Developmental Psychology

Chapter 1:
 The process of continuity and change throughout the lifespan are called
human development
 Developmentalists examine how people grow and change focusing on
stability, continuity and consistency
 3 major domains of development:
Physical: The area of human development concerned primarily with physical
changes such as growth, motor skill development and basic aspects of
perception.
Cognitive: The area of human development concerned with cognition; involves
all psychological processes by which individuals learn, process information and
think about their environment.
Psychosocial: The area of human development concerned primarily with
personality, social knowledge and skills, and emotions.
 These domains are all interconnected and changes to one will likely impact
the others
 Brofenbrenner’s four ecological systems depict the development of the
individual within various contexts and relationships

PERSON
MICROSYSTEM
family, friends, school, workplace,
peers, church group, health
services

MESOSYTEM

EXOSYSTEM
extended family, friends of
the family, neighbours, legal
services, social welfare
services, mass media,
spouses workplace

MACROSYSTEM
attitudes and ideologies of
the culture
  The microsystem refers to situations in which the person has face to face
contact with influential others  Issues: Is the person regarded positively?
Are they accepted?
 The mesosystem refers to the connections and relationships between two or
more microsystems that influence the person because of their relationships 
Issues: Do settings respect each other? Do settings present basic consistency
in values?
 The exosystem consists of settings which the person does not participate but
still experiences with decisions and events that affect them indirectly 
Issues: Are decisions made with the interests of the person in mind?
 The macrosystem is the overarching institutions, practices and patterns of
belief that characterise society as a whole  Issues: Are some groups valued
at the expense of others? Is there an individualistic or collectivistic
orientation?
 Bates and Nesselroade (1979) identified 3 influences impacting on
development determined by the interaction of biological and environmental
factors. These influences are:
1) Normative age graded influences- have a strong relationship with
chronological age and can be either biological (ie. Puberty) or
environmental (ie. Beginning school)
2) Normative history graded influences- are associated with historical time
and can be biological (plague/famine) or environmental (changing family
sizes and dynamics)
3) Non-normative elements- do not occur in any age/history graded manner
(ie. Car crash, divorce)
 Ford and Lerner (1992) The developmental systems perspective- examines
how an individual interacts with their environment and how through these
interactions their biological, psychological behavioural and environmental
elements change or remain constant.
Why Study Development?
1) Teaches you realistic expectations about children, adolescents and adults
2) It can help you respond appropriately to a person’s behaviour
3) It can help you recognise normal behaviours and indicate when departures
from normal behaviours are truly significant
4) It can help you understand yourself
5) It can make you a professional advocate for the needs and rights of people of
all ages.
The Life Course In Times Past

 Just a few hundred years ago, children in Western Society were not perceived
as fully fledged members of society or even human beings (Aries, 1962)
 Children graduated to adult status early in life; looking after younger siblings,
working in the fields or learning a trade at the age of around 8
  The concept of adolescence was virtually non- existent
 The concept of childhood as a distinct period in a person’s life is still a
relatively new idea, with 19th century artwork depicting children as “mini-
adults”
 Today children are viewed as innocent and needing protection and are
expected to dress, behave and engage in different activities to adults
Early Precursors To Developmental Study

 The growing recognition of “childhood” led to the establishment of compulsory

schooling and the introduction of child labour laws, following atrocity stories
from the Industrial Revolution
 Also contributed to the belief that children are incompetent, their activities
unimportant and they are deserving of less respect
 John Locke viewed children as tabula rasa (blank state) and was of the
opinion that they were born with potential which under the right guidance
could develop into reason
 Jean Jacques-Rousseau believed children were born innocent and
corrupted by society, and therefore should be left to freely develop at their
own pace in natural surroundings free from corruption and adult oppression
(Emile)
 It came to be thought that adults were required to supervise children and pass
laws on their behalf (Glauser 1997 & Kitzinger 1997)  Ageism
The Emergence of A Modern Developmental Study
 Gesell (1926) conducted a study on over 500 children to generalise standards
of normal development or norms; behaviours typical to children at particular
ages (usually applied primarily to white, middle class children)
 Jean Piaget (1963)  research this guy!!
Perspectives On Human Development

 At its core- developmental psychology is committed to understanding how

human beings think, feel and act at different stages as well as developing an
understanding of the human condition
 Four underlying foundations to developmental psych:
1) Continuity and Change
2) Interplay between life long growth and eventual decline
3) Lifespan changes at different ages and the acknowledgement of individual
differences
4) Respecting the wide diversity between individuals and the sources of that
diversity.
Continuity Within Change

