Development of the Internet Addiction Scale Based on the Internet Gaming
Disorder Criteria Suggested in DSM-5

Hyun Cho, Min Kwon, Ji-Hye Choi, Sang-Kyu Lee, Jung Seok Choi,
Sam-Wook Choi, Dai-Jin Kim

PII: S0306-4603(14)00021-5
DOI: doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.01.020
Reference: AB 4160

To appear in: Addictive Behaviors

Please cite this article as: Cho, H., Kwon, M., Choi, J.-H., Lee, S.-K., Choi, J.S.,
Choi, S.-W. & Kim, D.-J., Development of the Internet Addiction Scale Based on the
Internet Gaming Disorder Criteria Suggested in DSM-5, Addictive Behaviors (2014), doi:
10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.01.020

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Development of the Internet Addiction Scale Based on the

Internet Gaming Disorder Criteria Suggested in DSM-5

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Hyun Cho a

Min Kwon a

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Ji-Hye Choi a

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Sang-Kyu Lee b

Jung-Seok Choi c, d

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Sam-Wook Choi e, f

Dai-Jin Kim, Ph.D. g, * MA

a
Addiction Research Institute, Department of Psychiatry, Seoul St. Mary’s Hospital, The Catholic University

of Korea, Seoul, Korea

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b
Department of Psychiatry, Hallym University Chuncheon Sacred Heart Hospital.
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c
Department of Psychiatry, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.
d
Department of Psychiatry, SMG-SNU Boramae Medical Center, Seoul, Koreae
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e
Department of Psychiatry, Gangnam Eulji Hospital, Eulji University, Seoul, Korea
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f
Eulji Addiction Institute, Eulji University, Korea
g
Department of Psychiatry, Seoul St. Mary’s Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea,
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Seoul, Korea.

Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Kim, Department of Psychiatry, Seoul St. Mary’s Hospital,
College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea, 202 Banpo-daero, Seocho-gu, Seoul 137-

701, Korea; NGM#FKROOLDQQHWHPDLO.


 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Development of the Internet Addiction Scale Based on the

Internet Gaming Disorder Criteria Suggested in DSM-5

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ABSTRACT

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This study was conducted to develop and validate a standardized self-diagnostic Internet
addiction (IA) scale based on the diagnosis criteria for Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) in the

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Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder, 5th edition (DSM-5). Items based on
the IGD diagnosis criteria were developed using items of the previous Internet addiction
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scales. Data were collected from a community sample. The data were divided into two sets,
and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed repeatedly. The model was modified
after discussion with professionals based on the first CFA results, after which the second CFA
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was performed. The internal consistency reliability was generally good. The items that
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showed significantly low correlation values based on the item-total correlation of each factor
were excluded. After the first CFA was performed, some factors and items were excluded.
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Seven factors and 26 items were prepared for the final model. The second CFA results
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showed good general factor loading, Squared Multiple Correlation (SMC) and model fit. The
model fit of the final model was good, but some factors were very highly correlated. It is
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recommended that some of the factors be refined through further studies.

Keywords
DSM-5 criteria, Internet Addiction, reliability, validity
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1.Introduction

In the last two decades, the Internet has become a necessary part of our daily lives. Its
influence has even intensified in the last decade due to the ease of Internet access through

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mobile phones and other devices. Moreover, people easily access excitative online-based
contents such as games, gambling, shopping and pornography, and their excessive use has

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become a big problem. Excessive Internet use in relation to the aforementioned contents

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adversely influences academic outcomes, occupational success or family relationships.
In particular, overuse of the Internet can hinder teenager achievement in terms of

