determined. Using these viscosities, the conventional formulae can be used for calculation
of pressure dmp.
The effective pipeline viscosity for calculating frictional pressure drop at various flow rates
and temperatures can be predicted by rotational viscometer tests. Due to wax crystallization
at low temperature, the conventional capillary tube viscometers cannot be used. Moreover, for
non-Newtonian fluids viscosity is dependent on shear rate. For this service as also for other
sluny services, rotational viscometers are used. The sample is taken in a double w d e d cup
(a refrigerant flowid in between the two walls). The outer cylinder is rotated by a variable
speed motor. The &er cylinder is suspended from a torsion wire consisting of a stainless steel
tube, the deflection being measured by a balanced pointer. The rpm of the outer cylinder
multiplied by the instrument constant gives the shear rate. The deflection reading of the
pointer multiplied by another instrument constant gives shear stress. The ratio of shear stress
to shear rate gives the viscosity of the fluid.
When the oil is at such a temperature that flow is non-Newtonian, the Reynolds number
is a function of viscosity which itself is a function of the effective rate,of shear. Therefore, an
intermediate calculation is required to arrive at the appropriate pipeline viscosity for calculat-
ing pressure drops.
Viscosity of the oil to be pipelined is determined at various temperature and rate of shear
by rotational viscometers. These are used to plot-viscosity versus temperature curves for
various rate of shear. This plot can be used to determine the temperature below which the oil
will behave as non-Newtonian fluid. It is required to find the effective viscrosities of the oil for
pumping at'different flow rates a t various temperatures.
The f i s t step is to use the plot of viscosity versus temperature-and plot curves of viscosity
versus rate of shear for different temperatures.
TRASPORTATION OFWAXY CRUDE OILS
The .second step is to plot curves of viscosity versus rate of shear for different pipeline
throughput as follows:
For a given flow rate, an equivalent shear rate is determined by Eq. 3.3. Assumin$ the
value for viscosity, the Reynolds number is calculated. If the flow is in turbulent region, the
correction factor for rate of shear is read from the plot of the correction factor for shear rate
versus Reynolds number. Using this factor the effective rate of shear is obtained. By repeating
this for different values of viscosity, a curve of viscosity versus effective rate of shear for a flow
rate can be superimposed on the plot of viscosity versus rate of shear for various temperature.
The intersection of the constant throughput curves with the constant temperaturecurves$ves
the appropriate viscosities to be used for these conditions. An effective viscosity versus
temperature curve can be plotted for the various Chroughputs.As mentioned earlier, using
these values of effectiveviscosity, pressure drops in the various sections of the pipeline can be
calculated.
3.6 METHODS FOR PIPELINE TRANSPORTATION OF WAXY CRUDE OILS
One of the following methods for pipelining waxy crude oils may be considered:
(a) Select pumps to allow a paralleYseries arrangement, whichcouldtransport at slower
rateg and higher pressures when required. The piping could be manifold so that
parallel arrangement would be accommodated by repositioning of valves to handle
higher flow rates.
(b) Use of separate low flow, high head pumps for restarting.
Side traps at frequent interval? to allow short s6&ons to be started separately.
Reverse pumping to create back and forth pumping sequence which prohibits static
cool down.
Use of pour point depressants/flow improvers.
Adding hydrocarbon diluent such as a less waxy crude or light distillate.
Iqjection of water to form a layer between pipe wall and crude.
Mixing water with crude to form an emulsion.
Displacement with water or light hydrocarbonliquid in case of shutdown of pipeline.
Separation at higher than normal pressure to allow as much gas and light hydrocar-
bons as possible to remain in the crude.
Conditioning the crude before pipelining to change the wax crystal structure and
reduce pour point and viscosity.
Further sub-division of pipeline into smaller segment or reducing batch length of
waxy m d e to increase maximum shear stress available.
Combination of the above methods.
Pipelining the crude as an oil in water (Om) emulsion reduces the flow properties to nearly
the viscosity of the continuous water phase. An O N emulsion pipeline handling 40000 barrels
of oil per day (265 m3 h-l) of 70 vol.% crude oil has been operating in Kalimantan (Borneo) in
Indonesia since 1962. Blending with a less waxy crude oil or distillate improves the flow
properties by altering the wax solubility relationships. Both of these methods have the
disadvantage of reducing the crude oil carrying capacity of the pipeline. Note that separation
at the well head to include more condensate in the crudepjl (if available) has the same effect
I as dilution. There is one interesting case of a shear and t e ~ p e r a t u r treatment
e being used to
I favourably alter the flow properties of waxy crude oils in (Assam (India). More recently, pour
i
 40 PETROLEUMREFININGTECHNOLOGY
point depressantdflow improvers have been developed that, in small concentration, affect the
crystal growth, and as a result improve the flow properties.
Of the various methods developed, the use of pour point depressantdtlow improvers is
found to be more attractive. The main attraction of this method is its relative cheapnees and
variability of dosage with respect to the temperature and desired viscosity requirements.
3.6.1 Use of P o u r Point DepressantslFlow Improvers
( The injection of pour point depressantfflowimprover additives appears to hold the greatest
promise of achieving the desired overall objectives of operational safety and operating
economy. Now improvers should have the capacity to
reduce the pour point, viscosity and yield stress under dynamic conditions; and
restart the pumping after a shutdown with the available shew stress.
Chemically pour point depressantshlow improvers are ashless polymeric additives which
when added into the crude oil a t 300-600 ppm level reduce the pour point and viswsity of the
crude oil. Polymeric materials.widely used as pour point depressantdflow improvers are (a)
alkyl acrylate polymers and cdpolymers, (b) o l e h alkyl maleate copolymers, (c) vinyl ester
polymers and copolymers, and (dl alkylated polystyrene. Normally, the average molecular
weight of the commercial available pour point depressants for crude oils is between 2000 to
20000.
Various flowimprovers developed a t RRL, Jorhat (India) are SWAT-104, SWAT-106, FIR1
and FIRI-B. These are polymerdcopolymers,easily soluble in crude oil around 4M5OC and
non-corrosive. They are used in pipelining crudes of Bombay High and Asssm (India).
3.6.2 Mechanism of Flow Improvement
When a waxy crude oil is cooled below its cloud point, the wax crystals form and begin to
agglomerate and with further temperature reduction crystal agglomerationreaches a point a t
which a gel structure is formed below the pour point due to interlocking of the growidg crystals
and dependent on constituents like resins, asphaltenes, asphalts, paraffin and microcrystal-
line waxes, etc., their molecular weight, structure and quantity and also on the rate of cooling
and degree of agitation during cooling. When the additives or flow improvers are added, they
alter the wax crystal size and shape in some manner and prevent the tendency to interlock.
l'he'flow improvers or pour point depressants act by retarding the growth of the wax crystals
in the XY crystallographic plane, thereby producing smaller crystals of higher volume/surface
ratio. It appears that the flow improvers cocrystallizewith the growing wax crystal, leading
to the formation of a fault in the otherwise compact regular wax crystal and resulting in
diminished gel strength, so that by coating on to a growing wax crystal the flow improvers
reduce the tendency of wax crystals to interlock.
3.6.3 Point of Additive Injection
As a general rule, the additives should be injected into the crude above or around its cloud
point and also a t a temperature of some 20°C above the pour point of the additive. The additive
pour point could be depressed considerably by cutting (diluting) the basic component with
kerosine, or aromatic solvents. The preferred location of iqjection should be a t a point where
No heating of the oil is required (utilize the heat of formation)
Subsequent external application of heat can be avoided or minimised.
The maximum benefit can be derived in the system downstream.
41
TRASPORTATION'OFWAXY CRUDE OILS
All of the above considerations point to additive injection into the crude stream at well
head.
3.6.4 P o u r Point Reduction b y Additives
Pour point measurements on crude oils have been used to detect low temperature handling
problems. However, as mentioned already, they do not necessarily predict the field perfor-
mance. Pour point can at best be used for preliminary screening of various additives for their
potency with a particular crude oil.
These studies were carried out in the Salaya-Koyali-Mathura crude pipeline by Oil &
Natural Gas Commission, India. The line was originally designed for transportation of low
pour point Middle East crude oils (Light Arabian and North Rumaila). With the discavery of
the Bombay High crude oil, it was decided to process this crude too at these refineries. Efforts
were made to find a suitable solution to the problem of pipeline transportation of this high
pour point (30°C) Bombay High crude oil to these refmeries during winter. It was reported by
model pipeline tests that the line will not be able to take a restart after cooling statically to
low winter temperature of around 16OC.
A number of flow improver additives were tested for their effectiveness on Bombay High
crude. born preliminary tests, Shell-swim-5Tand Esso Paradyne-80 were reported to be the
most effective additives in lowering pour point. Further tests by rotational viscometers
indicated that, for similar level of dosage, both effective viscosity and yield stress were reported
to be lower in case of Shell-swim-ST as compared to Esso Paradyne-80. It was therefore
concluded that shell-swim-5T is superior to Esso Paradyne-80. Subsequently, Shell-swim-5T
was used for transportation of the Bombay High crude to Uran terminal through the
submarine pipeline from the production platform. Extensive studies were subsequently done
at IIP, Dehradun and Gujarat Refinery to determine the optimum doping conditions for
Shell-swim-5T in Bombay High crude. k o m these.studies the optimum doping levels were
reported to be 250-300ppm of the Shell-swim-5T.The effect of doping temperature on the pour
point was reported to be negligible.
3.6.5 Effect of Flow Improvers on Yield Stress a n d Viscosity
Significant reduction in yield stress and effective viscosities can be achieved by doping
waxy crude oils with flow improvers. The following results were reported for the effect of
Shell-swim-5T (flow improver) on Bombay High crude oil.
Doping level Yield stress @ 160 C Viscosity @ 160C
PPm dyneslcm2 CP
Nil 330.0 '45.0
62.5 45.0
250
42.4
300 62.5
400 45.8 41.0
I
These results show significant reduction in yield stress with 250 ppm doping. Further
I improvement with higher doping levels is, however, marginal. In fact in some cases the trend
1 was reported to be reversed with higher doping levels, as shown below by the following model
pipeline tests conducted by ONGC.
 42
PETROLEUMRWNINQ TECHNOLOGY
. - TRASPORTATIONOF WAXY CRUDE OILS
pintDePres- Yield stress at 1kc,d y t w s ~ c m ~ Viscosity at 16°C at flow deueIop.
sant in Bombay High 3.6.7 Crude Oil Conditioning
CNde ment, cP This process is developed by Oil India Limited. The crude oil conditioning is a unique
Nil Test was process in which the cmde oil is first heated to melt and dissolve the wax in it. Thereafter, on
I
- abandoned
- as oil could not be transferred to model pipeline
dynamic cooling and wbrkbg t b u g h the p m p the crude oil is subjected to static cooling at
due to congealingat 18OC.
400 a predetermhed rate. The result is the conditioned crude oil which has much improved
21.2 435 at 45 dynes/cm2 physical properties than the virgin crude oil. The conditioned crude oil remains fluid at much
750 on n I
I 1u.I.
I 589 at 45 dynedcm2 lower temperature and possesses satisfactmy physical properties so far as transportation of
1000 27.5 966 at 45 dynes/cm2 crude oil through the pipeline to refineries during the winter monUs is concerned. This has
Hence, optimum doping levels by extensive laboratory studies must be determined before been employed for transporting wary crude oils from Assam (India).
starting additive injection. I,the actual process the crude oil is heated to a temperature of lCO°C in tube heater.
1 Before entering into the tube heater, the crude oil passes through heat exchanger and
3.6.6 Incorporation of Low Pour Point Crudes i n Waxy Crudes exchanges heat with the outgoing oil from the heater, bringing down its temperature to
Aa mentioned earlier, this can be one of the probable solutions to pipeline transportation 65OC by dynamic cooling.The crude oil at 65OC is stared in a tank from where it passes thmugh
problems of wary crudes provided the lowpour p i n t cmde is easily available for blending and . a pump to static cooling vessels, commonly called conditioning vessels, These vessels are
no problems are expected to be encountered in processing the cmde blend as far aa product essentially sheU andtube heat exchangerd'in which crude oil is taken in the shell side and
specificationsare concerned. Once again B e example of Salaya-Koyali-Mathurapipeline can cooling water is passed through tubes. The con&oning vessels follow a batch time cycle of
be cited here. The Gujarat spd Mathura refineries fed by thispipeline (Gujaratpartly) are to 208 minutes to achieve coaling of crude oil &om 65OC to l8.S0C (this includes h ~ & time g of
p m n n partly Bombay High crude and partly low pour point Middle East crude. A small cmde oil and its emptying outtime also). The coolirigof the crude oil in the conditiohg vessels
percentage of tbP Middle East cmde mixed with Bombay High cmde will not result io any is effected by circulating watets, namely intemediate and relrigerated waters. Intermediate
serious processing problems. The reported results of laboratoq studies on blends of Middle water is maintained in a closed circuit through a pump and heat exchanger in which cooling
E u t crude with Bombay High m d e indicate that the incorporation of Basrah cmde in doped medium ia tbs cooling water. The refrigerated w a t u is also maintained in a closed circuit
Bombay High cmde shows no further reduction in pour point. I b i q could be due to reduction though a pump and absorption refrigeration machine. The c i r ~water t while f l o i n g paat
in percentage of n-parfins when Basrah cmde is mixed, the effect of pour point depre~sant evaporator chamber of absorption refigeration machioe though tube bundles gets chilled.
being more predominant on n-paraffins as compared to iao-parafiins. However, a significant
h the temperature of crude oilis brought down to the desired level of 18 - 2g°C, the cmde
reduction in the yield stress of the blend is reported, as shown below.
oil from conditioningvessels is emptied out automatically into conditioned oil storage tanks.
T h e conditioned
.---- ---- oil from these tanks flows pipeline pumps through a booster pump and this
completes the process of conditioning.
100%Bomhnv -
Hioh
-I-.
330.0
100% Bombay High with 250 ppm of pour point depressant
62.5 J
/ . 90% Bombay High + 10% Basrah with 250 ppm pour point
de~resaant. 5.0

The doping temperature is quite important as far as yield stresses are concerned. The
-
1 K. W. won, Thehodynamics for solid solution liquid - vapor equilibria :Wax phase
formation from heavy hydrocarbon mixtures, Fluid Phase Equilibria, Vol. 30, pp.
blends of Basrah with Bombay High crude doped at 50°C is reported to give better results as 265-279 (1986).
compared to temperature of 30°C. This is s h o w by the following experimental results 2. J.H.Hansen, A. Fredenslund, K.S.Pedersen and H.P. Ronningsen, A ther-
reported. modvnamic
--- - -" model for predicting wax formation in crude oils, AIChE J, Vol. 34, NO.
12, pp. 1937-1942(1.988).
3. S. ~angul~,Ftheological~arameteraand s o l u t i o ~ e m s
Crude blend .
I
Yield stress at 16"C, dynes/cm2
1 4
of waxy cmde oil, URJh vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 33-34 (1989).
P. Datta, H. Dubey and K.L.Pate1, Pipeline transportation of waxy crude oil from
90% Bombay High + 10% Basra1 . - 250 ppm pour
Basrah with I
50°CDoping
50°C Doping
5.0
) 30°C)Doping
3O0C)Doping
25.0
1 the oil fields, Chemical Engineering World, Vol. XW, pp. 43-45 (1990).,
point depressant 5-. R. Prasad. Waxy crude oils, In PIPING DESIGN HANDBOOK J.J. Mcketta, Ed..
-.