 Discontinuous development is a process by which development occurs in

distinct stages or steps with each step resulting in behaviour that is
qualitatively different from behaviour in earlier steps (ie. caterpillar to butterfly)
 Continuous development by contrast occurs gradually wherein achievements
build quantitatively and eventually result in the change in
amount/number/degree of a characteristic (ie. a man who has no time for his
children in his 40s becomes a devoted grandfather in his 70s)
Lifelong Growth

 Growth at all ages is possible although not inevitable

 Damon (1996, 2002 ,2008) study on “moral goals”
 During infancy/pre-school a child’s sense of right and wrong is largely shaped
by their ability to feel empathy and sympathy for others
 In primary school years children begin to develop ideas about equality and
fairness, however, do not always act on these ideas as they struggle to link
their moral goals with real world situations and their own sense of identity
 During adulthood moral goals become reconciled with self-identity to varying
extents
 Many researchers view development as plastic (Lemme, 2006) at all ages,
meaning development is flexible and there are opportunities for change
Developmental Diversity

 Nature vs Nurture debate

 Nature: genetically inherited traits, abilities and capacities from parents that
are predetermined by the unfolding of genetic information
 Nurture: the environmental influences that shape behaviour as well as
psychological experiences before/after birth
Scientific Method

 Involves the systematic and orderly observation and collection of data

 4 steps to conducting an investigation
1) Research questions
2) Create hypothesis
3) Test hypothesis
4) Interpret and publicise results
 Methods of studying human development:
Cross-sectional study- Observes people of different ages at one point in time
Longitudinal study- Observes the same group of persons at different points in
time
Naturalistic study- Observes people in naturally occurring situations
Experimental study- Observes people under controlled circumstances
Correlational study- Observes and statistically measures the tendency of two
behaviours to occur or vary together in an individual
Survey- Brief structured interview/questionnaire about specific beliefs/behaviours
Interview- Face to face conversation to gather complex information from
individuals
Case Study- Investigation of one/small group of individuals using a variety of
sources
Ethnography- Observation of a culture/social group that aims to capture a
cultures unique values and social processes
Sequential Studies- combine elements of cross sectional and longitudinal
studies by studying at least two cohorts over a period of time, making
comparisons across time and at particular points in time.
Microgenetic Designs- An adaptation of longitudinal studies, this form of
investigation involves in-depth examination of behaviours as they occur. It is
particularly useful in studying cognitive development.
Correlations- An association between two variables in which changes in one
variable tend to occur with changes in the other. Can be positive or negative
correlations. The correlation coefficient is expressed as ‘r’ and can range from
+1.00 to -1.00. Correlations close to 0.00 indicate no systematic relationship
between the two variables.

Ethical Constraints on Studying Development

 3 common ethical issues:

1) Confidentiality
2) Full disclosure of purpose
3) Respect for the individuals freedom to participate
Chapter Two:
Theory- a set of statements that are in an orderly and integrated description,
explanation and prediction of human behaviour in various developmental domains. A
theory’s continued existence depends on scientific verification. A theory should:
1) Be internally consistent and fit together in a logical manner
2) Provide meaningful explanations of developmental changes
3) Be open to scientific evaluation
4) Stimulate new thinking and research
5) Provide guidance to parents/professionals and other interested individuals
Common Questions Addressed by developmental theories:
1) To what degree is a given developmental change due to maturation (nature)
or experience (nurture)
2) Is development continuous or discontinuous?
3) Does an individual take an active or passive role in development?
4) Does one development path address all individuals or are there several
possible paths/directions
Psychodynamic developmental theories

 Believe development is an active, dynamic process influenced by biological

drives and conscious/unconscious social and emotional experiences
Freudian Theory

 Sigmund Freud “father of psychoanalysis”

 Proposes unconscious forces act to determine personality through resolving
conflict between biological drives and social expectations
 Regarded as mostly outdated, however, his ideas continue to influence our
understanding or personality development as well as diagnosis and treatment
of childhood emotional disorders, adolescent identity formation and more!
The Three Part Structure of Personality
1) The id impulsively tries to satisfy a person’s inborn biological needs and
desires by motivating behaviours that maximise pleasure and avoid
discomfort with no regard for the realities involved. For example; an infant
cries for food and comfort but has no idea how to get them.
2) The ego is largely rational, conscious and dedicated to problem solving,
functioning according to the reality principle, a process by which the infant
learns to delay the desire for instant satisfaction and redirect it into more
realistic and appropriate ways to meet their needs.
3) The superego is the moral and ethical component of the personality.
Develops towards the end of Early Childhood, included the child’s emerging
sense of conscience as well as the ego-ideal, an idealised sense of how they
should behave. It punishes unacceptable thoughts or actions through guilt and
 rewards them for fulfilment of parental standards through heightened self
esteem
Stages of Psychosexual Development
 Freud believed development occurred through a series of
psychosexual stages that are crucial for healthy development
 Focuses on different areas of the body that is a source of excitement or
pleasure
 How they invest their libido in relationships reflects the concerns of the
stage they are in
 Development results from conflict between the id, ego and superego

