Typography

Typography is the art and technique of arranging type to make written language
legible, readable, and appealing when displayed. The arrangement of type involves
selecting typefaces, point sizes, line lengths, line-spacing (leading), and letter-
spacing (tracking), and adjusting the space between pairs of letters (kerning[1]). The
term typography is also applied to the style, arrangement, and appearance of the
letters, numbers, and symbols created by the process. Type design is a closely
related craft, sometimes considered part of typography; most typographers do not
design typefaces, and some type designers do not consider themselves
typographers.[2][3] Typography also may be used as a decorative device, unrelated
to communication of information.

Typography is the work of typesetters (also known as compositors), typographers,

graphic designers, art directors, manga artists, comic book artists, graffiti artists,
and, now, anyone who arranges words, letters, numbers, and symbols for
publication, display, or distribution, from clerical workers and newsletter writers to A specimen sheet of theTrajan
typeface, which is based on the letter
anyone self-publishing materials. Until the Digital Age, typography was a
forms of capitalis monumentalis or
specialized occupation. Digitization opened up typography to new generations of Roman square capitalsused for the
previously unrelated designers and lay users. As the capability to create typography inscription at the base ofTrajan's
has become ubiquitous, the application of principles and best practices developed Column, from which the typeface
over generations of skilled workers and professionals has diminished. So at a time takes its name
when scientific techniques can support the proven traditions (e.g., greater legibility
with the use of serifs, upper and lower case, contrast, etc.) through understanding
the limitations of human vision, typography as often encountered may fail to
achieve its principal objective: effective communication.

Contents
Etymology
Movable type being assembled on a
History composing stick using pieces that are
Evolution stored in the type case shown below it
Experimental typeface uses
Techniques
Scope
Text typefaces
Color
Principles of the typographic craft
Display graphics
Advertising
Inscriptional and architectural lettering
See also
Notes
References
External links
Etymology
The word "typography" in English comes from theGreek roots τύπος typos = "impression" and -γραφία -graphia = "writing".

History
Although typically applied to printed, published, broadcast, and reproduced
materials in contemporary times, all words, letters, symbols, and numbers written
alongside the earliest naturalistic drawings by humans may be called typography.
The word, typography, is derived from the Greek words τύπος typos "form" or
"impression" and γράφειν graphein "to write", traces its origins to the first punches
and dies used to make seals and currency in ancient times, which ties the concept to
printing. The uneven spacing of the impressions on brick stamps found in the
Mesopotamian cities of Uruk and Larsa, dating from the second millennium B.C.,
may be evidence of type, wherein the reuse of identical characters was applied to
create cuneiform text.[4] Babylonian cylinder seals were used to create an impression
on a surface by rolling the seal on wet clay.[5] Typography also was implemented in
the Phaistos Disc, an enigmatic Minoan printed item from Crete, which dates to A revolving type case for wooden
between 1850 and 1600 B.C.[6][7][8] It has been proposed that Roman lead pipe type in China, an illustration shown in
inscriptions were created with movable type printing,[9][10][11] but German a book published in 1313 byWang
typographer Herbert Brekle recently dismissed this view.[12] Zhen

The essential criterion of type identity was met by medieval print artifacts such as
the Latin Pruefening Abbey inscription of 1119 that was created by the same
technique as the Phaistos Disc.[6][13][14][15] The silver altarpiece of patriarch
Pellegrinus II (1195–1204) in the cathedral of Cividale was printed with individual
letter punches.[16][17][18] Apparently, the same printing technique may be found in
tenth to twelfth century Byzantine reliquaries.[16][17] Other early examples include
individual letter tiles where the words are formed by assembling single letter tiles in
the desired order, which were reasonably widespread in medieval Northern
Europe.[6][14]
Korean movable type from 1377
Typography with movable type was invented during the eleventh-century Song used for the Jikji
dynasty in China by Bi Sheng (990–1051).[19] His movable type system was
manufactured from ceramic materials, and clay type printing continued to be
practiced in China until theQing Dynasty.