90% Bombay High + 10% Basrah with 300 ppm pour Marcel ~ikker,il992).
point depressant
90% Bombay High + 10% Basrat
I 5.0
I 25.0
25.0
I 6. S. Naik, C.K Pathak, and V.P. Sharma, Effecte of our p i n t dep"essant8 on WaXY
Indian crude oil, IE(1) J., Vol. 69, Part CH2, p p 60-63, (1989).
point depressant 5.0 25.0
I I
E
4 PETROLEUM REflNlNG TECHNOLOGY

7. M. N. Sunil Kumar, Reviews on polymeric and copolymeric pour point depressants

for waxy crude oil, The Institute Of Petroleum, 0ct.-Dec., pp. 47-71 (1989).
8. B. Smith, Steps for finding crude properties, The Oil and Gas J., Vol. 77, No. 23, pp.
150-152 (1979).
9. L. T. Wardhaugh and D.V. Boger, Measurement of the unique flow properties of
waxy crude oils, Chem. Engg. Res. Des., Vol. 65, pp. 74-83 (1987). QUALITY CONTROL OF
10. B. Smith, Heat transfer explored in pipelining high-pour-point crude oil, The Oil and
Gas J., Vol. 77, NO.25, pp.110-lll(1979).
PETROLEUM PRODUCTS
11. B. Smith, Restart of heavy crude lines probed, The Oil and Gas J., Vo1.77, No. 27,
pp. 105-106 (1979).
12. B. Smith, Design of heavy crude facilities explored, The Oil and Gas J., Vol. 77, No.
29, pp. 69-70 (1979).
13. B.M.A. Rao, S.P. Mahajan and K.C.Khilar, A model on the breakdown of crude oil
gel, The Can. J. Of Chem. Engg., Vol. 63, No. 1, pp. 170-172 (1985).
14. T.Viswanathan and KC. Khilar, Hydrodynamically induced gel breakdown in pipes,
~ O D U C T I O N
The Can. J. Of Chem. Engg., Vol. 67, No. 3, pp. 353-360 (1989). Qunlity control of petrolcum products 1s ;I n(bc(bssilq.il't hc protlucls ilrt! to give sillisii~ctory
15. 3. Sestak, M.E. Charles, M.G. Cawkwell and M. Houska, Start-up of gelled crude oil pedormance to the customcra. Keeping in view 11~.ascli~in(~ss of mlch prlxluct. fi)r sp(*(:ilic
pipelines, Journal Of Pipelines, Vol. 6, No.1, pp. 15-24 (1987). purpose, standnrd urganisations have t n f L r l md\v)(lsol'trsl.~and s~cciticdinnc.Bur\.;iu I*
16. M.G. Cawkwell and M.E.Charles, An improved model for start-up of pipelines Indim Standard @IS), New Delhi is onc sc~chor~;rnis;~lion in lndia which stantlnrdihcs
containing gelled crude oil, Journal of Pipelines, Vol. 7, NO. 1, pp. 41-52, (1987). procedures and issues specilations. 111stiluteof Pctroleun~(ll').1J.K and Anlvrican S(aic1y
17. A. Majeed, B.Bringeda1 and S. Overa, Model calculates wax deposition for N. Sea for Testing & Materials (ASl"l'), U.S.A. ;IIX thc other two i ~ ~ ~ ~ ) organisiltions
o r l i ~ ~ ~ t wllosc'
oils, The Oil Gas J , Vol. 88, No. 25, pp. 63-69 (June 18,1990). methods and specifications are widely followed. Apart from BIS sl)ccifications, I!cntral Board
18. R.A. Vora and D.P. Bharambe, Polymeric flow improvers, Indian J. Techol., Vol. Of Revenue, New I)elhi has certain othcr specifications tbr the purpoxc ol'cxcisc Ic!vy. Some of
31, No. 9, pp. 633-635 (1993). the important limits set by them are for carbon residue, flame height,fli~sh[mint. a ~ visajsity.~ d
19. L.T. Wardhaugh and D.V. Boger, Flow characteristics of waxy crude oils :Applica-
tion to pipeline design, AIChE J., Vol. 37, No. 6, p. 871 (1991). 4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF LABORATORY TESTS
20. J.A. Svendsun, Mathematical modelling of wax deposition in oil pipeline systems, Most of the laboratory tests can be broadly classified into seven groups 11;lst:tl 011 t11('
AIChE J., Vol. 39, NO.8, pp. 1377-1388 (1993). followingcharacteristics:
21. T.F. Al-Fariss, Effect of wax on oil behaviour, Indian Chemical Engineer, Vol. .=I, Volatility
NO.2, pp. 8-12 (1990). Combustion
22. G.P.van Engelen, C.L. Kaul, B. Vos and H.P. Aranha, Study of flow improvers for e Viscosity and consistency
transportation of Bombay High crude oil through submarine pipelines, Journal of e Melting point
Pet. Tech., Vol. 33, No. 12, pp. 2539-2544 (1981). e Oxidation
23. T.R. Sifferman, Flow properties of difficult-to-handle waxycrude oils, Journal of Pet.
Corrosion and protection
Tech., Vol. 31, No. 8, pp. 1042-1050(1979).
24. C.A. Irani and J. Zajac, Handling of high pour point west African crude oils, Journal
of Pet. Tech., Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 289-298 (1982).
25. R.N. Tuttle, High-pour-point and asphaltic crude oils and condensates, Journal of
Pet. Tech., Vol. 35, No. 7, pp. 1192-1196(1983).
! e Miscellaneous tests
Volatility is the major dcterminant ofthc tendency of a hydrocarbon to produce polontially
ex~losivevapours. I t is also critically important to an cmgine's start and warm-up. Volatility
is gssessed by the following tests:
(a) Distillation
26. E.D. Burger, T.K. Perkins and J.H. Striegler, Studies on wax deposition in t h e h a n s
Alaska Pipeline, Journal of Pet. Tech., Vol. 33, No. 6, pp. 1075-1086(1981). (b) Vapour pressure
27. C. Chang, D.V. Boger and Q.D. Nguyen, TLEyielding of waxy crude oils, Ind. Eng* (c) Flash point and fire point
Chem. Res., Vol. 37, No. 4, pp. 1551-1559 (1992). The combustion properties of petroleum products are evaluated by the following tests:
(a) Antiknock quality-Octane number, Performance number
(b) Ignition quality-Cetane number, Aniline point, Diesel index, Calculated cetanc index
I
(c) Calorific value

I
I
( d )Burning quality-Smoke point, Char value
 46 PETROLEUM REFlMlNGTECHNQLQGY
QUALITY CONTROL OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS
The determination of viscosity and consistency of petroleum products is done by the
following tests: the test. Due to small losses of vapour a t the connections and openings in the apparatus and
(Q) Kinematic viscosity (Redwood, Saybolt, Engler) the residue remaining in the flask on compfetion of the test, the total recovery does not
(b)Viscosity index generally exceed about 97 percent. A maximum distillation temperature limit of 370% has to
(c) Penetration tests be set, otherwise the heavier hydrocarbon molecules are liable to suffer from cracking into
The tests designed to ascertain the tendency of certain petroleum products to melt or lighter molecules causing the distillation characteristics to change duringtheir measurement.
liquefy,,tosolidify or to precipitate wax-like materials are: Thus fiels heavier than gas oils cannot be tested completely for distillation behaviour.
(a)'k8ezing Point The distillation characteristics give a broad indication of fuel type. Being a measure d
(b) Cloud point and pour point volatility, they determine the system of fuel metering required (wick feed, carburation or
(c) Drop point of grease atomization), and are indicative of the vaporisation behaviour of fuels instorage (vapour loss
(d) Melting and setting point of wax and vapour lock), and in piston-engine manifolds (uniformity of distribution to cylinders). The
(el Softening point of bitumen extent of the distillation range for any given fuel is representative of the availability of that
Methods have been devised for the evaluation of storage stability and resistance to fuel from the parent crude oil. For a fuel with a high demand, the aim of the supplier will be
to extend the distillation range as far as practicable. However, due to the interrelationship
oxidation for gasoline and aviation turbine fuel. These include:
between properties and the associated problems, minimum and maximum limits, respectively,
(a) Induction period of gasoline may need to be set for the initial and final boiling points.
( b )Thermal stability of Jet fuels The significance of this test varies from product to product. In case of crude oil, the ASTM
(c) Gum content
distillation data give some idea of the frwtions that could be collected below 300°C. If it is a
Most crude oils are corrosive to greater or lesser extent, frequently due to the presence of true boilkg point (T.B.P.) distillation, the TBP curve reveals a lot of characteristics that are
sulphur compounds, organic acids (mainly naphthenic acids) and traces of brine. Therefore,
useful for the design of the refinery. The 10vol.% of distillation for motor spirit is an indication
test methods have been designed to evaluate the corrosive poteqtialities of the petroleum
of the ease with which the engine can be started. Too high a FBP will cause crankcase oil
products which are obtained by processing of crude oils. The following methods are available: dilution.
(a) Total sulphur
(b) Acidity and alkalinity 4.4 VAPOUR PRESSURE
(c)Copper-strip corrosion test Vapour pressure of a liquid fuel may be defined as the pressure exerted by the vapour
(dl Silver-strip corrosion test for Aviation Turbine Fuels above the free surface of the liquid at the given temperature. For volatile, nonviscous
The misceJlaneous tests include: petroleum products, it is determined by Reid method. This is the pressure exerted by vapollr
(a) Ash when it is in equilibrium with the liquid under the conditions of test. For liquefied petroleum
(b) Carbon residue gas, the procedure is different and the determination should be done at 65%. The conditions
(c) Colour under which vapour pressures are determined give results which are not true because of the '
(d) Density.and%pecific gravity air which is invariably present in apparatus. n e true vapour pressure is higher than the Reid
(el Gas ckpmatography of petroleum gases and liquids vapour pressure by about 5 to 9 percent but this relationship varies widely.
(f) Refractive index of hydrocarbon liquids The standard Reid apparatus consists of a fuel chamber comectea to an air chamber of
(g) Lead in gasoline four times volume, and fitted with a pressure gauge.
(h)Water separometer index (modified)(WSIM) This test is important with,no-x vzan.oort,pzur&&jg-the gdsoline
( i ) Ductility *types of storage tanks employed and the starting characteristics of motor hels. High
The definition, method and significance of tests mentioned above are given below. vapour pressure entails loss of the ~ r o d u cin
t storage and transportation. In case of motor
spirit, it may cause vapour lock in the gasoline engines.
4.3 DISTILLATION
The laboratory distillation test comprises a simple process in which 100 ml sample is 4.5 FLASH POINT AND FIRE POINT
vaporised in a suitably designed flask fitted with a thermometer, and condensed in an Flash point and fire point can be taken as indirect measure- of the product.
ice-cooled tube and collected in a measuring cylinder. Whereas an individual hydrocarbon The flash point is the lowest temperature at which application of test flame causes the vapour
would exhibit a single boiling point, commercial fuel blends boil over a range of temperatures. above the oil to ignite. The fire point is the lowest temperatwe a t which the oil ignites and
Corresponding readings of vapour temperature and condensate recovered are made at continues to burn for 5 second.
prescribed intervals and the results are plotted in the form of distillation c w e . The initial The determination of flash point of petroleum products consists of heating a given volume
boiling point (IBP) is taken as the temperature observed at the fall of the first drop of of liquid at a standard rate of temperature rise until vapour is produced to such a degree as
condensate, and the final boiling point (FBP) as the maximum temperature reached during to give a flammable mixture with air in an enclosed space (i.e. closed flash point temperatye)
or with air in an open cup (i.e. the higher open flash point temperature), ignition resulting
- -
48 PETROLEUMREFINING T E ~ H N O ) ~ ~ & ~
tiom the applicalion of'a small flame. At firc point, not only will the vapour-air mixture'fir)8h
but the liquid will continue to burn.
Abcl apparatus is used for determiningthc closed cup flash point of' petroleum products
h ; t v i n ~tlash points between 19°C and 49°C. Pcnsky-Martens a p ~ a r a t u a iused
s for deteymin-
ing the flash point of fuel oils and lubricating o h , bitumcn other than cutback bitumen having
;I ilaxh point :~br>vc 49OC. Clcvcland appariltus is used for determining the flash and fire points
of pctroleun~products cxccpt l'uucl oils and those products having an open cup flash point below
79°C.
Ylirsh p u n t measurcs thc tcntlcncy of the fuel to form a flammable mixture with air under
conlrollcd laboratory conditions. This is tho only propcrty that must be considered in assessing
the ovcrull tlammability l~azartlof a mntcrial. I t is used in shipping and safety regulations
thnldcfinc flttmmable and combustible n~uterials.Petroleum products having low flash points
irrlb~~otential to fire hazards. Flash point can indicate the possible presence of highly volatile
ant1 tlan~n~ablo materials in rclativoly nonvolatile or nonflammnble makrial.
4.6 OCTANE NUMBER
This is a n important test for measuring the antiknock quality of the gasoline (petrol or
motor spirit). The knocking of the motor fuelsis compared using blends of reference fuels. The
standard reference fuel8 used foroctanenumbers below 100areiso-octiineand normal heptwe
which arc assigned valuerr of100 and 0, respectively, on the octane number scale. The octane
number of thc fucl is defined atl the volume percentage ofiso-octane t2,2,4-trimethyl pentane)
in a blcnd with n-heplanc which is equal to the test fuel in knockintensity under standardised
and closely controllcd conditions of test in a single-cylinder, variable cbmpression ratio
enbines, known as CFli cnginerr. Thus, a fuel of 87 octane number has a CFR engihe
performance matching that obtainable with a blend of 87 volume percent iso-octane and 13
volume percent n-heptane. Thc rating can be done by either Research mcthod or Motor method.
The differences in the two methods are as follows:
Octane numbcr rcquirc~ncntsof gasoline engines depend on their compression ratio. If the
fuel meets the minimum requirements in respect of octane number it ensures trouble Bee
ol~cration.Apart fiom being a nuisance, the knocking in an engine may result in loss of energy
: ~ n da t times may cause severe damage to the engine.
4.7 PERFORMANCE NUMBER
This is used to estimate knoekihg characteristics of aviation gasolines of octane number
highcr than 100. The standard reference fuels for knock ratings above 100 octane number are
iso-octane and its blends with tetraethyl lead (TEL). The ratings of aviation gasoline above
100 octane number are normally expressed as performance number.
The performance number scale is based on engine power output. The performance number
of an aviation fuel represents approximately the maximum knock-free power output. The
I QUALITY CONTROL OF PETROLEUMPRODUCTS
onrformance number shows the percentage increase in aipcrafi engine power for addition of
49
r-------
TEL to iso-octane and is given by
Performance number - 100)
Octane number = 100 + ( -
3
On the performance number scale, 100 octane number equals 100 performance number.
The ratings of aviation gasoline above 100 octane number can be done by
(a)Aviation method (lean mixture rating);
( b )Supercharge method (rich mixture rating); and
(c) xie ended motor method.
I n aviation method, the rating is done a t 1200 rpm by comparing the combustion chamber
temperature for the fuel with those of the blends of known performance number. This lean
mixture rating gives us an idea of the availability of knock limited power in spark ignition
type aircraft engines when the aircraft is under cruising conditions.
In supercharge method, the rating is done a t 1800 rpm by comparing the h o c k limited
power of the fuel with those for blends of iso-octane and isooctane plus TEL. This is done a t
constant compression ratio by measuring indicated mean effective pressure a t enough points
to define the mixture response curves for the sample and the reference fuels. When the knock
limited power for the sample is bracketed between those for two adjacent reference fuels, the
rating is cakulated by interpolation. The rich mixture rating indicates the a v d a b z t y o f b o c k
limited power when the plane is under take-off conditions.
In extended motor method, the rating is done in a CFR engine normally used for rating of
motor gasolines by motor method (rpm=9OO). The knocking intensity of the fuel is bracketed
between reference fuel prepared from iso-octane and TEL and the performance number is
calculated by interpolation.
4.8 CETANE NUMBER
Cetane number is related to the ignition delay of a fuel in a diesel engine, i.e. how rapidly
to lower cetane numbers.
Cetane number of diesel fuels is determined in a single cylinder CFR engine by comparing
the ignition delay characteristics of the diesel fuels with that of reference blends of known ,,
cetane number. Cetane number of a diesel fuel is defined as the whole number nearest to the
value determined by calculation from the percentage by volume of normal cetane in a blend
with h e p t a m e t w nonane which matches thdignition quality of the test fuel when compared
bv this method..The matching blend percentages to the fiist decimal are inserted in the
following equation to obtain the cetane number:
Cetane number = % n-cetane + 0.15 (% heptamethyl nonane) ... (4.2)
The shorter the ignition delay period, higher is the cetme number of the fuel.
Cetane number is the index of ignition quality of a fuel. High cetane number fuels will
facilitate easy starting of compression ignition engines, particularly in cold weathers, and
faster warm up. These also result in increased engine efficiency and power output, reduced
 Q U A M Y CONTROL OF PETROLEUMPRODUCTS 38