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developmental tasks. It could affect them continually even after they have grown up (Ko, Yen,
Chen, Chen and Yen, 2005). As such, it is very important to identify teenagers who have
early-stage Internet addiction problems so they can receive treatment interventions.
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A global consensus has been reached regarding this concern related to Internet overuse, but
many studies are still being performed on how to best understand and define this
phenomenon. Some researchers conducted studies to suggest and validate the diagnostic
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criteria based on the substance use disorder and impulse control disorder. Other researchers
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developed a scale with items that reflect addictive use of Internet, and suggested sub-factors
that gather some items showing similar patterns using statistical methods such as exploratory
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factor analysis. The suggested sub-factors usually share similar concepts with some
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diagnostic criteria for substance use disorder or pathological gambling (Lai, Mak, Watanabe,
Ang, Pang and Ho, 2013).
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The term ‘Internet addiction’ was first used by Goldberg (1996). He suggested the diagnostic
criteria for Internet Addiction Disorder (IAD) that focused on tolerance, withdrawal and
giving up or reduction of important social and occupational activities, based on the diagnostic
criteria for substance abuse disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorder, fourth edition (DSM-IV).
Young (2000), who developed the Internet Addiction Test (IAT) which is now being used
worldwide, suggested the following diagnostic criteria: compulsive tendency to use the
Internet, tolerance, withdrawal, unintended excessive use of the Internet, continuous desire to
use the Internet, decreased interest in other activities and ignorance of the negative effects of
excessive Internet use. However, further studies and other validation studies that were
translated into other languages had different results when their construct validity was
reviewed using factor analysis (Chang and Law, 2008; Ferraro, Caci, D’Amico and Blasi,
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2007; Jelenchick, Becker and Moreno, 2012; Khazaal et al., 2008; Korkeila et al., 2010; Na et
al., 2013; and Widyanto, Griffiths and Brunsden, 2001).
Davis, Flett and Besser (2002) have developed an online cognitive scale based on the
cognitive-behavioral model and suggested diminished impulse control, loneliness/depression,

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social comfort and distraction as the four subscales. Caplan (2002) developed the Generalized
Problematic Internet Use Scale (GPIUS) based on Davis (2001)’s cognitive-behavioral model

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and suggested mood alteration, social benefits, negative outcomes, compulsive use, too much

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time online, withdrawal and social control as the seven subscales.
Charlton and Danforth (2007) found that previous Internet addiction scales cannot distinguish

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high engagement but do not show any disadvantageous outcome and addiction on Internet
games, but rather, overestimation about the addiction group can occur. As such, they
classified the tendency toward Internet game addiction into addiction as the core criteria, and
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engagement as the peripheral criteria. The core criteria are withdrawal, conflict, and relapse
and reinstatement, while the peripheral criteria are salience, euphoria and tolerance.
The South Korean government has recognized early the risks of Internet addiction and taken
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various actions, including prevention. In 2002, an Internet addiction scale (the K-scale) was
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developed, and its simple version was released after continuous research. The K-scale has
seven subscales: daily life disturbance, disturbance of reality testing, automatic addictive
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thoughts, virtual interpersonal relationships, deviant behavior and tolerance. The simple
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version has four subscales: daily life disturbance, withdrawal, tolerance and preference of the
virtual world. In addition to these standardized scales, many researchers attempted to
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independently develop Internet addiction scales or modify international scales, and validate
them to screen and evaluate Internet addiction in Korea (Kang, MC and Oh, IS, 2001; Kim,
EJ, Lee, SY and Oh, SK, 2003; Kim, JH et al., 2008; Moon, SW, Kim, SS and Lee, BK, 2004;
and Jang, KW and Lee, JH, 2007).
Park, KH et al. (2001) suggested obsessive use and preoccupation, tolerance and withdrawal
as the symptoms of Internet addiction. Kim, EJ et al. (2003) suggested dependency and
withdrawal symptoms, negative effects and tolerance. Kang, MC and Oh, IS (2001)
suggested five subscales as the symptoms of Internet addiction: preoccupation, obsessive use,
relapse, tolerance/dependency and daily life disturbance. Moon, SW et al. (2004) suggested
six subscales: obsessive immersion in the virtual world, tolerance and obsessive access,
pursuit of a virtual identity, loss of self-control, academic failure and physical problems, and
damaged relationships with others.
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As reviewed earlier, various concepts related to Internet addiction have been suggested by
many researchers who developed a self-reporting scale or suggested diagnostic criteria based
on the previous substance dependence scale or impulse control disorder. Although some
subscales were commonly mentioned, no standardized criteria for diagnosis were suggested.

