1 Commutative Rings with Identity

The first-year courses in (Abstract) Algebra concentrated on Groups: algebraic structures

where there is basically one algebraic operation ‘multiplication’ with the associated ‘inverse’
and ‘identity’. Although apparently relatively uncomplicated they provided an example of
the basics of algebra—we discussed subgroups, quotient groups, homomorphisms of groups
as well as discussing specifically group-y results like Lagrange’s Theorem.
In this course we want to look at rather richer structures, namely ‘rings’: the sort of
structure where one can both add and multiply. In fact we will deal exclusively with an
important subclass: we will only deal with commutative rings, where the multiplication
obeys the law a · b = b · a; and we will only deal with rings for which there is a multiplicative
identity, and element 1 satisfying the law 1 · x = x · 1 = x.
Whenever you are in doubt about what a theorem means, then the example to keep
returning to is the ring of integers, Z.

1.1 The Definition

Definition 1. A commutative ring with identity is a non-empty set A, equipped with
certain operations (see below) satisfying certain laws or axioms (see below).

1.1.1 The operations

The operations are as follows.
For every pair of elements a, b ∈ A there is a unique element a + b, called their ‘sum’.
For every pair of elements a, b ∈ A there is a unique element a · b, called their ‘product’.
For element a ∈ A there is a unique element −a, called its ‘negative’.
There is a special element 0 ∈ A called the ‘zero’.
There is a special element 1 ∈ A called the ‘identity element’.

1.1.2 The axioms

The following laws must hold for all elements a, b, c ∈ A:
A1 a+b=b+a [+ is commutative]
A2 a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c [+ is associative]
A3 a+0=a [zero and addition]
A4 a + (−a) = 0 [negatives and addition]
M1 a·b=b·a [· is commutative]
M2 a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c [· is associative]
M3 a·1=a [identity and multiplication]
D a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c [· distributes over +]

1.1.3 Notation
½
ab for a·b
We write
a − b for a + (−b).

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1.1.4 Comments
Informally, in a commutative ring with identity we can add, subtract, multiply, and we have
an identity. Our laws are satisfied in Z and capture (we hope) the algebraic essence of the
integers. (What we have not attempted to build in is the ‘order’ enjoyed by the integers.)
Note that the Axioms (A1)–(A4) tell us that our commutative ring with identity A is
under addition an abelian group. We don’t propose to repeat work done in the first year
Groups course; for example we will use without fuss such facts as ‘the zero element is unique’.
In a similar vein we will not repeat work done in the first year Analysis I course; much
of what we did when we investigated the real numbers from an axiomatic point of view
can be used here too. For example, we don’t mean to fuss at all when we use facts like
(b + c) · a = b · a + c · a.
We will also follow the practice we have learned in Groups and Vector Spaces: all zero
elements will be denoted by 0, and all identity elements by 1.

1.1.5 An example
We will deal with examples later, but here is an example rather different in flavour from the
integers Z. For A take the set of diagonal n × n matrices with real entries; for the operations
take the usual matrix operations. Then we have a commutative ring with identity.

1.2 Two important classes

We begin with two definitions.

Definition 2. A non-zero element z of a commutative ring with identity A is called a zero-

divisor if there exists a non-zero element w ∈ A such that zw = 0.

For example, in the commutative· ring with ¸ identity consisting

· ¸ of the 2 × 2 diagonal
1 0 0 0
matrices with real entries the element and its friend are both zero-divisors.
0 0 0 1
· ¸
a 0
More generally, the zero-divisors are precisely the with a = 0 or d = 0.
0 d
Definition 3. An element u of a commutative ring with identity A is called a unit if there
exists an element v ∈ A such that uv = 1. In this case we say that v is the inverse of u.
We denote the set of units by A∗ , which we call the (multiplicative) group of units of A.

Note that if u is a unit then u is not a zero divisor.

For a trivial example, in any A the identity is a unit. For a more elaborate example take
again
· for
¸ A the 2 × 2 diagonal matrices with real entries. Then the units are precisely the
a 0
with ad 6= 0.
0 d

Definition 4. Let A be a commutative ring with identity, and let a ∈ A. The elements a′ of
a commutative ring with identity A are called an associate of a if for some unit u ∈ A we
have that a′ = ua.

Note that this is an equivalence relation.

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1.2.1 Integral Domains
We can now define this important class of rings.

Definition 5. We say that a commutative ring with identity A is an integral domain if

1 6= 0 and there are no zero-divisors.

For example, Z is an integral domain; other examples appear below.

1.2.2 Fields
Even more specialised are the fields.

Definition 6. We say that the commutative ring with an identity is a field if 1 6= 0 and
every non-zero element is a unit.

For example, R is a field.

Note that this definition of field (setting fields in a more general picture) is completely
consistent with the definition used in the Linear Algebra course.

1.3 Examples, Non-examples and Nearly Examples

1.3.1 The integers
We repeat: the integers, with the usual operations form a commutative ring with identity.

1.3.2 Some fields

Here are examples of fields that we have met already: the rational field, Q, the real field R,
the complex field C.
There are other, more exotic fields: many we will construct
√ later as examples
√ of theorems
we prove. For the moment you may like to check that Q[ 2] := {a + b 2 | a, b ∈ Q} is a
(X)
field; and that C(X) := { fg(X) | f, g polynomials with complex coefficients, g 6= 0} is a field.