exhaust smoke and odour and combustionnoise. In the absenceoftesten&e,the diegel index
or the calculated cetane index will give an approximate idea ofthe ignitiofi quai* ofthefdcl. Thirr CCI ia useful for estimating cetane numbers when a test engine is not available for
Cetane number can also be roughly assessed by the formula: direct measurement, and it may be convenientlyemployed for estimating cetane number when
Cetane Number = 0.72 x Diesel Index + 10 the quantity of sample available is too small for an engine rating.
... (4.3)
4.9 ANILINE POINT CALORIFIC VALUE
This is the quantity of heat released per unit quantity of fuel, when it is burned completely
Aniline is a poor solvent for aliphatic hydrocarbons and excellent one for aromatics. This
propertg is used in the aniline point test. Aniline point of an oil is the e t u r e & with oxygen and the products of combustion returned to ambient temperature. This quantity
of heat will include the heat of condensation (latent heat) of the water vapour formed by the
l & f & J - a W - . .. combustion of the hydrogen in the fuel, as it cools to ambient conditions. It is called the @
'
Equal volumes of the sample and aniline (5 ml each) are heated or cooled with stirring in
a jacketed test tube and temperature at which complete miscibility occurs is noted. -
calorific value" or "hi~hercalorific yalue".
Most h z t i n g applications cannot recover the heat of the water vapour; it simply escapes
High aniline point indicates that the fuel is highly paraffmic and nence has a high diesel with the vapoui out of the chimney. The potential heat content is therefore more nearly
mdex and very good ignition quality. In case pf ar~maGc&he-milanilhe point is low u e
.ro-i . ._+,-.-" ~.rrc.-.n--
indicated by subtracting this latent heat from the gross calorific value, and the resultant value
is called the net calorific value, or lower calorific value.
A weighed quantity of the sample is burned in a bomb calorimeter under controlled
4.10 DIESEL INDEX conditions. The calorific value is calculated from the weight of the sample and the rise in
Diesel index is an indication of the ignition quality of a diesel fuel. This is dctemined by temperature. I t can also be calculated from the formulae
calculation from the specific gravity and the aniline point of the sample. Although it is ofthe Calorific value = 12400- 2100 p2 J4.7)
same order as the cetane number, it may differ widely from the cetme number. Higher the
diesel index, better is the ignition quality of the diesel i e l . It is normally used aa a guide to in which calorific value is in caYgm and p is density at 15OC in gm/crn3.
ignition quality of the diesel fuel in the absence of test engine for the direct measurement of
cetane number. Calorific value is a measure of the energy available in a fuel. Thus a knowledge of the
The diesel index is calculated as follows: calorific value of the fuel, and the efficiency of the heating equipment, is essential to compare
the merits and running costs of different fuels and energy costs. It is a critical property of fuel
(a) Diesel index = Aniline point, OF x OAPI intended for use in weight-limited vehicles.
100 ...(4.4)
(b) Diesel index = Aniline gravity constant
4.13 SMOKE POlNT
100 ...(4.5)
(c) Diesel index = Cetane number 10 - Smoke point is the maximum flame height in mm at which the fuel will b u m without
smoking *hen determined in a smoke point apparatus under specified conditions.
0.72 J4.6)
Smoke point apparatus comprises four main parts-lamp body, candle socket, candle and
4.1 1 CALCULATED CETANE INDEX stand. The lamp body with chimney is fitted on the inside with a polished black engraved scale
Calculated Cetane Index (CCI) is based on specific gravity and the 10 percent, 50 percent which is marked in white. A gallery is secured in the lower part of the body. The candle socket
and 90 percent distillation temperatures of the fuels and it gives numbers that correlate with assembly is designed to give a smooth rise and fall over the total distance of travel. To ensure
the engine-testing method. The relationship is given Ly the following four-variable equation: interchangeability the candle is finished to close tolerances. The assembly is mounted on a
stand. The sample is burned in a standard lamp with a specified wick for five minutes. The
CCI = 45.2 + 0.0892 TION+ (0.131+0.901B)T ~ O+N(0.0523 - 0.428)Tgo~ + height of the flame is read when it leaves no smoky tail.
- (T~oN)~]
0.00049 [(T~oN)~ + 107B+ 6 0 ~ ~ J4.6)
This is an important test for evaluation of illuminating oils (kerosines) for their ability to
where bum without producing smoke and the assessment of the burning quality of aviation fuels.
TION= Ti0 - 215 ,OC Higher the smoke point better is its domestic use. I t also serves as a guide to assess the
Tlo = 10 percent distillation temperature, OC aromatic content of kerosines.
T ~ O=NTm - 260, OC
4.14 CHAR VALUE
Tso = 50 percent distillation temperature, OC
The amount and nature of the deposits (char) produced on a wick during combustion
T ~ O=N2'90 - 310 OC depend on the hydrocarbon composition of the fuel and also on the design of the appliances in
T90 = 90 precent distillation temperature, "C 'which it is used. Char occurs as a result of the breakdown and decomposition of the kerosine
B = - 3.5(G-O.85) - 1 under the local conditions existing at the wick surface, and these conditions will also determine
what proportion of the decomposed products remains on the wick.
G = specific gravity at 15OC
 52 PETROLEUM REFININGTECHNOLOGY OUAUTY CONTROL OF PETROLEUMPRODUCTS

4.15 VISCOSITY Table 4.1 Instrument Constant Values

Kinematic viscosity is defined ris the mearidre of the r e d s t h i &to gravity flow of a fluid,
the pressure head being proportional to the density. The time of flow of a fixed volume of fluid
is directly proportional to its kinematic viscosity. The unit of kinematic viscosi$ is, cm2/s or
Stoke. The unit most usually used in measurement of the kinematic viscosity of ~etioleum
fuels is the centistoke (cSt) which is Stoke.
Dynamic viscosity, also known as absolute viscosity, is the ratio of applied shear stress to
rate of shear and thus a measure of the resistance of a fluid to flow. The unit of dynamic
viscosity is gm1cm.s or Poise. Dynamic viscosity may be obtained from kinematic viscosity by
I
multiplying it by the density of the fluid at the temperature at which measurement was made.
1
'1
I
Kinematic viscosity may be measured as an absolute property of the fuel, or alternately
as a conventional property that is'dependent on the instrument and the method used. Both
approaches depend on the efflux time of a given volume of sample flowing under its own head
through a restriction. This follows because the force acting the laminar (low speed) flow of a
fluid through a restriction is approximately proportional to the dynamic viscosity, whereas
the force promoting the flow is that due to gravity, and is proportional to the density of the
I fluid. Hence the time taken for the gravity flow of a given volume of sample through a
restriction is approximately proportional to the kinematic viscosity. 4.1 6 VISCOSITY INDEX
, Viscosity index (VI)is the most widely used way of characterizing the effect of change of
The conventional methods, which are generally simpler but less accurate, are represented i

by the Redwood instrument in the UK, Saybolt in the USA and Engler in continental Europe.
They each comprise a sample cup fitted with a standard-sized oriiice in the base and
I changes rapidly with change in temperature has a low VI. An oil with a minimum change in
surrounded by a waterjacket containing a heating device. When the temperature reaches the
test level, the orifice is unsealed and the time of flow is determined for the given volume of
sample. The result is reported as Redwood or Saybolt universal second or as Engler degree,
given by the efflux time ratio for the sample and for water. When the efflux time exceeds a
specified maximum-for example 2000 s-due to high viscosity, use is made of a Redwood No. 2,
or a Saybolt Furol (fuel and road oils) instrument, incorporating a larger diameter orifice.
The absolute determination of kinematic viscosity'generally employs a glass U-tube
viscometer with a capillary tube built into one leg. The length-diameter ratio is such that end
effects are negligible and the precision is therefore higher. The instrument is suspended
vertically in a thermostatically controlled water bath, and the time is measured for a given
volume of sample to flow d o u g h the capillary. This measured time period is inserted into an
\ L-H
equation to give a direct measure of the kinematic viscosity in centistokes.
v=At-B/t ...(4.8)
where A = instrument calibration constant;
B = instrument type constant, depending on the capillary diameter;
and
t = efflux time, s (Engler degree for Engler viscometer)
Table 4.1 gives the values of A and B for Redwood, Saybolt and Engler viscometers.
Viscosity is an important characteristic of a fuel and it is used for the pump design. Pump
clearance are aGusted according to the viscssity and if i t is out of the range, it will result in
pump seizer. Pump operation of an engjne depends on the proper visesity of the liquid fuel.
The viscosity of liquid fuel is important to its flow through pipelines, injector nozzles, and
orifices, and for atomization of fuel in the cylinder.
temperature on the viscosity of any oil. Proposed by Dean and Davis, viscosity index is an
empirical concept based on the behaviour of mineral oils. In this concept, an oil whose viscosity
.,
viscositywith change in temperature has a highVI. In this system, Pennsylvanian (paraffinic)
oils of a selected type which show a desirable, relatively small change of viscosity with change
in temperature, were assigned a VI of 100, while selected Texas Coastal oils showing less
desirable viscosity-temperature characteristics were assigned a VI of O.VI is governed by the
type of hydrocarbons in the oil.
Dean and Davis prepared tables giving the kinematic viscosities a t 40°C and 100°C of the
Texas Coastal oils (L) and the Pennsylvanian oils (HI. The values of kinematic viscosities of
L and H are given in Table 4.2. The VI of an oil can be calculated from the equation
v1=L-Ux100
where U = kinematic viscosity at 40°C of the oil whose VI is to calculated
L = kinematic viscosity at 40°C of an oil of 0 VI
H = kinematic viscosity at 40°C of an oil of 100 VI
.17 PENETRATIONTESTS
Several standard grades of bitumen are comlqercially available, which are normally
ssified into different grades by p e n e t r a t i o n p e sample of bitumen is plzced in a .,
suitable container and brought to a temperature of 25OC in a water bath. The weighted needle
is brought to the surface.and at the end of 5 seconds interval, the penetration the needle
into the bitumen, in units of UlO mm is t e ~ v o nofthe ' b $
The penetration at 25OC and the softening point, or penetrations a t two di erent tempera-
tures (for example, 25OC and 10°C) can be used to define the extent to which the consistency
of a bitumen changes with temperature. This an important characteristics for bitupens, and
1
determines the type of bitumen used for a particular application. Various factors have beexi
 QUAUTYCONTROLOF PETROLEUMPRODUCTS 55

used to define temperature 'dependence. The most commonl~used factor,.however, is the

Penetration Index (PI),which is defined as follows :

Table 4.2 Values of H. L and D for Kinematic Viscosity at 100 O

C
(H = Kinematic viscosity at 40°C of an oil of 100 VI, cSt,
, . L = Kinematic viscosity at 40 OC of an oil of 0 VI, cSt)
56 PETROLEUMREFININGTEFHNOLQGY QUALITY CONTROL OF PETROLEUMPRODUCTS 57
 grease' of an hknown formulation. It cannot be used to measure the upper operating
temperature limit for a grease.

421 MELTING AND SElllNG POlNT OF WAX

The cooling curve method is used to determine the setting point of waxes. Molten wax is
allowed to cool in a specified apparatus and the temperature is recorded at frequent intervals
The point at which the temperature remains within a range of O.l°C for one minute is taken
as the setting point. This method is not suitable for microcrystalline or intermediate waxes,
or blends of paraffin waxes with these or any additives.
log (800) - log (PEN25°C) - 20 - PI 1 The congealing point of a petroleum wax or petrolatum is determined by applying a drop
-
TRB 25 - [i?Gx][SO] of molten wax to a thermometer bulb, and noting the temperature at which it congeals when
where TRBis the ring and ball softening point of the bitumen in "C. etration of a
I the thermometer is rotated under standardised cooling conditions.This method is suitable for
-?
bitumenat the softening point temperature is about 800. Bitumens less n fected by tempera-
ture change have positive values of PI and those ?ore affected by temperature change negativ'e
'
4@
'
I all waxes.
The drop melting point of wax or petrolatum is determined by recording the temperature
values. at which a drop of the sample falls from the bulb of a thermometer when heated under standard
I conditions.
4.18 FREEZING POlNT These are considered to be suitable for checking the constant quality of wax output in
Freezing point is the temperature at which crystals of hydrocarbons formed on cooling refineries.
disappear when temperature of fuel is allowed to rise.
This method covers a procedure for the detection of separated solids in aviation reciprocat- 4.22 SOFTENING POlNT OF BITUMEN
ing engine and turbine engine fuels at any temperature likely to be encountered during flight Bituminous materials do not change from the solid state to the liquid state at any definite
r or on the ground. temperature, but gradually become softer and less viscous as the temperature rises. For this
reason, the determination of the sofbning point must be made by a fixed arbitrary, and closely
4.19 CLOUD POlNT AND POUR POlNT -- point is defmed as the temperature at which a substance attains a particular
Cloud point of petroleum products is the temperature at which a cloud or haze of wax
crystals appears at the bottom of the test jar when the oil is cooled under prescribed conditions.
It is generally determined for products that are transparent in a 43-mm thick layer and have
cloud points below 49°C.
d
under specified conditions of tes A steel ball of specified weight is placed
upon a disc of sample contained within a metal ng of specified dimensions. The assembly is
heated at a constant rate anct the temperature at which the sample becomes soft enough to
allow the ball, enveloped in a bitumen, to falld - distance is taken as the softening
The cold filter plugging point test is used to determine the extent to which diesel fuel or
gas oil will flow, even though the temperature is below that at which wax crystals normally -
2 The ring and ball test for softening point measures the temperature in OC at which a
appear, i.e. cloud point.
standard disc of bitumen confined in a metal ring softens to such an extent, when heated at a
Cloud point gives a rough idea of the temperature above which the oil can be safely handled
without any fear of congealing or filter clogging. rkteif 5"~/minute,that it deforms under the loading imposed by a small steel ball which falls
a distance of 2.54 cm.
Pour point is the lowest temperature expressed in multiple of 3°C at which the oil is The determination of the softening point of bitumen is regarded by some as an indication
observed to flow when cooled and examined under prescribed conditions.
of viscosity, although from the point of view of the application of bitumen its use is limited to
Pour point is a well-established test to estimate the temperature at which a sample of oil that of its title. The softening point is used in the designation of hard bitumens and oxidized
becomes sufficiently solid to prevent its movement by pumping. The pour point temperature bitumens.
depends to a large extent on the thermal history of the sample. Also, the pour point indicates
the waxy nature of the oils.
4.23 INDUCTION PERIOD OF GASOLINE
Induction period of gasoline is the time elapsed between the placing of the bomb in the
4.20 DROP POlNT OF GREASE
bath and break point at 100°C. Break point is the point in the pressure-time CUNe that is
The standard drop point tests indikte that the temperature at which the thickener is so
preceded by a pressure drop of exactly 2 psi within 15 minute and succeeded by a drop of not
soluble in the base oil that the grease becomes substantially fluid. Clay and dye thickened less than 2 psi in the next 15 minute.
greases have no measurable drop points.
Fifty millilitre of the sample is enclosed in a bomb with oxygen a t 100 psi and heated in a
The drop point can be used to assess whether a grease of known formulation has been
properly made or to obtain an indication of the type of thickener which has been used in a water bath at 100°C. The pressure is then recorded either on a chart or read every 15 minutes
60 PETROLEUMREFINING~TECHNOLOGY
The test is continued until the break point is reached. The test result is reported as induction
period in minute.
This test is conducted to assess the stability of gasoline in storage. This test indicates the
presence,of unsaturated hydrocarbons in the fuel and hence its gum forming tendency. Higher
the induction period, better is the storage stability of the fuel. An induction period of 360
minute under laboratory conditions ensures storage stability of at least six month. However,
this correlation may vary with different gasolines under different conditions.
4.24 THERMAL STABILITY OF JET FUELS
Jet fuel thermal oxidation tester (JFTOT) is used to measure the high temperature
stability of gas turbine fuels. This subjects the test fuel to conditions which can be related to
those occumng in gas turbine engine fuel systems. The fuel is pumped at a fixed volumetric
flow rate through a heater after whichit enters thestainless steel filter whert! fuel degradation
products may become trapped. The apparatus requires 600 ml of test fuel for a 2.5 hour test.
The essential data derived are the amount of deposits on an aluminium heater tube, and the
rate of plugging of filter located just downstream of the heater tube.
In the JFTOT a charge is placed in a reservoir and the whole system is pressurized to 3.45
MPa with nitrogen. This ensures a single-phasereaction in the heated section. The fuel passes
from the reservoir through a 0.45 micron filter, to remove trace particulate matter, and into
the reactor section, where it passes upwards in an annular space over iyaluminium tube and
out via a 17 micron stainless steel filter through a heat exchanger, to cool it, and back to the
top of the reservoir. The used and unused fuel in the reservoir are separated by a floating
piston. The fuel is rated by a visual tube rating or by placing the tube in a Tube Deposit Rater.
In this the tube is rotated at a constant speed and its surface scanned by two light sources
reflecting off the tube on to a photocell. The photocell gives a signal to a meter. Also, the
differential pressure across the 17 micron filter is measured.
The test results are indicative of fuel performance during gas turbine operation and can
be used to assess the level of deposits that can form when liquid fuel contacts a heated surface.
4.25 GUM CONTENT
The gum compounds which can be present or produced in the fuel are classified into two
types for test evaluation. Existent gum may be already formed in the fuel and can be deposited
from solution as the fuel evaporates. Potential gum may be formed under extended storage
conditions during which unstable hydrocarbonsare thereby polymerized and oxidized to form
gums.
Existent gum is the amount of nonvolatileheptane insoluble residue left when the sample
is evaporated in a jet of hot air at 160°C. For jet fuels, the evaporation is camed out in a jet
of superheated steam at 232OC.
Potential gum is the amount of gum formed afier the sample is aged in an oxidation
stability bath and evaporated under specified conditions.
Gum is always troublesome in any fuel and it may cause piston ring sticking and deposits
on engines. The amount of gum points to the presence of olefins which have very poor storage
stability. The existent gum test is claimed to measure the amount of gum or gum-forming
compounds existing in the fuel, while the potential gum test attempts to predict the tendency
to form gum on storage and use. These gum tests are usually used as refinery control methods.
1 QUALITY CONTROLOF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS
.: .
g1
4.26 TOTAL SULPHUR
This is determined by lamp method or wickbold procedure for volatile petroleum Products
and by bomb method for heavier products. Sulphur in the sample is oxidized by combustion ,
and is estimated volumetrically after absorption in Hz02 or by gravimetric methods after
converting into barium sulphate.
Sulphur compounds pose a dual problem: they not only cause environmental pollution
"
1 from their combustion products, but these products are also naturally corrosive and cause
severe physical problems to engine parts. A knowledge of the sulphur content of petroleum
products is therefore of importance to both refiner and user.
I
1
I
d c l D I T Y AND ALKALiNln
New and used petroleum products may contain acidic constituents present as additives or
I
1 as degradation products, such as oxidation products, formed during service. Total acidity is a
I
I
measure of the combined organic and inorganic acidity.
The acids in the sample are extracted in neutral alcohol andthen titrated against standard
alcoholic potassium hydroxide under hot conditions.
Total acidity is an indication of the corrosive properties of the product. Inorganic acidity
is a measureof the mineral acid present. Organic acidity is obtained by deducting the inorganic
acidity from the total acidity.
ER-STRIP CORROSION TEST
products contain sulphur compounds, most of which are removed during
I refining; Of the sulphbr compounds remaining in the petroleum product, however, some can
have a corroding effect on various metals. This corrosivity is not necessarily directly related
to the total sulphur content. The effect can vary according to other chemicals and types of
sulphur compounds present.
A cleaned and smoothly ~oli$hedcopper strip is irnmerse&&hsm@& which is then
mamtained at the specified temperature for the specified length of time. This strip is removed
1 L a m p l e , washed with aromatic and sulphur free petfoleum spirit and examined for
evidence of etching, pitting or discolouration. It is then compared with F T M copper-strip
corrosion standkd colour code. Th_eclass%cation cbde indkates that the numbers 1 , 2 , 3 and
4 designate slight tarnish,'moderate tarnish, dark tarnish m d corrosion,kespectively. Sub--
scripts-a-e describe a standard colour reproduction'in the standard chart. For example, the
classification code l a indicates slight tarnish with a light orange colour.
C ~ h itest
s serves as a measure of possible difficulties with copper, brass, or bronze parts of
the fuel systems.
7
4.29 SILVER-STRIP CORROSION TEST FOR AVIATION TURBINE FUELS
A Polished silver strip is completely immersed in Aviation Turbine Fuel at 45 f 1°C for a
period of 16hour. At the enctof this period, the silver strip is removed from the sample, washed
and evaluated for corrosion against the set of standard.
Since some parts of the fuel pumps in aircraft are made of silver, the corrosive tendency
of the he1 for silver assumes special significance.The cumulative effect of corrosion on such
a vital component in the aircraft is hazardous.
_? 4.30 ASH -h~ji{:!:*;:~
: p > 5 ~ z :.b,,:;.7!t$;
~ y ~j !;,;~
: ;.,:,.t;.3:
<..
. .
... c ,~:.., ~ ~ ~. ~.. ~ Table 4.3 ColourMeasurementmethods, ,,. . .,
.,&h.@n!~esultfr0.p oi1,water-solpble metallic cqpounds, or extraneous solids, such as <, ,;,,il5 ..;.,,:<,<
.rll..-..
% * , ( ...(,....
. ~ . .. I I. -. :.-;- , .!l:.,,.:. ...
i . - . .
, ,: ' I.. . ' . . . . , .