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Recently, Internet Gaming Disorder was added to Section 3 of DSM-V, which is widely used
for mental disorder diagnosis in many countries. Despite the many studies on Internet overuse,

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there are no consistent diagnostic criteria, and such lack of criteria has led to inconsistent

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reporting related to the prevalence, progress and treatment of Internet overuse. DSM-V
proposes nine diagnostic criteria, but it points out the limitation of the criteria of Internet

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addiction and the need for further studies (Table 1). These suggested criteria are expected to
play an important role in future studies related to Internet addiction (Petry, NM and O’Brien,
CP, 2013). This study was conducted to develop scale based on the IGD criteria and to pave
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the way for the development of a self-diagnostic scale that can be used as a standard in the
future.
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2.Methods

2.1 Participants
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A total of 1,192 first- (age 13) and second-year (age 14) students from two middle schools in
Kangwon-do participated in this study. One hundred ten incomplete and inappropriate data
were excluded while 1,082 data were used for the analysis. The demographic data of the
participants are shown in Table 2.

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7DEOHSocio-demographic characteristics
(N=1,082)

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Variables N (%)
Grade 1 542(50.1)

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2 540(49.9)
Sex Male 716(66.2)
Female 366(33.8)

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Family Two Parents
909(84.0)
environment
Single Parent 132(12.2)
No Parent
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Economic state Rich 166(23.6)
Average 377(53.6)
Poor 161(22.8)
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Each participant submitted a written informed consent form after receiving a full explanation
of the study’s purpose and procedure, as approved by the Institutional Review Board of Seoul
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St. Mary’s Hospital. This study was approved by the Local Ethics Committee (reference:
KC12ONMI0377)
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2.2 Measurement
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2.2.1 Internet Addiction Scale

Items were gathered from previous Internet addiction scales, and 85 items were selected after
excluding duplicate or unrelated items (National Internet Society Agency: Internet Gaming
Addiction Scale for Children; revised scale of Young; Kang, MC and Oh, IS, 2001; Moon,
SW and Kim, SS, 2004; Lee, HC, 2002; and Kim, YJ, 2002). Seven professionals, among
them clinical psychologists, psychiatric nurses and psychiatrists, were asked to select items
that reflected the characteristics of the diagnostic criteria in DSM-V. The items that were not
accepted by all the professionals were included or excluded after discussions. A total of 41
items were selected, but some of them were excluded based on the discussion using the first
confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) results. The final criteria and selected items are shown in
Table 3.
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2.2.2 KS-scale
The KS-scale has 15 items and the responses to which are scored based on a four-point Likert
scale (1: Not at all to 4: Always). According to the KS-scale total and subscale scores, the

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students were classified into those with a high risk of Internet addiction, those with a
potential risk and those in the general user groups.

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2.2.3 Barratt’s Impulsiveness Scale 11
The Barratt Impulsiveness Scale 11 (BIS-11) (Barratt, 1985) was used to assess

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impulsiveness. This instrument has three subscales: cognitive impulsiveness, motor
impulsiveness and non-planning impulsiveness. It is based on a four-point Likert scale (1:
Not at all and 4: Always) and consists of 23 questions.
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2.3 Analysis Procedure
First, Cronbach α (the inter-item consistency), the item-total correlation, and Squared
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Multiple Correlation (SMC) of each factor were reviewed using all the data. Then the original
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data set was randomly divided into two equal subsamples: one for the first confirmatory
factor analysis (CFA) and the other for the second confirmatory factor analysis. In the CFA
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analyses, model fit was measured with three commonly used fit indices: Tucker and Lewis
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Index(TLI), the comparative fit index(CFI), and the root-mean-square error of approximation
(RMSEA). The quality of each CFA model was evaluated according to the foolwing fit
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criteria: TLIุ.90, CFIุ.90, and RMSEAื.08 for acceptable fit; TLIุ &),ุ DQG

506($ื IRU JRRG ILW +X  %HQWOHU  The first CFA was conducted to

investigate the model fit, factor loading, SMC and correlation among the factors. The model
was modified based on the first CFA results. As Fornell and Laker (1981) suggested, the
factor loading was set at higher than 0.7, and the SMC at higher than 0.5 to confirm the
convergent validity of each item. The model was modified based on the first CFA results.
Then the second CFA was performed to validate the restructured model based on the results
of the first CFA. CFA was completed with maximum likelihood estimation. To confirm the
reliability of items of the final model, the internal consistency reliability was investigated and
the convergent validity and discriminant validity were analyzed to investigate their
correlation with the previous Internet addiction scale and impulsivity scale. All the analyses
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were performed using the SPSS and AMOS programs.