Wang Zhen was one of the pioneers of wooden movable type. Although the wooden type was more durable under the mechanical
[20]
rigors of handling, repeated printing wore the character faces down and the types could be replaced only by carving new pieces.

Metal movable type was first invented in Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty, approximately 1230. Hua Sui introduced bronze type
printing to China in 1490 AD. The diffusion of both movable-type systems was limited and the technology did not spread beyond
East and Central Asia, however.[21]

Modern lead-based movable type, along with the mechanical printing press, is most often attributed to the goldsmith Johannes
Gutenberg in 1439.[22][23][24][25] His type pieces, made from alead-based alloy, suited printing purposes so well that the alloy is still
used today.[26] Gutenberg developed specialized techniques for casting and combining cheap copies of letter punches in the vast
quantities required to print multiple copies of texts.[27] This technical breakthrough was instrumental in starting the Printing
Revolution and the first book printed with lead-based movable type was theGutenberg Bible.
Rapidly advancing technology revolutionized typography in the latter twentieth
century. During the 1960s some camera-ready typesetting could be produced in any
office or workshop with stand-alone machines such as those introduced by IBM.
During the mid-1980s personal computers such as the Macintosh allowed type
designers to create typefaces digitally using commercial graphic design software.
Digital technology also enabled designers to create more experimental typefaces as
well as the practical typefaces of traditional typography. Designs for typefaces could
be created faster with the new technology, and for more specific functions.[5] The
cost for developing typefaces was drastically lowered, becoming widely available to
A sixteenth century workshop in
the masses. The change has been called the "democratization of type" and has given
Germany showing a printing press
[28]
new designers more opportunities to enter the field. and many of the activities involved in
the process of printing

Evolution
The design of typefaces has developed alongside the development of typesetting systems.[29] Although typography has evolved
significantly from its origins, it is a largely conservative art that tends to cleave closely to tradition.[30] This is because legibility is
paramount, and so the typefaces that are the most readable usually are retained. In addition, the evolution of typography is
inextricably intertwined with lettering by hand and related art forms, especially formal styles, which thrived for centuries preceding
typography,[30] and so the evolution of typography must be discussed with reference to this relationship.

In the nascent stages of European printing, the typeface (blackletter, or Gothic) was designed in imitation of the popular hand-
lettering styles of scribes.[31] Initially, this typeface was difficult to read, because each letter was set in place individually and made
to fit tightly into the allocated space.[32] The art of manuscript writing, whose origin was during Hellenistic and Roman bookmaking,
reached its zenith in the illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages. Metal typefaces notably altered the style, making it "crisp and
uncompromising", and also brought about "new standards of composition".[30] During the Renaissance period in France, Claude
Garamond was partially responsible for the adoption of Roman typeface that eventually supplanted the more commonly used Gothic
(blackletter).[33]:8 Roman typeface also was based on hand-lettering styles.
[34]

The development of Roman typeface can be traced back to Greek lapidary letters. Greek lapidary letters were carved into stone and
"one of the first formal uses of Western letterforms"; after that, Roman lapidary letterforms evolved into the monumental capitals,
which laid the foundation for Western typographical design, especially serif typefaces.[33]:10 There are two styles of Roman
typefaces: the old style, and the modern. The former is characterized by its similarly weighted lines, while the latter is distinguished
by its contrast of light and heavy lines.[31] Often, these styles are combined.

By the twentieth century, computers turned typeface design into a rather simplified process. This has allowed the number of typefaces
and styles to proliferate exponentially, as there now are thousands available.[31] Unfortunately, confusion between typeface and font
(the various styles of a single typeface) occurred in 1984 when Steve Jobs mislabeled typefaces as fonts for Apple computers and his
error has been perpetuated throughout the computer industry, leading to common misuse by the public of the term "font" when
typeface is the proper term.

Experimental typeface uses

"Experimental typography" is defined as the unconventional and more artistic approach to typeface selection. Francis Picabia was a
Dada pioneer of this practice in the early twentieth Century. David Carson is often associated with this movement, particularly for his
work in Ray Gun magazine in the 1990s. His work caused an uproar in the design community due to his abandonment of standard
practices in typeface selection, layout, and design. Experimental typography is said to place emphasis on expressing emotion, rather
than having a concern for legibility while communicating ideas, hence considered bordering on being art.