di&qj&+s$,~.:~~:~.
. , . .. - -
'A kqom'p~,ogn$:.qf 3aible is ignited and the c a r b o n a ~ i oresidue
~s I&€ib
. heated
.. to Name Main equcpment Colour scale Applt'catlon -
I
I
800°C in a muffle hrnace, cooled and weighed as ash. Saybolt chromometer Chromometer +30to - 16 White
products
petroleum
A b ~ w l e d g eof, the amount of a product's ash forming material can provide information
ASTM Colour . Calorimeter Oto8 Heavy petroleum
on whethemthe-product is suitable for use in a given application. products, lubricating oils
Colour of dyed aviation Colour comparator Permanent colour glass Dyed aviation gasoline
gasoline disc
w r b o n residue can be defined as the amount of carbon residue left after evaporation and Colour by the Lovibond Lovibond tintometer Colour standards of dif- A11 petroleum products
I
pyrolysis of an oil and is intended to provide some indication of relative coke forming tendency. tintometer ferent rating for red, yel- except black oils and
Either Coriradson method or Ramsbottom method can be used to determine the carbon low, blue and neutral tint bitumens -J
residue of petroleum products.
Specific gravity is the ratio ofthedensity ofafluidtothatofwaterat the same temperature.
onradson Method The temperature usually specified is 15.56OC. In the USA, specific gravity of an oil is often
quantity of sample is placed in a crucible and subjected to destructive distill$- e ddegrees kP1.API gravity is an arbitrary figure related to the specific gravity of
- e , ~ ~ e s s as
tion. The residue undergoes cracking and coking reactions during' fixed period of severe jytroleum products in accordance with the formula:
heating. At the end of the specified heating period, the crucible containing the carbonaceous . , 141.5
?, ?
Degrees API = - 131.5
residue is, cooled in a desiccator and weighed. The residue remaining is calculated as the Specific Gravity at 15.56°C115.560C . .(4.11)
'percentage of the original sample and reported as conradson carborl residu
3 The specific.gravity is an indication of thetype of hydrocarbon present, being highest for
Method aromatics and lowest for paraffins. The API gravity reverses this relationship. -
e sample S t e r being weighed into a special glass bulb having a capillary opening is The most accurate method of determining the specificgravity of an oil is to weigh a known
'plackd. in"&metdfurnace maintaihed a t 550°C for 20 i I'minute. Thesampleie thus quickly volume in a specific-gravity bottle at 15.56OC. A correction may be applied by measuring the
'1heatedytothe point, atwhich all volatile Matter i~evaporatedout of the bulb with or without 'specific gravity at some conventional temperature near 15OC and adding or subtracting
decompositionwhile the heavier residue remaining in the bulb undergoes cracking and cqking 0.00063 per O C above or below 15OC.
reactions. Aftek a specified 20 minate heatingperiod, the bulb is removed from the bath, cooled ' Another method for determining the specific gravity of the oil is by means of a set of
in a desiccator and again weighed. The residue remaining is calculated as the percentage of
the original e m p i e and reported as ramsbottom carbon residu hydrbmeters. A hydrometer is placed in the 6il sample at 15.56OC and allowed to come to rest.
of a fuel oil when The specific gravity is shown on the scale at the point coincident with the surface of the oil.
C?+on ;&due gives a measure of
h$ated in a buI6 under prescribed conditions. While not directly correlating with engine Accurate determinations of the density, specific gravity and API graliity-of petroleum
deposits, *s property is considered as an approximation. For example, carbon residue value products are necessary for the conversion of measured volumes to volumes a t standard
of die& h e 1 corielates with the amount of carbonaceous depmits the fuel will form.& the temperature of lb.56OC. When the volume of oil is known, its mass can be calculated. These
combustion chamber of the engine. The expected carbon deposits in the combustion chamber factors govern the quality of cmde petroleum. These properties, however, are uncertain
is greater for higher value of the carbon residue. Carbon residue is also used in design indications of fuel quality, unless correlated with other A correlation of fuel density
calculation of vessels. with particulate emissions indicates increasing particulate emissions with increasihgdensity.

4.32 COLOUR 4.34 GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY OF PETROLEUM GASES AND LIQUIDS

Colouris an indication of the degree of refining of the products. Various test methods used
for the measurement of colour of petroleum products along with their main items equipment
and product application range are given in Table 4.3.
4.33 DENSITY AND SPEClFlC GRAVITY
fi measured volume of the gas sample is introduced into a chromatographic column and
transported through the column, the sample is split into various components, either by
adsorption or partition, depending on the column packing. The composition of the sample is
determined from the chromatograms by measuring the area under the peaks. An identification
of the components is done by noting the elution time. - .

I
Density of a fluid is its mass per unit volume. It is measured over a range of temperatures.
usually for convenience a t the temperature at which the fuel is to be stored. 4.35 REFRACTIVE INDEX OF HYDROCARBON LIQUIDS
Refractive index is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light (of specified wavelent$) in
t
air to its velocity in the substance under examination. It may also be defined as the sine of the
 64 PETROLEUMREFINING TECHNOLOGY

angle of incidence divided by sine of the angle of refradion, as light passes from air into the
substance. The refractive index of liquids varies inversely with both wavelength and tempera-
ture. Refractive intercept is calculated by

'
Refractive intercept = n - 2 ...(4.12)
where ri is the refractive index at 20°C and p is the density at 20°C,gm/cm3.
' ~ i ~ h t h e content
ne in naphthas can be easily calculated by knowing the refractive index
and density of the saturates fractions as determined by the refractive intercept method. There
is a relation between the molecular weight, aromatics and refractive index of hydrocarbons
and hence the determination of refractive index gives an indication of the content of aromatics
in the hydrocarbon fractions.

4.36 LEAD IN GASOLINE

_
The lead alkyl is converted to lead chloride and extracted from the gasoline by refluxing
.
with concentrated hydrochloric acid. The acid extract is evaporated to dryness. Any organic :&,tfYiiiiiiFYB,'C!'C!E
Td'(jr:&,M6i;.4*c$i .'"
. <,.: '., .,;ii>.5 '., +: .,:,,,;!!,:,:l:.ji:.:
,! :..1<.<7<. ., I,.'

g&$rakf
";"i; , $ , ~

material present is removed by oxidation with nitric acid and the lead is determined bj2~?y8>.:sj...tis: j+xp,..d,) & . , J A ~ ~ ~u::.
. , ~ r i t & ~ ~ ~
...... %+;*::i g ~ j k : 'Y$<.T,
. . ,
: ~ ~t:F* 1% ,
z.,
tgffl,. ,(,

3:&&&!.....
*,:a,

p7$~c5$~+5~~9~@~~$l~~.tPo
L!

gravimetrically as lead chromate. The method covers the gravimetric determination of the , hefi+.
, .
li&t, $Kp$$&Pi.
d & T ons
~ denved
$ ~ h from.
. + .;
; .ji
, ~ ~whl~h
~ fieirol'eum
.!,_
to the m i? f it..
,
-'
total lead content of gasoline and other volatile distillates blended with lead alkyls (tetraethyl : .,$>,..
t6mp&f&@ :;.:.I ~ but condensed
< Iiquidtitst.eatnmbievt
lead or tetramethyl lead, etc.). ! by aP$ffclAbhfsprri:da@&O $!! B ' & B & ~ ~ & K x h ~ ~ ~ ~ @ & ~ ~ ~ ~ < $ & & t ~ & &4&eY
are
Tetraethyl lead is added in gasoline to improve the octane number but it is highly .,. Ir4:. ! ,
:,$tored : ~ tfanap6~d
d &liiji$duids.bnder praswe. p hey are sold .apmpane or butane or undr
poisonous. Hence, its concentration in gasoline is restricted and its handling is done with :i~~f;'e'~~ideTame~sU~~~~S.~n~~ne,
..
~ b ~ ~ t : ~ ~ ~ , . H p. .. . . ~, ~ ~ i ~ J ~ d i ~ .
utmost precaution. .., ,. ' ' ?"
\.... -:,<,.-;. ;. ....;.... :.>,:
,?..! i!.
. . . . . . .

4.37 WATER SEPAROMETER INDEX (MODIFIED) (WSIM)

6;:$.i'embairt2bn% :..
itI;~pG ;...
.,.I>'!>
,
: , . . .., ,..
. , ,
. .-

This is carried out with a water separometer. It~measuresthe water separation charac- ,, ,, ~
.!bdtSgl$
, ~ ~ , ~ , , mu i i h k
s s of ~saturated
be:cyand ~r~~&-f,p~-~h'sis~ af.o*?r rn0fe of fie foll&ghydrocarbons:
a and
l unsaturated
l ~ hydrocar- - ..
teristics of fuels expressed in terms of WSIM.
' * Propylene (C3H6)
An emulsion of water and fuel is prepared and passed through a cell containing a h o p b e.........
. . . . ., . . . . . . . . .
(C3Hsj
.
0' . n-butane &!jH$) gq10j
...L.,

standardized 'fibreglass' coalescer.~Theeffluent from the cell is examined for entrained water . . . ..,. '. . 1~0-6uta"
~ . :
,
i

by light transmission. A numerical scale (0-100) rates the case with which the fuel releases Butylene (C4Hs)
gxpu!sified water. ~races'tosmnli auantiti&sof one or more of the follow&g hydrocarbons may. also be presen..
:,,WSIMis a measure of fuel cleanliness relative to its freedom from surfactant materials. Ethane (CzH6) Ethylene (CzH4) I

I
A higher WSIM rating indicates that the fuel is cleaner relative to surfactant materials. -- Penbane (c5H12) Pentene (CsHlo) )ii . \)
4.38 DUCTlLlPl ,i)~ P separated G from heavier hydrocarbons by r straight distillation process contains only
-7 the saturated hydrocarbons wliereas ZPGaobtained from conversion processes such as tht
Bituminous surfaces exposed to varying temperature conditions undergo a great deal of
macatalytic cracking, , c :.and hydmcracking contains unsaturated hydrocmtio~
,:< ., ;' reforming ~ . . as
elrpansion and contraction. Therefore an important characteristic of the Kinder is its ductility
and the degree of ductility has an effect on the cracking of bituminous surfaces caused by traffic
@li+.
I : Bulleau of Tndian811Standarde-4BIS)have categoised
LPG as under:
stress. The ductility of bitumen is expressed as the distance in centimeter to wfich a standard .(A) - .
Commercid b u t m e k a-hydmcarbon-product composed re dominantly of butane
,
briquette can be elongated before the thread formed breaks under the specified conditions.
A molten bitumen sample is poured into a standard mould, allowed to coal to room i- butyleneb or their mixtures.
temperature and then placed in a water bath so that the briquette can be brought to test (I%)' Comme~ciakbutaneapropane mixture - a hydrocarbon ~ r o d u c tcomposr '
temperature before mounting in the testing machine. Ductility testing machine consists of a predominantly of a mixture of butanes andlor butylenes with propane andJ~1
propylene.
moving carriage moving over a lead screw.An electricmotor driven reduction gear unit ensures
smooth constant speed and continuous operation. The temperature is controlled thermo- ' (C) Commercial propane- a hydqocarbon product composed predorninandflfproph-
propylene or their mixture. > .
statically.
The requirements of LPG are e v e n in Table 5.1. LPG produced at Indian refinen
Bitumen having high ductility may be more temperature susceptible. conforms to grade B.
 1d'fldi~~Mtkl~ie~h8'c~fig1(~~~) uiifir the Yeed~&sfi&\ffb$W"hi'&xddp &-fed SU-+& j f l r- ; h

C Q ~ ~ ~ ~ to U the B \ ~ tower, fmm which, a t thetsamet&e,kk8alyhtia k&5&jw1@h&nf

O Ureactor v v
to a regenerator where coke deposited on the catalys6is burnt & ~ ~ h ' & n t k a d f f l ~ $ o h ~ t h e combus$on .< ed&es, it is e&emely
h g and hardening, steel;utting e t c h f u e for i n . -
reactor is fractionated in main fractionating column into so called light endq;mf~dkb&t~late good, but it has yet ta l e c o m e p o p u1 l ~ . IA
I

and heavy fraction#. Uncondensed overhead gases and catalytically c r a o k & i q g ~ e l ~are e

-
-
I

"
.\ , ik
routed for LPG recovery. The uncondensed gases are compressed, moledaq~pha&$&uqces-
sively to two absorbers which employ cracked gasoline and light cycle oil respectively as 5,2 NAPHTHAS
, Naphtha is a name give? td light hydrocarbons bgilin&$he:ge.gasoline range. I t is
absorbents to increase hgbt ~ ? ~ r ~ ~ ~ v e w ~ , ~ ~ fmm h g aabsmber
s o l i p is45tfi8p&,d,
e off its
lighter ends in a stripperjl'he stripped g~sol$ne kfedto a debpta?iger ~ ~ l ~ ~ , ~ ~ b , & ~ i a c k e datlight distillate obtaine4,frop -, )
refipwg of crude:~il.y e bo~lingfiiagesof various types of
LPG is taken as overhead producp. L P q q 4:yerhead product from debptahipfr ,$oJu+n is naphthas produced include: C5 - -
85OC. Cs 118C, C5 140°d, CS; -
~ ~ O O C C5
, 1 7 5 0 and
~
treated further to conform to required specikations.
-.
. tf,"
C5 - 200°C. In these iiitial boilink point (IBP) is c o n s t s n t . ~ ~ t ~ ~ - b oranges
i l i n ~can be
Coker gases are compressed in two stage compressor and routed to the bloi~&$$&k~~orber 60 - 85Oc, 85 - llo0C, p + l l p - 140",~.w a s are u s u a l l ~classified a s light.hterme&ate
~ $ @ d f ? ~ ~ ;is $used, ? ~as~absorbing
~ medium. Gases from ap$tha a sorber to are and heavy naphthas. I t t h h a p h t h a fraction ~ lbe1ovk1000($,
s it ii,"c1bsified as l g h t naphtha.
;&aer a sqrbe, ,,,y coker'kerpsi$, ~L%"kerosifibkord kerdsine a!sor~& % d ~ ~ ~ R the
i , t < \ 2 a,
mw$$a$tidnating,k71mnnb,!the ,ckkii;~*li8?%ighte'rrehds
P
(C1 and-cijkre s,thr&qdffG o d
~k'& H~~~ naphgaboils above 150°C. .
For A