3.Results

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3.1 Inter-item consistency
The results showed that the internal consistency reliability for all 41 items was good.

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(Cronbach’s α = 0.994). However, when the internal consistency reliability of each factor

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was analyzed, Factors A (Cronbach’s α = .499), B (Cronbach’s α = .658) and F (Cronbach’s α
= .390) showed less than 0.7. In detail, item 4 in Factor A showed a -0.096 item-total

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correlation, and item 6 in Factor B, -0.001, which means there was no correlation. Item 21
and 22 in Factor F showed a 0.261 item-total correlation; item 17 in Factor D, 0.053; item 18
in Factor E, 0.302; and item 28 in Factor I, -0.026, all of which show a low correlation (Table
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3).

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Corrected Squared
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Item No. Items - Total Multiple

Correlation Correlation
A 1. I often think of the Internet even when I am not online. 0.525 0.408
2. I feel like I am on the Internet even when I am not. 0.491 0.350
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(Cronbach’ α 3. I lose track of time when I am online. 0.401 0.301

= 0.499) 4. I don’t think of the Internet when I am not on it. -0.096 0.014
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5. I cannot focus on other things while wanting to know what is happening if I cannot 0.477 0.272
be online.
B 6. I don’t feel anxious even when I cannot be online. -0.001 0.002
7. I feel anxious and nervous when I cannot be online. 0.429 0.230
(Cronbach’ α 8. I feel bored and joyless when I cannot be online. 0.568 0.414
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= 0.658) 9. I get upset or annoyed if someone bothers me while I am online. 0.506 0.358
10. I feel gloomy and annoyed when I am not online, but those feelings go away 0.540 0.360
when I go online.
C 11. I want to be online more when I am doing more. 0.592 0.350
12. I have to be online for a longer time to feel greater excitement than before. 0.592 0.350
(Cronbach’ α
= 0.743)
13. I try to reduce the number of hours that I am online. 0.724 0.581
D 14. I often find myself staying online longer than I intended. 0.671 0.571
(Cronbach’ α 15. I cannot control the number of hours that I use Internet. 0.670 0.526
= 0.762) 16. I keep going online even if I’ve told myself I’d stop. 0.682 0.570
17. I can control my Internet usage. 0.053 0.015
E 18. I tend to go online when I have lots of other things to do. 0.302 0.098
19. I want to go online even if I am scolded. 0.726 0.710
(Cronbach’ α 20. I cannot help myself even if I am aware of the negative effects of the Internet on 0.766 0.718
= 0.748) my daily activities.
F 21. I don’t want and can’t be bothered to think of things other than the Internet. 0.261 0.068
22. I don’t do many other activities except on the Internet. 0.261 0.068
(Cronbach’ α
= 0.390)
G 23. I forget my problems when I am online. 0.796 0.633
24. I go online to forget something that has made me feel gloomy and annoyed. 0.840 0.711
(Cronbach’ α 25. I prefer going online to destress than doing other things. 0.838 0.709
= 0.913)
H 26. I hide my online history that shows what I did online. 0.742 0.550
27. I say that I was online for a shorter time than the actual time. 0.742 0.550
(Cronbach’ α
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= 0.851)
28. I don’t see any difference in my life due to my Internet use. -0.026 0.028
29. I have missed going out with people because I was so immersed in the Internet. 0.516 0.383
30. I think my health has deteriorated since I started surfing the Internet. 0.510 0.351
31. I often skip meals to stay online. 0.488 0.340
32. I sometimes stay up all night or lose sleep due to my Internet use. 0.494 0.349
I 33. I have failed to keep my plan to limit my time on the Internet. 0.480 0.344

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34. My school marks suffer due to my Internet use. 0.559 0.428
(Cronbach’ α 35. I have skipped classes to stay online. 0.449 0.300
= 0.839) 36. I’ve become impatient due to my Internet use. 0.560 0.429
37. I stopped my daily routine due to Internet use. 0.656 0.551
38. I have had troubles with my family members due to my Internet use. 0.548 0.343

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39. I spend more and more money to go online. 0.559 0.636
40. I have a headache when I spend too much time online. 0.546 0.645
41. My friends point out that I spend too much time online. 0.564 0.652