Techniques
There are many facets to the expressive use of typography, and with those come many different techniques to help with visual aid and
the graphic design. Spacing and kerning, size-specific spacing, x-height and vertical proportions, character variation, width, weight,
and contrast,[35] are several techniques that are necessary to be taken into consideration when thinking about the appropriateness of
specific typefaces or creating them. When placing two or more differing and/or contrasting fonts together, these techniques come into
play for organizational strategies and demanding attractive qualities. For example, if the bulk of a title has a more unfamiliar or
[36]
unusual font, simpler sans-serif fonts will help complement the title while attracting more attention to the piece as a whole.

Scope
In contemporary use, the practice and study of typography include a broad range, covering all aspects of letter design and application,
both mechanical (typesetting, type design, and typefaces) and manual (handwriting and calligraphy). Typographical elements may
appear in a wide variety of situations, including:

Documents
Presentations
Display typography (described below)
Clothing
Maps and labels
Vehicle instrument panels
As a component of industrial design—type on household appliances,pens, and wristwatches, for example
As a component in modern poetry (see, for example, the poetry ofe. e. cummings)
Since digitization, typographical uses have spread to a wider range of applications, appearing on web pages, LCD mobile phone
screens, and hand-heldvideo games.

Text typefaces
Traditionally, text is composed to create a readable, coherent, and visually satisfying
typeface that works invisibly, without the awareness of the reader. Even distribution
of typeset material, with a minimum of distractions and anomalies, is aimed at
producing clarity and transparency.

Choice of typeface(s) is the primary aspect of text typography—prose fiction, non-

fiction, editorial, educational, religious, scientific, spiritual, and commercial writing
all have differing characteristics and requirementsof appropriate typefaces (and their
fonts or styles). For historic material, established text typefaces frequently are
chosen according to a scheme of historical genre acquired by a long process of
accretion, with considerable overlap among historical periods.

Contemporary books are more likely to be set with state-of-the-art "text romans" or
"book romans" typefaces with serifs and design values echoing present-day design
arts, which are closely based on traditional models such as those of Nicolas Jenson,
A specimen sheet by William Caslon Francesco Griffo (a punchcutter who created the model for Aldine typefaces), and
shows printed examples of Roman Claude Garamond. With their more specialized requirements, newspapers and
typefaces. magazines rely on compact, tightly fitted styles of text typefaces with serifs specially
designed for the task, which offer maximum flexibility, readability, legibility, and
efficient use of page space. Sans serif text typefaces (without serifs) often are used
for introductory paragraphs, incidental text, and whole short articles. A current fashion is to pair a sans-serif typeface for headings
with a high-performance serif typeface of matching style for the text of an article.

Typesetting conventions are modulated by orthography and linguistics, word structures, word frequencies, morphology, phonetic
constructs and linguisticsyntax. Typesetting conventions also are subject to specific cultural conventions. For example, in
French it is
customary to insert a non-breaking space before a colon (:) or semicolon (;) in a sentence, while inEnglish it is not.
Color
In typesetting, color is the overall density of the ink on the page, determined mainly by the typeface, but also by the word spacing,
leading, and depth of the margins.[37] Text layout, tone, or color of the set text, and the interplay of text with the white space of the
page in combination with other graphic elements impart a "feel" or "resonance" to the subject matter. With printed media,
typographers also are concerned with binding margins, paper selection, and printing methods when determining the correct color of
the page.

Principles of the typographic craft

Three fundamental aspects of typography are legibility, readability, and aesthetics. Though in a non-technical sense "legible" and
"readable" are often used synonymously, typographically they are separate but related concepts.[38] Legibility and readability tend to
support aesthetic aspects of a product.

Legibility describes how easily individual characters can be distinguished from one another. It is described by Walter Tracy as "the
quality of being decipherable and recognisable".[38] For instance if a "b" and an "h", or a "3" and an "8", are difficult to distinguish at
small sizes, this is a problem of legibility.[38] Typographers are concerned with legibility insofar as it is their job to select the correct
font to use. Brush Script is an example of a font containing many characters which might be difficult to distinguish. Selection of case
influences the legibility of typography because using only upper
-case letters (all-caps) reduces legibility.