4
'v
' 3
I- .;
interniediate naphtha ~ k b @ % $ & ~ ~ g < ? ibetween
*
es

rich nabhka in a $ l p $ y r ?ndtc$&et'riom' ?,' / stri$eP$re

' ??<kd back. to naiht& &$?$erfto Ti)OPC.
1
.L

3:
_I__ '
1 recover back QqC4s. St$&r .,.,,,,!
,,) n j g "~' V"t
&dfd&~"&n~&$' 3 9 ~ 1 ~ a @ l . $ ~ ~ h $ ~ P, $$92 v t h ~ ~ a i n
debutanise; wliCrbiWG is iuihii?iwn %om bpan&'t"hb"lfi&d c6ke'r liaphthd 5 .2.1 Method. of ~ * a c t m & o ~ ~ a * h t h g ~'' !
I
ki
1
6&d&. Naphtha is prod&ed by atm~sfihericdistillation of cmds bil?&s./s &e+straight-run
bPG
caustic tmatment.
w8s)rasthb Most of le*elik
mercaptaii s t r a i gbelow-5q
h t a n LPGppm.produced
CausticfromwashGulf
alb&cmdes
doeanat reguires only
bring down naphtha. Several c~nversionprocesses such ad visdre&jng$?uid c tal* crnf~ng,
the percaptan content-of LPG in respect of,Aghajari ?rude and-he-e Merox treatment hydmcracling, cokingalso ?roduce llqphthj. TEssb @ bd2d crgcked 'pa!hth&.
I
(extractive type) is nwessary. Straight-run LPG produced fro~&$&...d& is BenGraily The important chatacterjsticsof t%aphthi?ractions6~ d a e r e n t l @ b ~ a r eg v e n h Table -
5.3. The proper qualitypf naphtha f o the ~ petrochemic$ and fe&lher inapm can be
sweet but requires mildpcausticwash. , -
Likewise cracEed LJ'G produced from pro&ssing of Indian cFdeL
Cracked LPG from F ~ Cunit ' processing feedstock from ~ u l nuddk'irei$Ares
f
idj;' lres
-- caustic
-
amine wash for,
wash.
achieved by dearomatising the naphtha with or without reforming openh;ams ~ g otor extrac-
tion Ofaromatics. Higharomptic naphtha is not gly.s;auisapce @ k s p mndsbies, but also
H2S removal follwed by Merox treatment. The Memx process is one of oxidation of the consumes &a enerfl in thd cracking operafions$ithout P i n g m y useful ~ r d u c t s .SO, it
medaptans with ail. in ~kaIjne'r+$$m in tffe pre$& of~~el~t6d1i~&n'&&$d~fi& i$t&&. produces more coke and increases the downtime in both the patmehemica1 p d fertilizer
The mercaptans are converted to di~~lphkdes whidi i r e &&ively odod~1dd~ddn~ko~&'ive
r , n ''
industries. On the other haid, the eyiracted aromatic fraction can:be used in thqaoufacture
compounds. A small amount may remain in the treated LPG but the bulk is transferred with of synthetic fibres.
the caustic to a'regeneratorwhere sodium m$rcaptanine ik'conveited B diluphide oil and
NaOH is regenerated. The insoluble disulphide oil is removed thereby reducing the total ,&&2 Composition of Naphthas
s~@tiur. $pbl"" is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons. Its mmpositiopdep&ds o&+e crude oil
.

Ii Qdourisation. Since LPG is used as domestic fuel the chances of fire in confined locations
b e c o i ,?rgein the case 0Ia:cidental leakage. Beingagas this sh?uld betmost easily detectable
proce sed and the conversion.proce~gemployed. For the composition o q b a p h v , two types
of analyses a i e usually carried out. These are:
by smell alone. Since constituents of LPG do not have any characteristic o&ur,'it;s cimb;on ~vdrocarbontype analysis
practice to deliberately mix highly odoriferous additives in LPG to ilnpart a distinct odour.
Most commonly used substances are low molervlar weight organif thfols (mtb$ahlf&':d;
Individual component wise analysis 1
he hydrocarbontype~alysisdeterm~n~~thepercenta~~of ~ ~ @ m olefi&naphthenes
s ,
.

have an pbnoxous odour in concentrated form and serve as-effective4 0 u r markersin dilutqt and aromatics. Gfferent tj$es of c o ~ p o ~ n found d a inpaphtba fracti~nsfmv v uses are
form (ppm levels). Some compounds of this type are ethyl and $tbb$l mercaptans. ~ ~ ~ $ 8 $ t s t ' given in Table 5.bThe approximat&cdrbon dumber range of the p r d d u is ~ slap 8 v e n in the
made-Doctor negative and then ethyl mercaptan (about 50 ppm) is usually added. same table. In Table 5.5, a summan, of quality+of the naphtha-fiqctions porn various ,
' indigenous and certain imp~rtedand worldWidqyailable cmde);&h respecQ9 the para!- ' ,
i -5J.4 Uses of LPG ' fidnaphthendar~maticc~ntentso f q e i r na$hth@fracGons $re given. The vque indicated 1s
I

.&pGisbwedaofq avarious
domestic fuel, 8 fuel for the full ranggnaphthd (C5 - 140°C). -- ~ h ~ h y d r o c a r b type
o n composition of naphthas fionl
andfor internal copbustionLPG engine anQa feydstopk for
themanufacture
P U Y Y ~ S is~ysually,
~
chemicals olefins (by pyrolysis.). supplied
a mixture of propane and butane, butanes predominating in warmer
for,dbmestic
-
Indian crudes is @en in Table 5.6 for boiling ranges of 60 85OC, 110 l2O0C, 120 130"~' - -
countries and propane being in greater proportion in colder countries. LPG' has many and 130 - 14o0C:
industrial applications. It is used for portable blow-lamps, soldering, brazing, welding, anneal-
J.
2 3 Uses of Naphthas
The major end-uses of naphthas are listed in Table 5.7. The use of naphthas in fefl-
and petrochemical industries and as gasoline is discussed below.
I.
a:: 5 :
 Table 5.6 Hydrocarbon Type Composition of ~ a ~ h t hfrom
a s Some Indian Crudes

a b l e 5.7 Mqjor End-Use*of Naphthas

. . . -
Type of naphtha End'uses . .
Light riaphthas (a)Gas making;gasoline . . . .
(6)Special ias&:ne ? . . . . .,..
..-
i:
~ n t e h e d i a t e n a p h t h & - '(6)&ation g&lineji. . ,.. - . ..
i b ) hiotor &asoliie :6 .-:
*,.
..
6 v
-.-. . m
f d ) ~omm&ia@olv~nts-~ubber, lacquer &id pesticide diluents
?z 20
lie) ~ e n z e n -e ~i%h-o&ne'gasolieecbmjmnhnt; solver$, petrochemical manufacture; . ' L
,
. . :. - C
1~ Toluene - Solvent, high-octaneasol~necomponent, chemical i n t e r m c d i a t e , e - , r 2
E
Xylenees - ~ r - o l i n e component, lacquer and enameis, chemical inteimediate Zc
., . ,
. , .. -
(h)Olefins -and'$iole&s .. ' . ., p
:.
. . *.. .. .. ... . . .. . .. . . .
( i j ~ m m ( i n i aprobuc&n .... . . -. . . . . ..,
.- . -'
, t.
. . . . . . .. , .:,. -..~.-..> - . . . . . . .
>.
. ~ e i v n&ht;kab.
y : (a) V h f & ~ ( ~ a r n i&;nuf&ture:and
sh pi$&inaphtha ~:-: r:. . . -. . --. .. .. :.: . . . . r . . . .
. - ,.. , ..,,.. . ~. . :. , ..
.
. - ( 6~ h i n n efor r paint& va&ishes,jacquPs ... ' i,
. ,. . . >
:. . . .. .. . .> . ' ... . . .. .. . .. .. . .
.' (=) s t o d d a d ~ulvefit?&ecib &l&&&foi\:dijc& m$ng'*idk::. '
. ,, . . ..
.. . -. . , .- . .<- . .* . ., ,

... &
;. (d) Mineral ~ p i r i t s - ~ G n nfoF~8ifitg- c d ? ~ ~ j ~ ~s&.itu@ ~ ~ 'I.. ~ ..t :: i . -< . . e .
. . . . . . . . . .
 .,-

~:~@00mbu6tion~qlixalb&~s$i~:~~ @ ~ ~ a i ~ y ~ h ~ : s p & i g n i t i &m& ~ ~ @ gmj nw~ ,

On en&nddes&ad ~ ~ ~ 4 ~ ~ l i h r ~ ~ , ~ ~ i d B a 1 i C b n i l i t M n . 8 ~ ~ e ~ ' ~ i n ~ d f R d r a . ~ x C f ; ; g ~ ~ ~
p ~ ~ g ~ p ~ ~ ~ d k l p a ~ o & h ~ "nfi~a1~khe:gasP1i~a&ii&bs8;.~~&;r~e
~ ~ b i i . & i ~ ~ ~ ~ ,
. Y e r e f j s & i ~ t e ~ po aa ~u rg~e & b ~ ~ h 6 ~ r d ~ g ~ f t h B f l ~ ~ , & & U 1 ~ s' & , a $ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ & i h :

in the end gas zone, which is thatpart:of the p s o l i n s a i r mixturewher~theflame h@ grmssurc

mtyet
reached. T h @ l s c m o s e h ~ P L p e ~ ~ ~ ~ p ~ ~ $ u ~ a ~ ~ t b ~ ~ ~ & ~ ~ ~ . ~ n ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ t h 6 ~ ~ & s b l i ~ e ~ t 0
undergoprc+me reactions: Amongst-themyn preflamepriducts are the:highly temperature
~ ,\',,:.:,.xTl.
e ~ .,;:~,i: ~ t ~ v e ~ ~ ~ " ,rtain d ~ ~c.itical
~ ~ t ~d& 'b ~~~ : fe ~~f i ~ ~ ~h t r~athe t& n~, ~ $ ~ & ~ 1 ~ $
i oend:gas (Heavyends contamination 1
win';pontaneo";,$ ;ini& :.y2i;;k..t:ii
>.": ,.,:";.:'. . . Preformed gum i~purities ' . I .... ... ...... ,,
e arrival pf the flame f r ~ n t e m a n a t i n ~ f r o.the m sparking Improper volathiti coir&b%r . , r: ' .: l " '
plug: this causes detonation or' knocking. If, on the other hand, the flame fmnt Pobr cold starting ;

sasEone before the @$d UPof th$@$&fi, t&reshold:per6~ideconcentrati~n,~~ co@JJ&ion end i:. ,
Water contamination . :
i . . - ~ . ~ ~ : . ~ ; i : ~ ~ . f ~:

-
of the gasoline-air m ~,x. ,t u r \?fiI.k-be.w~t&jut

~ i g b r 5.1
e
.:;.,, ,
........
, !. <
:,, ,
,'<::!%:-,..I;
kbock.
. .
e i~h'dia~~~ii:6f~~.dt~~ir!a~1~dj~~il1,ati~n
. .. ..

CUrye ffp ga890na 6nd.itagwjR~anCe

;;. .:!, ,
::,~s:5,,:<L3

. . . . .. . .. . ..
" :
. . .t.
.
. .
Hot fuel

Carburetor1
problems .Improper-volotilityeontro1.--
~
High
e
Pcrformqi:,&g
~ ~: ;

f c o ! $ $,; ~:,,~i. &.: .,.: :

~ ! $ . $ ~ ~ impurities
::~ -- ~ d ~ .
"ark-Wition engine perfor&&i. T h y fiont-end (0 to20 perbent e ~ a ~ o r a f a d j ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ e ' ~ inauction ~~~1d system fouling
-
s t b i n g and& bl)trQ~l.$as9&-p~,~k,qr~~~r~sti~s o f n f"ll-bbili,ngg9$~~~$,.$&$f~&b the k i d - .~ . .
range (2O'toso'p&ic$nte v a p ~ a t e a ) i $ ~ i c & orddve&,ifity
~~ve a$&
:+,$;&
f; h;. .
,. Soluble metal : cpetaminants
&wr.m ntdminatiUI'i . ". . . . . . . . .
'::
.:
:, :-.
.
: ; .-:
. . . , :. ..;. .:;:: :,4 !
Filter plugging ; .. ,
. @ifi,:(~!$Pm)iC,o~ta&nation ,.,,..,, ,.:,
...._..... 2,. .., ,
-I

Spark plug fouling ~ , f g h , ~ ~ o ~content

i$ic X V ; ~. ~ i J ,
, .
. .
. .
/volatility characteristice The volatility of gasoline affectstha Q ~ & af ~ the
~ $
. .
~
ecengine i s a number of ways, which ~reaey$~,o~-,~gr~ng, r$p:;!f warm;yf3 vapour lock,
carburetor icing and crankcase d i l ~ t i o n r ( ~ , & , ~ ~of, ~the,.~~p~.e.~Iub~.~.a~~~~g.~.oil
$i~n with the
higher boiling constituents of the gasoline): The fuel must be sufficiently volatilc to give easy
starting, rapid warm-up, and a ~ e q ~ g t e ~ g a p o r i ~for t i opnr o q r ,d.E$.ribution bctyeen*the
cylinders; Conversely, it must n ~b:b'&'"ol&ti~&tli~t
t ',kipour losses fibm the'fud @hk are !, ' '.
.exccssivear that-vapourisforme&i-t@ ffibf%ficcausing vapouf'#&k'rnich dj%&&d the
flow of fuel to the carburetor. To som&&kf'6fil%hcsec o n f l i c t i ~ @ i i ~ l ~ ~ &can;6?ibet cnts by
,
usinga nibre volatile gasoline in wintcr than in summer, but some dcgrce of .compfomise . . . is
: . . . .<'i. . . . . . - . .' ... / :.. :.. ..l ..: .. .
obvi~usl~~~ecessar~. '

or gasolines. ~hi~d~pg~d~stori\ge!g~s:o!irlps
J o x i d a t i o n Stabilit~ undf.pg~~&a)y.but
progressive oxidatibn dcterioration. Thc rcsult of' this is formation of n ~ n - v d a t ~ ! ~ ~ ~ , m m y
residues. If present in the gasolincs, thc gummy residucs can causc multiplc Gouble, such as
deposit formation in thc carburctor parts,p&pPr&~,~ifA1d~o.f$~~t~jpluIji$~p&~p-+i~ the
s . m A ~ ~ p i w y h $~r .y. ~ ~ ~ ~ l ~ ~ ~ c c i f i L ~ ~ l ~ ~ ~ ~ , r p ~ c
tian&&p :q~qq~"r~.;o&g~?.ppcscnt. jn.;;tk f4&lj(erjst~nt
gum);. ~8fi$a~EFia!bFF:y~~r:$~~~~$
proccdur* arc used to dctermlnc thc tendency of w m f ~ r , @ a t i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ; f p p & ~
..il3g;(+m&qna~ion :is! due:tp;.o~iPativ.c. #g&g@ti~g~$$lyfqc\ j ~ f i ~ $ ~ # ~ ~ ~ $ k ~ . f i f &
%,~Y~~RoT@@~
? @ ; i r r , d ~+~g k o s 4 d a t i p a0nc.c initiate?. $Pp-941~?~~?~~9f!~4f0~73~~3~%k~~fir0$cs
Fig. 5.1 Typical distillationcurve for gasoline. chain reaction. The primary products of auto-oxidation are hydibpcroxidcgl:T ,,~.~$ecompose

The phenomenon of preignition is encountered in gasoline engines. The deposits in the

+& ~ ~ ~ ~ r $ , ~ f ~ a ~ ~free~ .radic:?1,~,1~~~i~g,
f o ~ m i ~ ~Pm ~ r e F~,$~.'F!J:~C$? tpPP~!?$~$~I~&~9
combustion chamber are supposed to be resppnsible far hot spots which are responsible for fa-$&~<~&lz&;:!6
~ ~ r i ~ m ~ r e ~ h yguh o,a~.FB~P[s4~~@&y~~~ti'Jr.I;:2$~
~ r.rmati1onn,
p ~ r ~ ~rpci I:d,?.j...,.....G.
I S am$n&$Fgo$?by+&!
ee .s ~~ S~...O ~ ~ ~ < aiC!?$i$)it :$%".,
preignition. Some of these deposits arise from tail ends of fuel and lube oil aaumulating,in to p d f o r m a t i o n duridg++&i~&.uiatea also ui;aerpo & ~ ~ : ; x l ~ t ~ o r i ~ ~ ~ g % + $ $' $ ! . . ~ '' '.