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3.2 Confirmatory Factor Analysis

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Based on the results, item 4 in Factor A, item 6 in Factor B, item 17 in Factor D, item 18 in
Factor E and item 28 in Factor I were removed in the model. To confirm the factor loading of
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each item and the correlation among the latent variables, the first CFA was performed using
only one of two data sets. The results showed a model fit for nine factors. A total of 41 items
showed not very good results (TLI = 0.755, CFI = 0.795 and RMSEA = 0.115). The factor
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loading for the factors of each item was significant. The results showed that item 8 in Factor
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B, item 14 in Factor F, and items 25, 33, 52 and 56 in Factor I did not meet the
aforementioned criteria that Fornell and Laker(1981) suggested. Also, the correlation values
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of A-B, E-F, F-G and F-H were over 1, which could not be theoretically. As such, the model
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was modified after a discussion with the investigators. Factors A and F were excluded, and
one item (No. 8) in Factor B and four items (No. 25, 33, 52 and 56) were removed for the
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final model.
To investigate the goodness of fit of the modified model (seven factors and 26 items), the
second CFA was performed using the other data set. The model fit was within the acceptable
range (TLI = 0.946, CFI = 0.957 and RMSEA = .056). The factor loading was 0.699-0.907,
and the SMC, 0.488-0.802, which are generally good results (Table 4).
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Note. CFA=Cinformatory Factor Analysis, SMC=Squared Multiple Correlation, All factor loadings significant
at p<.001.

The correlation between the factors was positive in all the factors, and some of them showed
a close to or over 0.90 correlation (Table 5).

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Note. Factor1(B)=Withdrawal, Factor2(C)=Tolerance, Factor3(D)=Unsuccessful attempts, Factor4(E)=Continued
excessive Internet use, Factor5(G)=Escaoe, Factor6(H)=Deceive, Factor7(I)=Jeopardize. All correlation significant at

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p<.001.

3.3 Convergent validity and discriminant validity

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The correlation with IAS, the KS-scale and BIS-11 was checked to investigate the concurrent
validity and discriminant validity of this Internet Addiction Scale (IAS). The results showed a
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significantly high correlation with the KS-scale and a low correlation with BIS-11 (Table 6).

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4. Discussion
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This study was conducted to develop a screening tool for Internet addiction based on the
diagnostic criteria. To achieve this purpose, we developed a scale with items based on the
diagnostic criteria of Internet gaming disorder (IGD) as suggested in DSM-V, and performed
CFA to see if the items reflect the relevant concepts. Also, the correlation among factors was
investigated to see if each criterion in the diagnostic criteria in DSM-V shows appropriate
correlations. The results showed that the correlation between Factor F (the loss factor) and
the other factors, and between Factor A (preoccupation) and Factor B (withdrawal), were
more than 1. Based on the results, we understood that the model based on DSM-V, which
consisted of nine factors, was not appropriate. As such, we restructured the model based on
the statistical results of the original model. In the reconstructed model, Factors A
(Preoccupation) and F (Loss) was excluded and some of the items were removed based on
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SMC. The model fit of the reconstructed model was found to have been within the acceptable
limits. However, the correlation values of some of the factors were more than 0.9; the
correlation values among B, C and D and among E, G and H and between B, C, D and I,
respectively, was over 0.9. Factor I reflects the disturbance of daily activities due to Internet

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addiction. Considering that Factors B, C and D are core criteria in addiction, the correlation
between B, C, D and I could be high.

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Based on the results, it was considered inappropriate to place each criterion suggested by

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DMS-V among the factors of Internet addiction, which means some criteria of DMS-V seem
appropriate to refine as one factor. Theological review is considered necessary. Lortie, CL

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and Guitton, MJ (2013) suggested the dimensions of addiction, and factors for each of the
dimension by reviewing previous studies. They reported that tolerance, an unsuccessful
attempt and unintended overuse fell under the compulsive Internet use dimensions.
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Considering this study result, Factors B and C are considered to have combined into one
factor. Further studies should be carried out to confirm this suggestion.
This study had many limitations. First, the participants are only limited to first and second
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year middle school students in specific region. As such, further analysis (e.g., through a
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measurement invariance test) is required using data from various regions and age groups to
generalize the study results among Internet users in different age and culture groups. Also,
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there were twice as many male students as female students, and this unbalanced ratio is
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deemed to have affected the study results.