Readability refers to how easy it is to read the text as a whole, as opposed to the individual character recognition described by
legibility. Use of margins, word- and line-spacing, and clear document structure all impact on readability. Some fonts or font styles,
, and so be unsuited for large quantities of prose.[38]
for instance sans-serif fonts, are considered to have low readability

Legibility "refers to perception" (being able to see as determined by physical

limitations of the eye) and readability "refers to comprehension" (understanding the
meaning).[38] Good typographers and graphic designers aim to achieve excellence in
both.

"The typeface chosen should be legible. That is, it should be read without effort.
Sometimes legibility is simply a matter of type size; more often, however, it is a
matter of typeface design. Case selection always influences legibility. In general,
typefaces that are true to the basic letterforms are more legible than typefaces that
have been condensed, expanded, embellished, or abstracted.

However, even a legible typeface can become unreadable through

poor setting and placement, just as a less legible typeface can be
made more readable through good design.[39]
Text typeset example in Iowan Old
Style roman, italics, and small caps,
Studies of both legibility and readability have examined a wide range of factors optimized at approximately ten words
including type size and type design. For example, comparing serif vs. sans-serif per line, typeface sized at 14points
type, roman type vs. oblique type, and italic type, line length, line spacing, color on 1.4 × leading, with 0.2 points extra
tracking using an extract of an essay
contrast, the design of right-hand edge (for example, justification, straight right hand
by Oscar Wilde The English
edge) vs. ragged right, and whether text is hyphenated. Justified copy must be
Renaissance of Art c. 1882
adjusted tightly during typesetting to prevent loss of readability, something beyond
the capabilities of typical personal computers.

Legibility research has been published since the late nineteenth century. Although there often are commonalities and agreement on
many topics, others often create poignant areas of conflict and variation of opinion. For example, Alex Poole asserts that no one has
provided a conclusive answer as to which typeface style, serif or sans serif, provides the most legibility,[40] although differences of
opinion exist regarding such debates. Other topics such as justified vs unjustified type, use of hyphens, and proper typefaces for
people with reading difficulties such as dyslexia, have continued to be subjects of debate.

Legibility is usually measured through speed of reading, with comprehension scores used to check for effectiveness (that is, not a
rushed or careless read). For example, Miles Tinker, who published numerous studies from the 1930s to the 1960s, used a speed of
reading test that required participants to spot incongruous words as an ef
fectiveness filter.

The Readability of Print Unit at the Royal College of Art under Professor Herbert Spencer with Brian Coe and Linda Reynolds[41]
did important work in this area and was one of the centres that revealed the importance of the saccadic rhythm of eye movement for
readability—in particular, the ability to take in (i.e., recognise the meaning of groups of) about three words at once and the
physiognomy of the eye, which means the eye tires if the line required more than 3 or 4 of these saccadic jumps. More than this is
found to introduce strain and errors in reading (e.g., Doubling). The use of all-caps renders words indistinguishable as groups, all
letters presenting a uniform line to the eye, requiring special ef
fort for separation and understanding.

These days, legibility research tends to be limited to critical issues, or the testing of specific design solutions (for example, when new
typefaces are developed). Examples of critical issues include typefaces for people with visual impairment, typefaces and case
selection for highway and street signs, or for other conditions where legibility may make a key dif
ference.

Much of the legibility research literature is somewhat atheoretical—various factors were tested individually or in combination
(inevitably so, as the different factors are interdependent), but many tests were carried out in the absence of a model of reading or
visual perception. Some typographers believe that the overall word shape (Bouma) is very important in readability, and that the
theory of parallel letter recognition is either wrong, less important, or not the entire picture. Word shape differs by outline, influenced
by ascending and descending elements of lower case letters and enables reading the entire word without having to parse out each
letter (for example, dog is easily distinguished from cat) and that becomes more influential to being able to read groups of words at a
time.