the combustion chamber. These form carbonaceous deposits which may trap lead salts also. Most petrole"? products a& $u$ceptible to deterioration~n~ f ~ ~ f t , d!,\ri $ : $*pi? ~
The build up of such deposits affects the octane requirement of the engine. When lead halides composition a n & ~ h 2 ~ ~ & $ 2.~. c & . o famaunts
~ m 2 1 1 of nitrogen, sulphbr, organla . . h l ;d S:;, - %:d: % ~ g ~ ~ .
, :.
, . c
or sulphates get deposited on the spark plug they cause low shunt resistance (short circuiting).
,:j:
.. s~anoldux!uo!qsnqux03 (n q u a 2 ~ a q a a(a)
~ ~ 0 6uvqq&antqvlualls ~ s a!mouoaa
~ ~pus ~~va!qae~d
~ aiom B sluasa~d'~anamoq' s a ~ g ! p p v spunoduxoa %u!a!-!qw ( p ) 6 " T ~ W B a p la^ (3)
.aq3 4 s u p ! 30 i o ~ q u o.mar,
~ 4 BUE ~ q a ~ n q 103
~ e Laua~uaq
a a w uo v a g a pqmw
JO 9 w p u r 0 - 9 v (Q) "p"lod~oa J i ~ u y - 9 W ( a )
s . . s p 4 ~ p ~ 1 au!pssD
~~ . d n - u ~ ~ saugua
fi S u ~ ~ Ln [p~ s [ n a ! w dS U ! ~ [ Buana
~ S pus S y u u ~
au@pa~qsnolq,o)lnsar s!q& .~oqunqrBaag) u!q$+ a Z a q U V J 1!8 q a ~ aqq y m q emqs\ow :Molaq w qu!od m a p I e u o w u y m o y pag!sse[a aq us3 sau!loss2 u! pasn aah!q!ppnjo
1 u n 3 ~ i d m a qlua!qms do1 L l a ~ ! l ~ l pus
a l 4!p!m"'( @!qJ9 sUo!q!pUoa ' p u n '~0!$dLLms00~ lay sadLq a q ~ e l q p a suog!sodmoa p w ' s u o ! p u y 1 ! a v ' s a u ! ~ b h&i ~paen B ~ A ~ I J P B
; jo 6% mom^ .Lam Fa!uo,uoaa us u! s u o v u y a s a q v o q ?no Xuea sSi9!pps a u ! p s s s
assanu! PUB O ~ U lay/l!B
J qasdn usa s i q a m q ~ e aU! Uo!$BzIuoJ m s p r m o Q m o ~ S u p p g ~
, .apap!1La!pqp~o san!qsnuap a u ! u q p a u a ~ d o ~pus d au!arslp ava~&qqa
aqq a m aqaqq 30 UOQI~UOSv o w a u . U O ~ J B s!q3 quanad q pasn a m s ~ o q q ! q uao;)u&z~p ~
1sqar.u p m ' s U O ! ) ~ Buo!~vp!xo
~ aqq* a usa addoa s s ym.s p l a m y s p a g .aylos& aql
JO &!1enb aBv1qs a w uo rmga snouaqalap paaunouold v aney q pun03 uaaq ansq a q l o d a g
gtq Lnm qay? pug b e m qeqq q q a w jo q u n o m s aavq aqq JO amos .saoqs~~3sep pla~?
-
J.

.au!10svS s h e w u! qusppo-!qus anymga 3603 alow u a g e 6\ d q i m ! ~

aual6ueqd aaud iayS!q sq! q!dwap pus quauodmoa Bu!pua~qquyalo Byup3quca saq1os& s a u ~ ~ o sus!gpasn s a ~ ! ~i !a ~ ~ ~
k vrg
u! quappa L[m1n3!3led S! s!~J,-1ouaqd 1L.118 aqq wv,q qmpyo-!?us an!Vaga slow s! au!nra!p f
aualLuaqd .~sa!peiap!xoiad q$!mSu!qasai 4u o ! q a ~ u!sqa a ~ s!qq $!q!qy 'sau!m!p a u a ~ u a q ~ a o
slouaqd 1Lyle se qans ' s 3 u s p ~ o - ! q .SIB3!pBl
q ap!xorad s a A [ o n ~ ~ ' Q a ! ~ d ov! ~q Ba ap ~ p n ~ 1g~!psia a u a MOI appoiado.rpXq F3!PBJ
l ~ ! q g q aag apparad
aai) 8 paaaCd oq paAa!laq s! a u ! ~ o s s l ~uo!qepedlap
o anlyappo a u -suo!qsagpads aqodnS .V + H-C
worn u! quasa~dale squamar!nbai .Q!l!qqs uo!q~p!xop w a r n B ' q u q s ~ g.sqmp!xo-gq ,
--- - uoq!ufa!a~dpue uo!l!@'a3npa~
sln~dq ~ c d s j o%u!lnoj sJaEWm
aryslu asy!u!m OJ, l ! d a p Jaqnrsv uO!lsnqmo3
laddo3 se qans suo!Iqaw

-ueW [ d ~ a ! p ' ~ u ~ d o [ i ~ ~ ~ d ~ a ~ IB3!pBl

I - appolqa!p aag approlad pa!pvi a a q
aualdyqa pue apForq!p
aualdla se ,qanw s~a~uaheasql!t~

, Buo[~peal.ldqpiuq~?a? pue ,@!a!

-
[drf)aeila$se%qsnss [ d ~pea?
~e
uo!lv8vdO?l(q)
C . ::. .<,;:;i..? , : .
.
p a ! p ~aag uga~o
. . . . . . .33 3"'3
UO!V?J!UI(0)
. .
!. , ,

!i

I Detergents. ,,. . control of deposit build-up in carburetor; fuel, injection equipment and
. . , , , . + . . . The
, inlet system.canbffer significant performance benefits. These include: ., ) ,
I . .
ta?$Zd&ced exhaust:eniissions, :,:: . .. :..,
,, ,..!.,.- ,xi;
~

(bl!mp=$$id fuel e ~ o n c & ~ ,

I
(c) Improved-vehicle driv'eabi~it~, and
(d)Reduced maintenance costs.
i / The use of.;low levels of carburetor detergents typically amides; fatty amines and im-
idazolines can,give good control of carburetor deposits.
Combustion improver*. A range of additives for combustion improvement have been
used. These intluae:
(a)h a d appreciytoyisuch as tertiary but$ acetate which were effective a t extonding the
anti-knock effectiveness of leqd alkyls a t high additive concentraticins.
(b),;Qepgs~,mbdifiprs sych a s the phosphorus and,bp~n,compbundsextensively used to
. .
increase the g1oW:pointof engine deposits. " . ,: ,
(c) ' m e catalytic approach where the ?atalyst is added to the fuel which ,appeaia , , . 4.,, t o. be
;:: !

increasingly considered. . . .

5 k ; ~ e Gaso1ine!Blendinggc~mpopent8
w , ,, , . . ., . . .. .. .
. . .:. ; I . :
. . .
In recent times, pollution, from automobileexhausts: has increased toalarming~li.Velsi
Starting from April 1, 1995, new c ~ r s ~ ~ in o lfour
d metropolitan cities of India, i.e. Dclhi,
Mumbai, Calcutta, Chennai are fitted with a catalytic converter on their exhaust pipes.
,. .~.! , . . converter is an anti-~llutiori'devicetittcdto
Catalytic the exhaustsygtcm o f ~ e h ~ d & ~ I t ~ ~ c l p s
prevent em~ssio~of'noxious ~ atmosphere. ~ t . i s - t u ~ u l : & i n . s h&id.
gasds i n t the a ~ ec0nipAse.a
hoiit?'jico~lj.hetallicor ccrariii'cd'i'Sc coated With 'noble metals like p l ~ t i n ~ ' ~ & h d i p a l l a d i u m .
~o!k&Febl~jAiy B e ' i 6 l l ~ o f ~ a t a t a in l ~ ~ii:lractibn
1 which wridbis exhaust;eonponents ltke.
carbbfit"monoxideand hydro'carbons Bafrn~ess~by converting. thcminto carbon. dioxide 'and,
wat'e%:Thcse inetals are spread over a Inrgb surfaccto proddeihbimatc.wntact between
exhaust gases and catalysts.Catalytje corivdrtcrs n i e rcquirgd.::to simultnne&sly :remove
tdfg~0Eeil'pal~utants,~rc6ist.'Cahlyst:poisoning bycontam'irrants;md:~~tJlo~g~~~~Ofa.a.~two
t ~ e ~ ~ o f . ~ a ~ ~ ~ y t i t ~ c oTwo-way
n v e r t c systems
rs. using.plabinum and:palladi~,:.yhich.remove
o~'1~'c~~b~n~m~nbxideand~hydrdcnrbons~ leavingnitrogen oxidcs unchwgd.:~he~latt'cr.,is
o%idf~ed-th,rm&h..air,: pump; Threc-way catalytinysbms. Oqplpy plati~mGipall~diY$;!~ayd
rhodium to remove all thrcepollu~ananbsimultnne~uoly.,had-i.n-,thegawli~~:issj~ju~ious
tha..honeycomb disc of the:conu~rterand poisons the noble m e t a l . ~ , i n , ~ h ~a",r+uc~s d~@~~
its potency; . . .,. , ' . . ... .,. . ..

-Bheiaquirement olprod~cingunleaded gasoline will result in octane s$ortages qt many

manufacturing sites.!The use of oxygenates in gasolines is made for raising thc gasolinq pool
volume and its octane level, especially in the critical front-end ran* The excellent byming
properties of oxygenated compounds result in increased operating cficicncy of. the engines,
thus compensating for the loww calorific vrlucs of the oxygcnatw. Simultaneously, 11.wer
 ~ i % ~ : ~ ~ & ~ ~ & ~ ~ 9 ;p~@@I~i$$t1gey~a$R~$pg$iF~~$5f33~e?~
9f+~$j-i~i~i $&$faee
acti.y.e;~~Q&j$jgj gge;&.&& , - .~p!5
' a # @ $ t i ~ c ? $ ~ # &
~ ' .
b - & ~ - ~ ~ ~
~ @ ~ ~ . a ( ~ i ~ ~ ~ e ~ ~ i ~ ~ i f ~ ~ . . ~ hdk@k?b;~ijt:!? ~ 5 p . i ,"y?~#?&+
! ! g i ~ p j n t a i ~ ~ ~ ~ q ~ ~ : s u c h ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ $ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ; ~ ~ ~ ~ $
,

~ ~ R k f l f i ; & @ i ~ ' @ & ~ ~ & ~ ~ let& ~ w ~ ~ ~ h ~ ~ p l ~ ~ ~ ~ ,a. ....~...f. "(,...;

B%, i'
P, O : m ~ t ~ y l ~ e t ~ e i i l ~ ~ ~ ~ '
cffective~Thesui(aekactive c ~ ~ ~ o h ~ ~bysfo~ming&fi~MB~~~i~~&j&over,~bk~Fatal
~ f ~ n ~ t i , ~ ~
surfaces& the carburetor and prcventihjj Mherine to them. ~~h~ c h ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ j c ~ ~ ~ $ o u n ~ ; ' ; ~ n
be
as surface a ~ t ~ ~ " Q ~ ! f j n ~ b $+@,thqp..c$ten
~ ~ ~ ~ u @ , dinclude
~ the compounds
~ s e a?.carburetor
d detergents orenginec~eanlinessadditives which are discussed below.
Dete?$$~t). "P control of deposit build-UPin carburetor, fkekinjectioneguipmentand
inle,bSyst.eb$?hXFb:fferS@ificant.performan~6kn&fits.These include: : :. :.
.>
: . \ l.,,

&$'~ed~dd~e~ha"~t:
, . (:,. &h5kiions, ,,.
...,. ..,. ! .
it
.

::; ($1!:mpr{+df~el econo&y,

(c) Improved vehicle driveability, and
(dl Reduced maintenance costs.
The use of,-bw levels of carburetor detergents typically amides, fatty amines and im-
idazolines can give good control of carburetor deposits.
Combustion improvers. A range of additives for combustion improvement have been
used. These include:
(a)cad ~ @ ~ ~ & i ~ ~ ~ s . ~ ~ c ~ : abbtil-&tiitit@
s t e r t i ~ which
r y were eBertive a t extending the.
anti-knock e&?~+venessoflead alkyls a t high additive coqoenhativnsi
i , y s aq.the p h o s p h o ~and
( ~ @ ~ . ~ ? $ , m ? ~ i f s.$+ ~ boion,compaunds extensively used to
.:.. . ,: ,. .. . . .,..
increase the glow:point of engine depoiib. - . , .: .
i

d ? ~ ~ i ~ . ~ p p r ?where.
, a c h thecatalyst
,. .
in addid b, the fuel which a p p e a r ~ t o
be
. . , '",.:". *. . . . ..
increasingly constdefid.

5 h ~ e Gasoline w - - . . . .-
BlendingComnonenta ,

In recen't:times,:pul.lutian:from autpmobile.lexhausts! .has incr

, .

Starting from April 1, 1995, new c&++"ild-?~ fo0.f metrepditan ci$cs of :Iodia, i.e. Dclhi,
Mumbai, Calcutta, Chennai are fitted with a catalytic convcrter on their exhaust pipes.
Cat&l@ideonwrter is an s"ti:p6llutibi d&ice fiftdiJ.td the eih.aust s y ~ ~ c ~ o f & e ~ . ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ t . ! ~ c ] P S
$&&df , , . & ~ i ~ & n ~ o f n o ~ i o u s ' ~ a k ~ s & ' d p h e r & , ig,ahla$in ,shapL*.and
: ,.,!:: ', :'~m.p&ae:a.
,

h d f i ~ ~ b ~ b . h ~ ce~amic r coatcdwittnoble met& hke pl&tjfil&.~ndi~&l]&jum:

l i ~ od%+&
hlibbekal$'$&f Bi&?&;d$cataly+tib a:rea&i&n.which rendcf;i!exh~~bcomponM~9'1ijke
&&~&!j&,&~~if~ hydr~arij&s n.h&mta*r jay wnvhDinLzithrm:..intoJc'~rbon::.di~xide,-.and
$&~@~r",r&ehe5fiet;a1~. a*C s
. read iver;-a large sgifac@;-to.provide &timqtctcon.tact b e t w e n
e*ust gases and catl~stsiCatalyticconverb~s a r e ruquir~d':~t!simuhnebUsly :remoue
t.pght'~awh~ nts,~cxsf~t,Ida~l~st~poisoning~~by.eon~ami~.~
'. ati+la~tJo~~~$el..a.~two

BY?d?i!~d"'$h~iiQgh-oir.
dr~.~~o+wap nn~alladiynj~~~c,h.~mov~
t ~ 6 ~ , 6 ~ h ~ ~ i k ~ c ~ n ~ b r t '~jrbtemsusingpldinum
@ r ~ ~ ~ o x i d o ~ a . d ; ~ h y d r d ~ al cra W v i nnb~n i b m n oiidca h,nchq$.::T.he !l$t$.;ib
pump;:Thr&woy .catil@c systems, crnpluy , @ & i n . m J p d l a d i , pand ~
.
::;*5gjhflpltJ$&;mm.\,
,iofiw@ng 5 +.reen;
uf~cturqd by,fepentqt@n,9f,i!@fg:,
.,,.,?, ,., , i L '<. r. ,' .:: . , I :
ethanol by volume are sold in Sdhth kihxica 9.W~!>,
t;..
.
. :: ., ,. >,.:
tvra12~mduc,@.
.th
~''~$s$&>~.

%;RF~:
- . ., & J : ~ " .
rhodium to remove ill,thre6pollutdnts ~irnnltaneuusly;laad:inth~.g@ig~ia.ir\ju~iou~t'o,
' t i~e*~,&
$J&
$$f$
p p r t i q such.as better w a M
; 14biahi=gidsponent
@$?et$ .:. ~ . i ~ $ ~ ~ ? O .
.2kyz:55
. . 'pithout
. .. .
kh0nev-b discof the: conxocter, gndpoirma ,&henoble m a t n l s,. i f i 3 ~ h y ~ d ~ v j ~ ~
its pobnpy,;..:.-!.!;.: :.., . apdre$uces i o v m m & subsidies its price is currently u n a t t r a c ~ v e/nm*~,~$*tnes-:, ;; . ;. !,: , r::
. . .. ., ,
. -.
i"he&quiremnttor p.rod~cing:un'loaded~asolioe will re"$, i n &tqo s&~.a@ceqt many ..:. p#3B.,Lpia pro,du!e$,b~ ,a simp! , ~ ~ ~ ~ y ~ ,,, - ~ ~ a ~
"e~faetiatin~;sites:~The use of.ixygcnntcsin gasolincs is made for rai$.i.ng.ihc gaio~ind.. joo]
i~P'AfiI;hoi:~ltsbbutjli'ene
repre? nts a way,to use metbanpl
is available rn Feltber
t q r : gfrom
F o l mFCC *
? (fluid eiit&lpialytiscrackyg) o&-gples ar
. . volumeandits octane ,level, cspecialb in. tho critical front-end range. The r.&ell& bUrohg 3
. . Propertie? of oxygcnatcd compounds result in increased operating,cfficicney of thc 'on$nes, steamcrackers. ~~t the amount of isobutylene available fmm these sources Is very 'lrnlted'
. thus compensating for the lower ealoritir valucs of tho oxypcnates. ~ i ~ u i t ~ n e o ulbwcr sl~, ; The isobut.lene content in the c4fractions from steam cracker varies from 4' to 45.Prcent
P~
 PETROLEUMR , - M ~ ~
. -1 .-.- ".