Secondly, some factors consisted only of two question items. Generally, it is ideal to compose
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more than three observed variables for one latent variable. Too many observed variables are
not recommended, while too little variables would also not be appropriate. The coefficient of
the observed variable is fixed as 1 when there are two observed variables (items) for one
factor on the structural equation model. Then latent variables are fully explained by other
observed variables. To overcome the limitation of this study, more diverse activity patterns
that can be considered particular symptoms of Internet addiction should be discussed based
on the empirical data. To achieve this, more qualitative data should be gathered in Internet
addiction groups.
Third, the construct validity of the scale proposed in this study has been proven, but the scale
has limits in the use of clinical setting. To use this scale in clinical practice, further studies
targeting clinical groups are needed. This study result, however, is considered a cornerstone
for establishing diagnosis criteria that are indispensable for clinical practice.
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Lastly, DSM-5 manes Internet-related addiction “Internet Game Disorder (IGD)” and
proposes diagnostic criteria limited to Internet games. This study, however, was conducted to
identify the Internet-related addiction problems applicable with respect to more varied
contents. This is because Internet addiction does not pertain only to gaming but to various

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other areas as well, including pornography, gambling, shopping, and chatting, and such
addiction is considered due to the intrinsic characteristics of the Internet. Therefore, the

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Internet-related addiction phases are expected to be similar. Few studies have been conducted

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to date to investigate the difference in Internet addiction phases by content. Further, it is
considered that the construction of the proposed scale can be corrected depending on the

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results of the further study.
Despite these limitations, this study structured and validated a scale based on the diagnostic
criteria of Internet addiction suggested in DSM-V. The results of this study are expected to
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enhance understanding of Internet addiction symptoms and help establish standardized
diagnostic criteria.
Ran, T., Xiuqin, H., Jinan, W., Huimin, Z., Ying, Z. and Mengchen, L. (2010) have developed
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eight diagnostic criteria based on the previous study results, and investigated the rate at which
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each criterion was observed in patients after an interview with clinicians. The results showed
that ‘Hiding from friends and relatives: deception of actual costs/time of Internet involvement’
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was observed in less than half of the patients, so the criterion was excluded from the final
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criteria. The study also suggested that if a patient meets the ‘Preoccupation’ and ‘Withdrawal’
criteria and shows more than one symptoms, then he/she can be diagnosed with Internet
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addiction. They also suggested exclusion criteria, clinically significant impairment criteria,
and a course criterion. The clinically significant impairment criterion is the same as that in
Criterion I of DSM-V. Also, seven criteria in the symptom criterion are consistent with those
of DSM-5. It can be considered a result of the validity of the IGD criteria in DSM-5 to some
extent.
Even if more studies are required, the results of this study showed that symptoms can be
categorized under the same concept. The efficiency of this scale as a screening tool can be
increased if a simple version (that measures either the symptoms or the outcomes rather than
both) is developed, considering the high correlation between some Internet addiction
symptoms and the outcome of excessive Internet use.
The scales developed in previous researches suggested factor structures based on the
statistical analyses of data. Hence, in repeated verifications using the same scale, different
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factor structures are deduced depending on the samples. Therefore, this study made a
supposition of a factor structure based on DSM-5, investigated its validity, and proposed a
more stable factor structure. Further studies based on the results of this study are expected to
enable a comprehensive understanding of Internet addiction.

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Many studies have been conducted in relation to Internet addiction, but in reality, many
disputes about in have yet to be resolved. For a better understanding of this situation, it is

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considered necessary to conceptually separate the symptoms and the results of internet

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addiction, and to conduct more studies on clinical groups. Therefore, priority should be given
to the preparation of diagnostic criteria that can be applied as a standard, for which various

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studies should be conducted.

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Development of the Internet Addiction Scale Based on the

Internet Gaming Disorder Criteria Suggested in DSM-5

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Highlights

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It was suggested 9 criteria for Internet Gaming Disorder in DSM-5.
Researchers in this study developed the Scale with 9 factors 41items based on DSm-5 criteria.

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Confirmatory Factor Analysis result showed that seven factors were appropriate.
More research is needed for development of a standardized self-diagnostic Internet addiction
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scale.
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