Studies distinguishing between Bouma recognition and parallel letter recognition with regard to how people recognize words when
they read, have favored parallel letter recognition, which is widely accepted by
cognitive psychologists.

Some commonly agreed findings of legibility research include:

Text set in lower case is more legible than text set all in upper case (capitals, all-caps), presumably because lower
case letter structures and word shapes are more distinctive.
Extenders (ascenders, descenders, and other projecting parts) increasesalience (prominence).
Regular upright type (roman type) is found to be more legible thanitalic type.
Contrast, without dazzling brightness, also has been found to be important, with black on yellow/cream being most
effective along with white on blue.
Positive images (e.g., black on white) make handheld material easier to read than negative or reversede.g., ( white
on black). Even this commonly accepted practice has some exceptions, however (for example, in some cases of
disability,[42] and designing the most effective signs for drivers).
The upper portions of letters (ascenders) play a stronger part in the recognition process than the lower portions.
The aesthetic concerns in typography deals not only with the careful selection of one or two harmonizing typefaces and relative type
sizes, but also with laying out elements to be printed on a flat surface tastefully and appealingly, among others. For this reason,
typographers attempt to observetypographical principles, the most common of which are listed below:

Limit up to three colors, which should harmonize to each other and with the color of the paper and the dominant
color(s) of the photo or graphics
Limit to two typefaces on a single page, which should "match"
Limit up to three fonts and sizes
Select the size of leading to be optimal and most pleasing to the eyes.
The number of different enhancements suchas greater size, bold, italic fonts, capitalization, or dif
ferent typeface,
different color, as used for headlines and emphasized words inside the text block, should be limited and consistent,
and be judiciously selected
Avoid underlining like pest and should not beon top of another enhancement
Text should be placed judiciously to lead theeye from one text cognitively natural way to the next text
 Multi-line headline should be segmented by phrases (no phrase should be split into two lines)
No widows and orphans (no beginning line of paragraph at the bottom of page, no last line of paragraph at the top of
page)
Likewise no headline is at the page bottom
The last line of a paragraph should flush with the preceding lines and not stand alone below a picture
The printing elements should not be scattered in the hodgepodge fashion across the page, unless it truly conveys
hodgepodge.
The letters V and W at the beginning of a paragraph line should extent a little to left of the vertical left flush line to
give an optical impression of being flush with lines below
.
Readability also may be compromised by letter-spacing, word spacing, or leading
that is too tight or too loose. It may be improved when generous vertical space
separates lines of text, making it easier for the eye to distinguish one line from the
next, or previous line. Poorly designed typefaces and those that are too tightly or
loosely fitted also may result in poor legibility. Underlining also may reduce
readability by eliminating the recognition effect contributed by the descending
elements of letters.

Periodical publications, especially newspapers and magazines, use typographical

Text typeset using LaTeX digital elements to achieve an attractive, distinctive appearance, to aid readers in navigating
typesetting software, often used for the publication, and in some cases for dramatic effect. By formulating a style guide,
academic papers and journals
a publication or periodical standardizes with a relatively small collection of
typefaces, each used for specific elements within the publication, and makes
consistent use of typefaces, case, type sizes, italic, boldface, colors, and other typographic features such as combining large and small
capital letters together. Some publications, such as The Guardian and The Economist, go so far as to commission a type designer to
create customized typefaces for their exclusive use.

Different periodical publications design their publications, including their typography, to achieve a particular tone or style. For
example, USA Today uses a bold, colorful, and comparatively modern style through their use of a variety of typefaces and colors;
type sizes vary widely, and the newspaper's name is placed on a colored background. In contrast, The New York Times uses a more
traditional approach, with fewer colors, less typeface variation, and morecolumns.

Especially on the front page of newspapers and on magazine covers, headlines often are set in larger display typefaces to attract
attention, and are placed near themasthead.