~ ~ ~ ~ f $ i bc%he f h ~ blehthig
%

~ & h tompbbnt~71tg
~
.:, L >tpr - ,?' s. * T~l,l:; 1 1 )

!nohitmid ~ s n d : n ~ n ~ ~ & l I dz$ifills

' ,,',
t&k~j
.IT ? I < ,'

e x ~ e l ~ ~ t f ( t ~ $ d ~ ~ ~ bWtaiVdh a a t ~ &th
e r i no d ~odpatibilit~fpmb]emx It ean;bc blehded
a t ' t E P f ~ d W e ~ ~ a a liiixhire
dhe can\be handledy &$pod dist)ibukd via e$jtabli&e&
c h ~ ~ e l ~ ~ ~ U $ t h ~ ~ d h b t i o n ~wni et hc1s&r~st ha~~1 n o l ~is~eipeaialiy,atfractiue
~?,~~l for edgines i ~ c t u d f ~ . *, ,.. ,-. . <.

b ~ shortage
~ and
~ insufficient
~ e reforming r a p a ~ i t ~ ; ~ ~ e ( l oflMfJBE(in
iof~o~i~~ ,(4 cNqii lightyeigl$ gas with a hi$h @ition t e ,r.pidly*m dispew~@?~ntO p
cases appears favomble when compared with other octane enhancers. MTBE blending ~ k l l l .
l ;
. *..
? + ii&&pe&pb
, , , , ~t ~um&kerbp~f~tu~e;~&~r:waui:a,fi~GVG; - LJ.'d't" '
n o r m ~ ~ ~ r f ~ ~ ~~ b ~~ ~ e~r . s~~ c e~ ~ u ~~ t pgasoline e$ ~ & ~ Q ~N r ~ ,,b,~,,~,atm~s&p~g
u i ~ o ~ b ~i.. .l , , , .
i , , - ~ ;~ ~"dJ..7 4fl.fiI ' i d k , . , * r l r - ~bi,,:
o%%'i . L:J~. additive&jot
can be pmduced by catnh.hc reforming, with relatively less yield loss. MTBE to the extent of . e r &8NG +idiahqi.@~BD. rz;Ie"nc@iCSGineeds no. ,. dl<*'' Y

11 vol.% is-beingble~de$inAmerican and Eumpean gmo]inea. & ~ , , , ~ t i ; ~ ~ C ~ ~ ~ g e n ~ ; . fl<UdW s u Qh.'+,SxX.~ ~ ~1 11.4 ~ ~i b; tf ~ ~ , t l $ ~ ~ ~ ; ~ I.

TW=-T~$% ~S%%$&~PS &b?dk WLGTBE: pr&c& by additsel ye&&\ Of tertiary

~..,:,y.r(@ M~~~mjPb1lu~an~&missi$h~~ctl~r~t~re'i9.fi~6ip;lifii:~t redubtion: , )of@o'
rl' and '
q
amylede%4~&~k%&6E, prg$kiice of acidic~r~i4ctio :gh kl+; 3 u g ~ ~ m ~ ~ d & & & ~ o n R 1 ~ ~ f ~ f i r i O'1~$7>dc!1 ~ ~ ~ 'iz .x(%o':? .Ll'll " L z

fighera*g $ i h h ~ s o m e i v h a t l ~ w eoctane
r val& ~ M T B E~ . AT M f u & ~ ~ ~ ~ ~IF,~y;@p
~ E~ , I,a s-(it a~slightly $ j &&ib(i&a&,qd'mdrgfggtlltzp:>~:~~
~ \ ~ $9 9" t " ~ ~ ""8w~.:)ii 74 [vb; .':cd "11flf4' ' "
With ~ ! i o f " h x z l r ~ ~ e p d s . Abi&;'&x~e~@Q$b ~ e ~ @ & o f & ~ ~ ~ ~ @ a d ~ r f $ t j ~ ~ l @ @ ~ & t r b I 'g,~ s ' d b ~ s n o t r ~ i W h w e
h p ~ l i h i ~- ~ ~ 48 ;m @ul #gcbrrgd iitasi&$@anc.
somed refmeries
as a t iab
- hao mems
t k eLbrqmndntbas2h
b cbemi&al ~ ? @ ; ~ ~ t ~ ~ i @ + & b ~ g ~ & .~i&j$%&kii<e@i4 .~dySgg ij61~1&$@ I 8@6&t+&4)5j f
6 1 2 2iY+%al *

a d d b,>-$ ,11h b u ~ p t~o&&b~:-lifit

-- - -
l ?,,
$k,
s h i n ef r a a .
*lti,

1.. I
2 , '
IC4'
va -
l,x)fsv,,, *ne:t L 1,. !zLv
P
Sngineshave allongMe. ~ ~ ~ d $
+

:I!;~CI~,~;;xx d
a%!6e" aii Tn A SaT Qt ~ sift c ~ o &
~ ~ I no yi91 t r *
~ trr y ~k ' i~ u ~ @ ~
2 <
(.
-. , I I

5 - ~ ~ e m a t i ~ e i h l ~ a ~ & d 1 ~ 1
,
t -
, , I ~ ,
,
%~j&! m&hs6 br , d ~ ~ ~ i ~ f ~ $ $ ~ b ~ ~ ~ ~ i ~i jt #~ ~~ ha 1~ ~i ?+ $~ %~ tE:Y3 d' ~h 2&~ J & s t ~
:gad
I > 9

T h e m o 3 t + t e n t i @ a ~ t i v e gdaoline fuels for spark ignition engines, b o t h ~ f i o ~ l ~ d i ~ f :id?b&u#1$~&$~1,j "&&&~i,i1\; f@&S@~&~.ei~~ l~'@k%i&'b$~ f i i ? F ' i ' ' ! ' t

';l ~(l~.il.f;30"P!B&le'B1~iig6YY~!
*i';"i[j"'.,lJ.-., d U 17'4'; ' 0 7' Y U d f i ~ ! & l' '!' ~
5
slnte*and world enerWscenari0, areliquefied petkleum gas (LPG), c o m ~ r e s q e $ p p ~ $ ~ ~ ~
(CNG),p@ue18 and glyh$ls. - r . .

LPG. m e Me of LPG ad hlel for spark-@ition inbines has already &ehvsk&&k$h~' ,fd'm:
advantages of fiPG over liquid fuels include the following: I , I i p r i , 4x13.jr

(a) LPG mixes.more readily *i$X air.

(b)' It be used a t somewhat leaner~air/fuelratios. ' station costa of CNG are very high.
(c) fi @veslower emisSi0ns ofpollutants ?carbon monoxide and unburnt hy&wapbo&). Bgnfuel~.Synthetic fuels (synfuels) can be produced from coal, cil shale and tar sands. A
.
(d) I t reduces cqybustion chamber dehsits.
k ) I t had excellent ;in'ti-hoi~+iforriizince, providid unsaturates are
co'pmy, sasol, in south &a is producing synfuels froid ctgltWgfnatr@is th%+kQrAp1ete
~ b h & o & ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ B ~ a m - a nm dbdrO@urifikhtlbn-d;th'e
xy@~. gas: s p t h e s Y d & d t s
excessive proportians. ~ e O B ~ ~ ~ ~ f i ~ f a 'md:$&me:methm&l~einextr ~ ~ Y ~ ~ & ~ d%i?=$e~l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ n
,.. $,!* s..,
~ l ~ f i g ~ # i j f h ~ d t & & f ~kEe ~h f f~ i~ iong ei h . a ~ i d ~ a t i , b 1 r n o n d r i d & u a r a m i m 8 ~ ~ ~ ~
(f) It is resistant to preignition. I , t i
1t1givesil l@d r@gd of&~yd~oc,atb'bn~ of dif%mtid&
&?) It gives excellent cold-start and w a h - u p p&-fJn;iance.
,, .> I~d@&~Qh~gi~~~&&
&Q~&a&$w&@&~&&&ei&
b G ( & ~tif ffox&eh&ert SLID?&'BS i a l ~ ~ f ~dfi:k~f6DL~8881*
s(aa&b'#~
P --_.._
i~l~'
----~ t s tail gab & e h p & & e n &
~ ~frbnt;th&htct6~
G a fuel for ?Etr$-ignition e n 6 s Khg 2 h+ber of d$hanM&i:heSe
f i e use O T ~ P as ; @qujh&b@Wed ~ ~ ~ o a u e p ~ h p' t~~ e~s see fssuch u ~a3e iaamerkatibn~
~ ~ ~~la.tiAnl
include tde follbwing: - I ' I - b p ~ ~ $ t ~ m ~ ~ ~ ~ I [ ~ . l I ~ ~ ~ ~ B, x u~ i ; k. . i ~ s s e r i e s
(a) LPG ,muat be stored and trans&rted in tanka cap.ble &fyithstat;@d, , ,
hjgh, hu& i~ii~~&ri'~~~~~b~~~h~r~&hno~and~thand11h2t~
t l s . i ~ ~ b : ! . ~ ; . ~ ~ '

pressure. - ,,b, r c > \

(6) LPG tank is quite bulky.
(c) The performance O ~ L P G
its composition. The WC.4 ratio and the level of Lnsatwates
f u e ~ ~ f d r s ~ ~ k ~ iengines. ~ n i t i o nethanol and ethanol differ m y k r a & ~ ~ m g h ~ b ~ b ~
! ~ b a d t i ~ t i c s i t h a J ; , wimporkant
e to t h e i f i d i s t r i b ~ t i ~ ~uselas
r n d a &el-fon w=k+i&on
in tenns ~f emisyions, &$-&Pf.,Ql2 &~$a~<ie&fiiijfih~ %most~ ~ f i ~ ~ t ~ c h a r q c t e r i s t i q ..'"mb~ :.
(7d ecoriimY
strbngly
myis Y$jlence
on depe*degt 7 @&wed to typkalpsolioe, metha1ial~~uiretr44% as m u ~ l a - a i r ~ f o 1 1 ( 1 0 m b - ~ ~ & ~
&@~asnhacii -BF& and .equirbs3!7 timesas much heat f o r v ~ ~ o r i z ~ t i ~ n ~ ~ ~ h e i w ~ e s ~ n ~ )
I comparisons fop ethanol are: 6lY'aamuch air, 66% as much energy, and-2.6timea thbh~etld.
vaporization. The ratios of heat of vaporization to heat of combwtion show that fn.a Weh
 .sa!qs!~aqaemqa B y n q u! quawaaodw! ue Bu!anpo~dLqa.raq3 'saueqqgd~u,oq~
a ipw Q.mnq-
.(.~sqj
pa)nnuor~sq m a =!qewole ?m!per) au!soaay s p q u a w s a q ~ ~ p L q L
se) W!+*nb su!mq PW qPIO3-0' 9wubmnqd1as U! ~ u w a ~ o a .)JW d u ~ a RIQWBA~
~ . aq - 6 u! a ~ g a e ~41ppadspsf
qe sau!so~ay~o Bqny~$6H
-Bmuy~.rpa-s!rsapm mbs rri qPa&r a a q p u t sau!soaq

-
~ b8a.q qtw9304d qqq~m 4,
I t 1, I - ,, , , ; .sau!saraq ~ n q d mqsg
C
s
L
q~p;fa
Brnn~wmpsm~iq1'6a~po~~~n n ~ e q a qu a % q p p a s t4pm0@03
e "spupodmb~
~ b p l s e P ~ ~ ~ l o ~ w a ~ s p e ~ uwu~a mq ~ q q~ ~~~n~usnp y~ ~ ~aqq
= mq
d apporp
~ ~ ' ~ @ Em ~ ~ ~~~F . 4A6 w 9 ~ @ 1 ~ ~ 1 ~ p t r o c PlW ~~ . J~~ ~
Bp ~~ q ~~.~~ ~D n~ ~
I O ~ ~ -
1 ~ $ ~ ~ f t r ~ f # ~ g ~ ~ LwwmcI:nmarappm $ ~ - @ ~ e 4 1 I ~I M~O ~o s p s ~ * ? u d q p ~ . p
' ~ W W W i ~ ~ ~ % ~ m ~ ~ W 3 ~mqd1n8 P ~ w~b f4l w~w pp a?q ,x~ o q ~@ayrwq
u a M g ~ ~ ~ ~ 6 * r n f h # p u r 9 p t ~aMU.pqB~ndgs
!aq B y$$i m q y e r q a g i i a q s q p
W!t33n@@' 3 5 i i W ~ W : k B~t~p IJepiro1ap
If "etrrpuiqdiuk~w~ 1 % ~ m n q ~ a q s m a ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ s
$ t W d s ~ ' ~ i t ta2~~d'.8'8e"@dp$p
@d~ UptU1eq$,~ q w ~ $ u o 3 ~ ~ ~ 7'sq~pemeaaq
1!wm &s&ti
~ ~ ~ f * ~ -9- 7 bayf pslly9q@qm ~ ~ ~! s o l a qm
~ q ~g ~ ~q ~ ~~
,t.jf)q,,: 2 cur, , . -, , ., 1\, :r. <,%"' 7

' sau!s6.1aa;~o a a t q r ~ ~ u'1'6.~t?~

p>J5tflr;4';: ti ,, - !
frc, I * ;, %
1 )( ..I L "" '/' ' ' '.'
. undask
I & g # & u$ .n p&d$Qfd&@h~.i$qwKip!d~~%!in
e1 1sa(qeu8osp
4 w a q u! daSAko aq$ .uo!qsnqnroa
n..1fI~f~~~~@3frh6a~% ~4$iiaIqeua# ~ ~ k I i n n ~ ~ n ~ . ~ a m
,-l{tc
l{ilihlYiiij &5&8
+&d~&it@&~~Wk~~i@$5#~
r
Y'
:p I * I , . I ' r t j + S q : , q ; ~ j * r C c ,v~ :, ., :. ;
4tifphj%fi$&i1+pi&$
,+ *
eYiikYSnqd@@ftj* 'r
,lc
.h6g&Foar;x
+

F~$'+bJd
02 U O ~ 2-q ' au!so~ay~o
B JraLe1 ~ o p qXs ~ A m LIa3 sad4
~ L1snonquoa
~
Jaw .Ia&'ii@ i58~iffffn#nPltf&dtlatto55 ~ 5 ~ & d h ~ P d &4'dkdd ~ t $ b'~6t.d %q$sa'$$t~~dh u n q
a&tq%a!~~~, ~~l~~'hpiw~wft~ql~.sw~*~ aqi+$&S asd6~%iq&@ri~kri1~~q
~ u a u t + % 3 &3!5 quapg)ns Bqaq a q s o ~ a q30 41J9810~ qua~aqtf! a q uo b1a~s r a u o d ~ ~
$ 1 ~,n'.~uC"!~e~~fi
I rrprri;p!c i.a z a i s : .r i;o..-..*:-ti.~i .-;*;.i . g i ~ z l ~ ~ $ ~ & w ~ & A
Jag!. 6 r d f i & k ~ 1 ) $ ~ % ~ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ & ~ f s%~U~bk$a@;a~kt$~!tadmq
5pa~qjd q!B@sea~aq
PUB fiif@ffi@%@36%& 'Q'd8$ks'wf~q&~q .!&i@~fb#'h o , ~ p z ~ f i & ' + \ ~ ~ + q ~ e
JO s&U6~~fi~@f~C&5'4k1r%b!$~'~ode~a aqq a s e a o q q h s s a a a u s! qf'nrwmq agsamop
u! p * d a ~ ~ $ g 0 ~ ~ 4 ~ t l 4 a t d % ! ~ ;anappe t ~ u ~ o& ~ p.L1arols
s u o o l sqsrodena a q s o ~ ~a n~ q
' s a l ~ ~ ~ a ~ s p ~ ~ ~ ~ q ~ ~ ~ w ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ d 1 ~ !w pd~8oa W 5 j~! a~wam lq ~ ~ 4 d m a
L p a ~ m m ~ b g e x ~ ~ # ~ w U a t r ~ q doqs paaodxaw~pqq uaqm quapa autos oq a z o d s a aupofay
s + h a o l ~ r n m a 1 0 ~ 1i~wd!' a m u r . a r q a v q u r q u w o p q o!ar qaa.um ew q z pa q q
u a a oaq~x7pQaqw p m a n o d w o ~ 0aqq3u!aq 4 s s q 31 -aqswp!nbg aqq q quanq aq qortusa
au!so~ax? p g 0 9 b rR~ aBa~~-%v!l!oqt~w~~~!o
*ti .
~~
2 - 1
q p g o u~!qae,gaqe~~qs!l(anrssaupos@,
-
. , - - > r < ,'ti ,,.: - A + I 3fils~j~~e
.
*, :.'i~lf!q,
 uther extra t' Qce qes for the sep atipn of aromatics a d o n - o atics use solvents
with much highBr'?fk'B$$biiie$ ~H&"~%B~~$'~I~~W&~BQ&S#~~'~~G"&Q~~~ very
in that rafthates with very low, as
-- ..--. well as extracts with very high arpmatics contentr can be
made, Of the processes ayaJpRIe? the Shell%.ulfi&e extra<$i<< p G e & i. wide$ u b d ,
extractionbf..~
especial1y.for the aromatics from hydrocarbon mirtlires h u o r e piqduc-
tion of low-aromatic!solvents. . -+irrq;:ltnz.~-t,
- . -%
- , 4 : 1
5.5 AVIATION TURBINE FUELSA L,,

A potentialfuel for'the gas turbine engines usedin alcr~Fe~tlir~s8highl~~mdstabi1itY,

high heat content, low vapour pressure, good combustion charakt+ris$di zodd kis-ty-
temperature relationship, hi&, density, high specific heat, a u # J o ~ t ~ 7 # y ~ g ~ + ~ q d l i n g
charac$ngtics. The combustion properties of aviation turbine fiiet ( A g J i l f i ~ y t i ~ e l a f i
controlled using several of the following five tests: smoke point, l u m i d ~ m e t a ~ u ~ b e r .
- -
aromatics content, aniline point.and mavitv. ,.
I lr

The heat of combustion ishormally ,calculated f~~~-,-@j9aP~t~ad@g~tYYY

7
, $.