1.3.3 Polynomials over a field

Let K be any field. Then the set of polynomials K[X], with the usual polynomial definitions
of addition and multiplication forms a commutative ring with identity.
Next to Z these are our most important examples of commutative rings with identity.1

1.3.4 Not quite examples

The set of n × n matrices with entries from a field K is not a commutative ring with identity;
it fails the ‘commutative’ requirement. But suitably adapted much of what we say and prove
can be adapted to this situation. Various subsets, however, yield useful examples.
The set of even integers is not a commutative ring with identity; it fails the ‘identity’
requirement. Again some of what we say can be suitably adapted to this sort of situation.
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Z is what number theorists study, the polynomial rings are what the geometers study; the similarity
between the structures goes very deep.

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1.4 Subrings
Definition 7. Let A be a commutative ring with identity. A subset B ⊆ A is said to be
a subring [more properly, a sub-(commutative ring with identity)] if is a commutative ring
with identity under the same operations.

For example, Z is a subring of Q.

Just as for subgroups we have a

Proposition 1.4.1 (Test for Subringhood). Let A be a commutative ring with identity. Then
B ⊆ A is a sub-(commutative ring with identity) if and only if

(i) 0 ∈ B;

(ii) if a, b ∈ B then (a − b) ∈ B;

(iii) 1 ∈ B;

(iv) if a, b ∈ B then ab ∈ B.

Proof. The proof is just as for groups or vector spaces; these criteria guarantee that the
operations restrict to operations on B and then the fact that the axioms which hold for all
elements of A certainly hold in B.

As an application: the only sub-(commutative ring with identity) of Z is Z.

Note 1. Note that if by ‘ring’ we mean, as most authors do, a system satisfying our axioms
(A1)–(A4) and (M2) and (D), then there are many subrings of Z: for each d ∈ Z the set
dZ := {dr | r ∈ Z} is a sub-ring, but has no identity. It is therefore sometimes important to
adopt the tedious ‘sub-(commutative ring with identity)’ language.

To continue the application: why is the commutative ring with identity {0}, which is a
subset and a commutative ring with identity, not a sub-(commutative ring with identity) of
Z?

1.5 Direct Products

This is an easy recipe to make new rings from old.

Proposition 1.5.1. Let A1 and A2 be commutative rings with identity. Then the set
A1 × A2 := {(x1 , x2 ) | xi ∈ Ai , i = 1, 2} is a commutative ring with identity under the
coordinatewise operations:

(i) the zero element is (0, 0);

(ii) −(a1 , a2 ) := (−a1 , −a2 );

(iii) (a1 , a2 ) + (b1 , b2 ) := (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 );

(iv) the identity element is (1, 1);

(v) (a1 , a2 ) · (b1 , b2 ) := (a1 · b1 , a2 , ·b2 ).

Proof. Trivial.

We usually denote this ring by A1 ⊕ A2 (or sometimes just A1 × A2 ).

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 For an example, take R ⊕ R. This is a commutative ring with identity. Considered just
as an additive group it is isomorphic to C; but as rings they are very different, C has no
zero-divisors, but every2 A1 ⊕ A2 has lots.

1.6 Polynomial Rings

This is another recipe to make new rings from old. We give it in quite a general form, in
order to demystify the ‘unknown’.

Proposition 1.6.1. Let A be a commutative ring with identity. Then the set of sequences
n o
(ak )∞
k=0 : ak ∈ A, only a finite number of the entries ak non-zero

is a commutative ring with identity under the operations:

(i) the zero element is (0, 0, . . . );

(ii) −(ak )∞ ∞
k=0 := (−ak )k=0 ;

(iii) (ak )∞ ∞ ∞
k=0 + (bk )k=0 := (ak + bk )k=0 ;

(iv) the identity element is (1, 0, 0, . . . );

P
(v) (ak )∞ ∞ ∞
k=0 · (bk )k=0 := ( r+s=k ar bs )k=0 .

Proof. It is easy to check that the set is closed under the operations. The addition axioms
are trivial. For this ‘convolution’ multiplication the axioms are slightly tedious to check, but
not difficult.

What has this got to do with polynomials in X? Well, write X := (0, 1, 0, . . . 0), and note
that X 2 = (0, 0, 1, 0, . . . ) and so on. With that in place we then recover all polynomials: for
example, (a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 , 0, 0, . . . ) = a0 + a1 X + a2 X 2 + a3 X 3 .
With this choice of name X for (0, 1, 0, 0, . . . ) we call this new ring A[X]. If we called
(0, 1, 0, . . . ) by the name Y we’d call the new ring A[Y ].
We can repeat the process, and manufacture for example R[X][Y ], which we usually
abbreviate to R[X, Y ]. The study of real plane curves is essentially the study of this ring.

1.6.1 Power Series Rings

We can perform the same construction on the set of all sequences. In that case we get
the power series ring denoted by A[[X]]. Note that this is algebra, there’s no question of
convergence.

1.7 Important: Notation

All the rings in this course are commutative rings with identity. We will from
now on usually just say ‘ring’. We will say ‘subring’ and mean ‘sub-(commutative
ring with identity)’ and later we will speak of ‘ring homomorphism’ and mean
‘homomorphism of commutative rings with identity’ And so on.

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Well, almost every. . .