Typography utilized to characterize text: Typography is intended to reveal the character of the text. Through the use of typography, a
body of text can instantaneously reveal the mood the author intends to convey to its readers. The message that a body of text conveys
has a direct relationship with the typeface that is chosen. Therefore, when a person is focusing on typography and setting type they
must pay very close attention to the typeface they decide to choose. Choosing the correct typeface for a body of text can only be done
after thoroughly reading the text, understanding its context, and understanding what the text is wishing to convey. Once the
typographer has an understanding of the text, then they have the responsibility of using the appropriate typeface to honor the writing
done by the author of the text. Knowledge of choosing the correct typeface comes along with understanding the historical background
of typefaces and understanding the reason why that typeface was created. For example, if the body of text is titled “Commercial Real
Estate Transactions” and further elaborates on the real estate market throughout the body, then the appropriate typeface to use in this
instance is a serif typeface. This typeface would be appropriate because the author intends to inform its audience on a serious topic
and not entertain his audience with an anecdote; therefore, a serif typeface would effectively convey a sense of seriousness to the
audience instantaneously. The typographer would also employ larger-sized font for the title of the text to convey a sense of
importance to the title of the text which directly informs the reader of the structure in which the text is intended to be read, as well as
[43]
increasing readability from varying viewing distances.

Typography utilized to make reading practical: Typography not only has a direct correlation with honoring the tone of the text, but
also shares the responsibility of making the audience commence the reading process as well as sustaining the audience’s attention
throughout the body of text. Although typography can potentially be utilized to attract the reader's attention to commence the reading
process, and create a beautiful/attractive piece of text, the craft of typography is not limited to aesthetics. Typography is a craft that is
not stringently encompassed with the aesthetic appeal of the text. On the contrary, the object of typography is to make the reading
experience practical and useful. The use of bold colors, multiple typefaces, and colorful backgrounds in a typographic design may be
eye-catching; however, it may not be appropriate for all bodies of text and could potentially make text illegible. Overuse of design
elements such as colors and typefaces can create an unsettling reading experience, preventing the author of the text from conveying
their message to readers.[44]

Display graphics
Type may be combined with negative space and images, forming relationships and
dialog between the words and images for special effects. Display designs are a
potent element in graphic design. Some sign designers exhibit less concern for
readability, sacrificing it for an artistic manner. Color and size of type elements may
be much more prevalent than in solely text designs. Most display items exploit type
at larger sizes, where the details of letter design are magnified. Color is used for its
emotional effect in conveying the tone and natureof subject matter.

Display typography encompasses:

Advertisements in publications, such as newspapers and magazines

Magazine and newspaper headline type
Signs and other large-scale-letter designs, such asinformation signs
and billboards
Posters
Brochures and flyers
Packaging and labeling
Business communications and advertising
Book covers
Typographic logos, trademarks, and word marks
Graffiti
Inscriptions
Nineteenth century wanted poster for
Architectural lettering
John Wilkes Booth (the assassin of
Kinetic typography in motion pictures, television, vending machine
displays, online, and computer screen displays U.S. President Abraham Lincoln)
printed with lead and woodcut type,
and incorporating photography
Advertising
Typography has long been a vital part of promotional material and advertising. Designers often use typefaces to set a theme and
mood in an advertisement (for example, using bold, large text to convey a particular message to the reader).[45] Choice of typeface is
often used to draw attention to a particular advertisement, combined with efficient use of color, shapes, and images.[46] Today,
typography in advertising often reflects a company's brand. Typefaces used in advertisements convey different messages to the
reader: classical ones are for a strong personality, while more modern ones may convey clean, neutral look. Bold typefaces are used
for making statements and attracting attention. In any design, a balance has to be achieved between the visual impact and
communication aspects.[47] Digital technology in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries has enabled the creation of typefaces for
[28]
advertising that are more experimental than traditional typefaces.