&)ely
hvb basic types ofATFs, the k ~ m s i n etype and U e wide-cut$; ,$jnek&,a$hgmira\18ed
worldwide+ The kerosine t y p "of~ ATF is a much modikC&f@R@+;&l&iTR~gpr
kernsin; oeginally used in gas fYrbine engines, whilst the mde-cdFap my ~JJ AT is a
wider bGiling range fuel incl~dibdsomegasoline fraction. h $8&&:idird$e+ r eeia'Ij?ed
fuel grades are required for limited military use, as irl su~db!oriidaFr$r'affv ' tk ?'-;' '"'
The properties that control ATF quality are listed in Table 5.14. ~ohb&fi$g'*&alit~
relates those properties which directly affect the ability of a fuel to ignite properly. With g ~ s
turbine engines, the volatility factor assures delivery of fuel~ta~b~e+tb~bi~e~~hb;bpIe~~ith
satisfacto~ignitionand flame propagation characteristics. Ioturbin&engines,the Liishduld
mt allow deposit. to form in fuel nozzles, fuel control systems, turbine blades, cpatings and
wale, all of which will degrade performance.
 i 2 ,> + : , ., i . .;,; .c t ~ tbsq a ,n $ ~~f i :~& &j~-~ ~~5~
i ~ ~~~ ~ ~ g ; ~A $ ( q : a~3 u 8 m d~.E ' a. ( 1.~; w r i ' a ~
aqpelh " ~ l j ~ ~ ~ ~ ; r ~ ! ~ ~ . p ~ ~
1 a y i d[as~a@8~.ua3~55ga d a8u-n~p ~
i ~~a :d ~* ~a p o u f . ~ ~ 1.18.
Sassa48 p.uwaqquapun uo b L ~ d u o ~ r a : ~ 0 $ ppa a: z~~i s$I a n~3 A ~ a ~ ~ 1 d : ' a ~ P ~ . ~. ~ ~ I i r 4
~ q ~ ~ 4 3 ! u w q ~ ~ 1 6 : s ~ p u'angdps
s : u a ~ &'~uaS~~s~Q.uogrea~o
o saxqdtuma~uii3~0.ap~on~uou
'qq2fiwi;tel~oqow+~&g :!qje~i ,.'.am,
~ daq&'.;rnqIltis yqiqqnuug~,,: , + ~ ~ q ~ . ~ .imOi.
: u p .~ ~
. m

. . . .
~!~$~J~~U)~~W 3 I O ~~ W ~ ~W s.Wfl:uf
; ~ paw'qap p & i ~S~ p & ~ p~r ~ g e ~ $ ~ o ! p ~ a a ~ e a i f 5 ~
U? Lru!elu WJJO~ u n o d w uasOq!~ o~ 'pmporqu! uaeq wq qsa?uo)souo~d g s - r a n ~ as 'sdmnd
p n j alubsu! juasaid '<$pedi a ~ uo ~ uo*o-
s $+k,ji$$ l~clese cYbja)cld :b.- :qgsi
uO!sOuOa d%s-~addoJa nq ~aliu!l s p u n o d ~ r o ~ . g ~ ~ q ~ o ~iaq$o)oro@w
~ x a ~ d w ~ ad e a j a ~
',% T W O asl sIa1 4 m ~ d s ~ l a w ~ ~no o amq % j ; ~ s u o ! ) ~ ~ g ! a aad su .inopo alqeaases!p
Sq! 103 p w run!olpe3 pus iadd0J OT s s a u a ~ ~ s sii o atifij.
~ ~dflsagyads pa1lol)ooa s! m q d ~ r r ~ ~ .
*.c:?.:e'o Oq Pa?!uY s! ~ ~ J ~ Yq ~ I1Pu~ 0 "Alll02i.?lb ,>*:-
%~ .:~.@?q2r3~@a~oxd a q p w .UOR!SO~WO~
aqzft0.s p pi^ p b q $ ! ipalIoJ1uoa ~ ~ ,,. ... . . s! q u ? e d ua83i$ih p&;inqdlns 3o imoursiu .uasbo
u~3oaq!u'~nqd[nrilqm~?uoa~ ~ ~ ~ . j ~ ~~~ ~ : u ~ ~ ~u a & ~ ~ ~ du ~ q ~ ~ a ~aa~
r p X .Y ~- ~o o u ~
. u o g s n q u o ~ ~ oS@J&~JSB
,I~~ p,& iuyls*d
o a a ~ a aq ? a ~ a o u a ~ ~ s a ~ w n bs~mn&-p:~.9?~?ie~iEa~;~,.;&sr;@;~$~~,
asp* pa b + ~ JcJ?m?'lJ
.
v a ' ~ ! I F ~ wl ~ T! a ~ u d~p b .~[ o ~o~~q p ~~~ ~ u9 a a ~m s a~y..a r~~
qjIV& :, ilw
"
""
,2rrtsci -rut .Ti-:: . i11;7,c::
.~kp
arlr.
.WP$W~ .
P@uo al(l
~ ~ w
- ,
. . .
. - .
YaIy .4.!auqn[-.~opu@unr
''
~

- ., ~ , . ' ~ . s!~ . ~ ~ ~o l d d~~ , ~ q~ ~ p oJm a a ~

n? la@ aQ.3,p@@roliqnlm uoIS0- p a ~ ~ ~ d d ~
-7

"B P (Wdd er o r ) d l g w n b p u r s y ;apg q!s . ~ q $ $ i i @ ? ' p ~ awrnd ~ ~ d ' d~;;n',a-~&;og~b;

sPua7 s m 'pa?e3uqn[ p n ~ .(~al!qua s! q a x h d ~ - & ~ ~ ~ 6i'Xii&d$i ~ ~ 4.G3i;L.
~ ~ ~, ~ + ,
I?Tr;r9fl~BtXOVOd P J P p YSOWa% -sa!qeyoas ciqnp,?~,w+pu% sdAvlo BvqL&,$zPLtt.,am .
. . . . . ., . . .. .., ..
 .. . . ,., .
The volatilityaf ATPa is contfdled to minimize the]oS8 off&f&$ &$$&uri;ided.&,.raR
tanks due to boiling-off at high i1ditude8. Fop this the "&&i&$ '#k;$Ji$he .tn,
ATF is desirable. Distillatioq apeiifirntjon reguire~at l e s t 20 vol,c r&dJ$e'&~$.~~,&jt+~The
20 p r c e n t point control8 hvnt-e~d.w]ati]ity,and ensures ~ ~ k & : f ~ & ~ g j j j ~ + ~ a ~ i ~ y : $ ~ w &
i
,iI 001d atadbg and limit evaparaWon losses s t high altitudes,, .,'
. ..
i6

.) *uh-igniti?n of ATF can happen with a alght leak of fu&'from the engine .h&&: ifter
~h~f!b~!A!::"~.f?pa he1 line fracture during aperation. T ~ : ~ ~ & ~ r BU$ e , f.&i%n
W
~ ~ cw ~~a i n ec r e a s in
e ~vapour
~ proe?Un,
~ &.the atmOspherii ~~eBB,uiB;i-a~'d<~e.2fb-~yam\1i
~rew",""duel increa- a,ldao tho ~ut~-,gnjtiontempe&"&j in;&&&, '.
"", , .

Thermal properties. Jet engines require the use of fuels which ha*Lowfreezin~poinh ,
and maintain their flow properties. A high degree of thermal stability of fuels is nqbirea t.a
94 PETROLEUM l i l & P N M N B k O Q W '

A ~ t y p i c a l a ~ i ~ i ~ n 0 * b ~ ~ ~ l i ~ Wknown 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ i ; P . 4 ~ , ,
as conductivity unit @U). %he.c.onduetivity of a fuel in a tank~.bemeagure4directlyby
portable ( . m & t e ~ ~ :~ ~ r + ~ f i i by..
f u rMaibak
e d ~ ' or Emcee ~ l e c t ~ r . ~ , ~ ~ ~ . ; : ~ ? ~ ~ . ~ ~ $ ~ { ~ ~ ~ ,
demink'r d i ~ e ~ w a ~ ~ i ~ ~ ~ & & k ~CU; i NT~USATE.
E y s f 'ha9:$~~w:10:~.~&td&bhvi$;,~he
.~~~:
e o d ~ ~ t l ~ t h t 4 . & e ~ : ~ f f e t t t t hkhi&rthe!~habgedi~nv,are-
e:ratt re~avedifibm~tli'e;fue1,'
that..isthe-charge.relaxation. The time taken f~?lttl&.~cH&if&?ik~he .itel.$0. Qll from.,agiven
valud~&lh&h2I&fl&iue~~(6he:.dud1'sS half-walue.&im'e.=,tI/y =12/con~ctivity'~(CU);.sec)i@ves an
indi~~tio~E.wBether.static charges.are.likely to..be'l$i~iddy~$i??fibt; Chargeq.:c,a.n.ac~umulat.e . . . . . .
t o l a ~ a p p , ~ c i ~ b l , ~ : e e x t ~ rif.thct.
i t : . ~re1,mation:
nly tim~and.:~he~h.alf~~aIue time. aIe. .higlxi,.
. . . . . . .r.;;r:
. . . l.; i;

.,, mg. ~gefi~ation~~o~~static:electrical:~rges,in~handling,oE~~Fs

. , has.Iong:beenirecopnized
as#~~dti'all&t;ph~zd~n d ~. ~m~bAe r o ~ m ~ ~ ~ v e r i g g ~ p u r n p j nline
g ~ .velocities,
ates, bottom
loading-(no.splash filling) and settling tifiidi'-~tiv8:b&fi$g2!~'e'1?:ii~1y. adoptedby.the majqr. oil
cofhyl&~le~ .iii:stahdaid;ptactid&dor safe:handlin&.:df~thesq.pxod~ts. :4s awadditipna1;safety
prg@,ution a static dissipator g ; r l d i t ~ v e . ~ a ' ~ ~ b e t i ' d d ~ d ~ . ~ ~per_mit~A,f9r,.u.~~. ~~~~~~~~.ad$itiv~.
in ..:@@lD1.2494.specification :is. -~alledi;@~&~~an~~-~,@~~~addi~on?rate to -tharjfiiel~B:Zippm
(rnaxilnuml..:The!amou?t ofadditi~e~ r r e e ~ u i ~ ~ , d e ~ e ~ ~ g ~ R ~ ~ f<&p..ybi?h ~ t k ~ 1 6 ,..the &d~,~~{r
fuel was produced, since the additive ie$Giise'is' affeit5dXytFC vahatfoii hi t h 6 th6mical
~ ~ , ~ p . , i o ~ ~ ~ f It , ti%lts;yfd
R~~M 1 ~ 8,stati~
t4.q.djilpte $ j q ~ i ~ a y'.$h,,@$l.be,fol;q
t $ ,mq+ing
pltfi4dMw& tqp!4+,fud..Thie,,k done.(o ens~~e.,g@gw$e.~~j~~~[~fl~fi~~~$q~~i~eeit,,3~eIfrleJi .
.::::S&qtjc dis?iea,Wr, d4iti~iti~~ln+the-~~~~~~t~~tio~;~~qf#)~~~~~ 'p$p;:pJfi~$Ay&hf b$ereaL
U~bili$91 ~*$.akivefitabili%~,of~t)sfupl.or it@~ w b y g t ~ ~ ~ q && yt ~ ~ t z ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ & ~
in t h e additive may re4pc.e .tlle,kater seeqromkkr : i r ! ~ - ( ~ p $ l i ~ .........
. . . . ,:
~ q ~1:bx;&6<4t:;5
~ ,.(. -W...
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!DIESELFUELS . .- . . . . .. . . .
. I .:<! . - . . ,?,.
:::~l,~,:'a.+::,;.,, . ;:~i.
<,> , ?, . . . . . . .,,: $, ,f:2,

k i g h speed die~el toil (HSJWand,ligh~diesel;oil(ZW)~tiretpro~ur~:~~~~.Ogr .cowtw.~ H ~ D

is:Wldely usedindiesel:engine f ~ r a . u t o ~ o t j r r ; e ; . ~ . ~ ~ o ~ e S . , , a ~ ~ p ~ ~ ~ e s ; ~ o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ j ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ p t j v e s .
Statjlonary.anti marine! diese1:engisas:as:. hsfa!J.ed;iqn?;hips,or .ugg$.f~r:;dec@yi$yge,neratiqn
ompared ...b :theIr~et,qfrwor~d,. ! ~ d i a ' s , ~ e q ~ d [ . ~ ~ ; d i*, ~A",.. ~rowhly
~ ~ f ~ ~sijr ls,is.
gasqline. .~irlces&rakhkru~~#e:sel fj-$ctlpfiifo5;p,@~&:5~.%!dq,?il;~.ifiWSd,
'varying amduots..@fselected: cracke,dddij;sti!l.akp: from iconvqcsipn;. p$c@pee . ' s ~ c ~ , , g ~ , f l q i d d
rata!@k crackipgV.h~dr~cr,8cking, cykiqg areiwd,t.o:incpqp$t+e.y@u.me ay.qjlabl.e:'formeeting
the growing demand of diesel fuels. . .
.:.: i T k ,P ~ W ! ~X + i ~ , f ? ~ t %?$ern!
$ ~ ~ p f~f;..~?vp~;e.9,sio?~i,~tip,n~e&$~~~f
f aqy;qpl.ustion,
volatility .and.~ieanli,~~~fi.~$:b?~hi~ r ~ ; @ n ~ ~ ! ~ d . , t ~ : i r ~ ~ ~qq~,e:def i d ~ i ~ ~$'$y2,yl ~~
th~(Btp ~ t r Pd F ~ ~ c~, U&@ Y a~c.li?@d:i~;~91)~~.~t{8,,$?~&~p9E~l$e.pd;,p.19
relates those properties which directly affect the abilitjr'dhi.~fudto $;properly. ieiil f&ls
must be suitable for handling by the injection equipment. The handlingialid storage charac-
teristic is a function of volatility, fluidity, contami?a,ti,qn ddfin: yfinement and product
s h i ~ 9?r!qovement.
~t The characteristic,of cl&"filihebsdu~n~liki~sk633f&.t~d~&&i~tikition.
. . .
ti[ace:contamlnation,dfid kh&&gre$ :of +~$i:$n~~~tab;ili~j;of t h I;di-ti~ar;I'~:fi~l:. . !::.: . . :

..
' :

automot+
! ~ i e ~ ~ l ~ u ; ~ ' f o ~(I&& begded gbo;d igniti;niiuali+, o ensufe '.... $ d&y staitirig aha
~ u l ~ l i conteit
ur m u s t bk c;iti&liy c6~&bll&'~6.iiii;ii&h&.eiivit~~~~fit~l
Poll,ution,Combsion,wear and

Fig. 5.2. Typical oscilloscopetraces forcompression ignition

 PETROLEUMRfflNlNa TECHNOLOQY
.... . . .,- . < .
and ' i! .': !! .!i; r.: ;.: ,? r,:fhtr'$
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temperature of 15'C
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(b) Greater carbon depaits expected for higher values of m'bn reeidue
11. Particulate (a) Indicates the potential of emission of particulate matter
matter
I (b) Co~taineprimarily carbon particla
(c) h u h n a o y w t @ h t e 9 finned l u p h a s e &qg&) 'pprtidm:
' a b f ~ ~mr b d c 9 p~ g e m c m a t e d iq? en%nme$t u e L d o m 4-
cawe an ill e f f a on human health Exeasslve soot W d e a m w t clog the ex-
haust valves ( ::-. 'r
,

7 2 . Aeh (a') Resulte from oil. water-s01"ble P e ~ r c o m ~ -w

~ o r loG&,
such w dirt and mat.
(6) Can be uaed to decide product's suitability fdr a given application
13. Sulphur (a)Controlled to . ' ' cornion, wear and tear

I 1
I I
- I..
(b) Caueee environmental pollution from their combustion p d u e t e
~(c,ccirrosive in nature and causes p h p i d problem to en&e parta 1I
Particulate matter con* primarily carbonpartic1es. Carbonaceous prticuIa?s that
f o m h m gas-phase proceaaea a r e generally referred to a.smt, and those t h a t develop fmm
p~mlysiaof liquid hydrocarbon fuels a r e generally referred to aa coke. Because mot particu-
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