Inscriptional and architectural lettering

The history of inscriptional lettering is intimately tied to the history of writing, the evolution of letterforms and the craft of the hand.
The widespread use of the computer and various etching and sandblasting techniques today has made the hand carved monument a
rarity, and the number of letter-carvers left in the US continues to dwindle.
 For monumental lettering to be effective, it must be considered carefully in its
context. Proportions of letters need to be altered as their size and distance from the
viewer increases. An expert monument designer gains understanding of these
nuances through much practice and observation of the craft. Letters drawn by hand
and for a specific project have the possibility of being richly specific and profoundly
beautiful in the hand of a master. Each also may take up to an hour to carve, so it is
no wonder that the automated sandblasting process has become the industry
A display advertisement for the standard[48] .
Encyclopædia Britannicafrom a
1913 issue of National Geographic To create a sandblasted letter, a rubber mat is laser-cut from a computer file and
magazine glued to the stone. The blasted sand then bites a coarse groove or channel into the
exposed surface. Unfortunately, many of the computer applications that create these
files and interface with the laser cutter do not have a wide selection of many
[49] What now can be done in minutes, however, lacks
typefaces, and often have inferior versions of those typefaces that are available.
the striking architecture and geometry of the chisel-cut letter that allows light to play across its distinct interior planes.

See also
Kerning
In philately "typography" refers toletterpress printing.[50]
List of type designers
Punctuation
Symbols – Comprehensive list of typographical symbols
Typeface
Typesetting
Typographic alignment

Supporting organizations

ATypI: Association Typographique Internationale ("International Typographic Association")

International Society of Typographic Designers
Society of Typographic Aficionados
Type Directors Club
Typophile (Internet forum)

Notes
1. Bringhurst, Robert. The Elements of Typographic Style, version 3.1. Canada: Hartley & Marks, 2005. p. 32.
2. Pipes, Alan (1997), Production For Graphic Designers(2nd ed.), Prentice-Hall
3. Berry, John D. "dot-font: Being a Typographer" (http://www.creativepro.com/article/dot-font-being-a-typographer).
CreativePro. Creative Publishing Network and CreativePro . Retrieved 7 April 2015.
4. Sass, Benjamin; Marzahn, Joachim (2010).Aramaic and Figural Stamp Impressions on Bricks of the Sixth Century
B.C. from Babylon. Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 11, 20, 160.ISBN 978-3-447-06184-1. ""the latter has cuneiform signs
that look as if made with a movable type, and impressions from Assur display the same phenomenon "
5. Clair, Kate; Busic-Snyder, Cynthia (2012). A Typographic Workbook: A Primer to History
, Techniques, and Artistry(ht
tps://books.google.com/books?id=Lf0iDYCr6w0C) . John Wiley & Sons. pp. 4, 123.ISBN 978-1-118-39988-0.
6. Brekle, Herbert E (1997), "Das typographische Prinzip. Versuch einer Begriffsklärung" (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0110716022750/http://www.typeforum.de/news_332.htm), Gutenberg-Jahrbuch (in German), 72: 58–63, archived
from the original (http://www.typeforum.de/news_332.htm)on 16 July 2011
7. Schwartz, Benjamin (1959), "The Phaistos disk",Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 18 (2): 105–12,
doi:10.1086/371517 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F371517)
 8. Diamond, Jared, "13: Necessity's Mother: The evolution of technology",Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of
Human Society, ISBN 0-393-03891-2
9. Lanciani, R (1975) [Classe di Scienze Morali, Rom 1881], "T opografia di Roma antica. I commentarii di Frontino
intorno le acque e gli acquedotti. Silloge epigrafica aquaria" [T
opography of ancient Rome. The commentaries of
Frontini around the waters and the aqueducts],Memorie della Reale Accademia dei Lincei, III (in Italian), Quasar, IV:
215–616
10. Pace, Pietrantonio (1986),Gli acquedotti di Roma e il Aquaeductu di Frontino[The aqueducts of Rome and the
aqueduct of Frontino] (in Italian) (2nd ed.), Rome: Art Studio S. Eligio
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88179-133-4.
Standard Test Method of Comparative Legibility by Means of Polarizing Filter Instrumentation , ASTM International,
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McLean, Ruari. The Thames and Hudson Manual of Typography. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1992.
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External links
AIGA typography – Articles and interviews relating to typography from AIGA's oVice section
Decode Unicode – A wiki with all 98,884 Unicode characters, including full text search capability
Layout & typography – W3C Internationalization (i18n) Activity
"Typography". Encyclopædia Britannica(11th ed.). 1911. pp. 509–548.

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