Psychosexual Stage Approximate Age Description

Oral Birth-1 year The mouth is the focus of
stimulation and interaction. The
infant derives pleasure from
oral activities such as sucking
and chewing. Not meeting the
oral requirements of an infant
can result in thumb sucking,
nail biting and pencil chewing
later in childhood development.
Anal 1-3 years The anus is the focus of
stimulation and interaction,
with toilet training being a
central achievement of the
time. Toddlers and pre-
schoolers take pleasure in
holding and releasing faeces.
Phallic 3-6 years The genitals are the focus of
stimulation and interaction.
Freud’s Oedipus complex
becomes evident in boys and
the Electra complex in girls.
Young children feel a sexual
desire for the opposite sex
parent and often hostility
towards the same sex parent.
To avoid punishment and
rejection, they supress
impulses and mirror the
characteristics of the same sex
parent. The superego is
developed.
Latency 6-12 years A period of suspended sexual
activity where energies shift to
physical, social and intellectual
activities. The superego
continues to develop.
Genital 12-adulthood The genitals are (again) the
focus of stimulation with the
sexual impulses of the phallic
stage re-emerging during
puberty. Mature sexual
relationships develop and
extend through adulthood
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

 Does identity precede intimacy?

 Viewed personality development as a psychosocial process
 Social skills and attitudes contribute to our understanding of ourselves as
members of society
 Influenced by 3 interconnected forces:
1) Biological/physical strengths and limitations
2) Unique life circumstances and early life crises
3) Social, cultural and historical forces at work (ie. war, poverty)
 Lifespan development occurs in 8 stages named for the particular
psychosocial crisis that must be effectively solved in order to develop a fully
functioning personality
 Negative resolutions determine maladaptive outcomes at each stage
Psychosocial Stage Approximate Age Description
Basic trust vs Mistrust Birth- 18 months focus on oral-sensory activity;
development of trusting
relationships with caregivers.
Mistrust occurs when infants
are handled harshly and have
to wait too long for their basic
needs to be met
Autonomy vs Shame and 1-2 years Focus on muscular- anal
Doubt activity; development of control
over bodily functions as well as
development of motor and
mental skills. Autonomy
fostered by parents allowing
reasonable free choice and not
forcing or shaming the child
Initiative vs Guilt 3-6 years Focus on locomotor-genital
activity; testing limits of self-
assertion and purposefulness.
Developing initiative, a sense
of responsibility and purpose
Industry vs Inferiority 7-11 years Focus on mastery,
competence and productivity;
develop the capacity to work
with others and are industrious
in cognitive, physical and
emotional ways. When children
encounter negative
experiences at school/home
feelings of incompetence can
arise
Identity vs Role Confusion adolescence Focus on formation of identity;
questions such as who am I?
where am I going? Where do I
fit in? challenge the
adolescent. Through searching
for meaning and exploring
 vocational goals and self-
values the adolescent forms
personal identity
Intimacy vs Isolation 20s and 30s (early Focus on achievement of an
adulthood) intimate relationship and
career direction. Some
individuals have difficulty in
forming close relationships
because of earlier
disappointments, which leads
to isolation
Generativity vs 40s to 60s (middle Focus on fulfilment through
Stagnation adulthood) creative, productive activity
that contributes to future
generations. Failure to achieve
this results in an absence of
meaningful accomplishment
Ego integrity vs Despair 60s on (old age) Focus on belief in integrity of
life, including successes and
failures. Reflect on the kind of
person they have been, if a life
has been worth living and if
they have accomplished their
goals. Dissatisfaction with life
results in a fear of death

Mahler’s Phases of Development

Phase Approximate Age Description
Autistic Phase Birth- 2 months Safe, sleep like transition
into the world
Symbiotic Phase 2-6 months Development of an
emotionally charged
mental image of the care
giver
Separation-Individuation 6-24 months Functions as a separate
Phase individual
Hatching Sub-Phase 6-10 months Responds differently to
primary caregiver vs
others
Practising Sub-Phase 10-16 months Safe separation and
disengagement
Rapprochement Phase 16-24 months Experiments more fully
with leaving and returning
to the safe home base of
the caregiver
Object Constancy Phase 24-36 months and over Maintains stable and
reliable mental images of
the primary caregiver
Stern’s Theory

 Young infants from Birth- 2 months are able to organise their experiences
through an emergent self where they regulate eating and sleeping and
actively participate in their interpersonal world to a greater extent that Mahler
proposed
 A core self emerges between 2-6 months based on an infant’s awareness of
being separated from others
 A subjective self emerges from 6-12 months based upon a mental
representation of relationships with others
 A verbal self emerges from 12-18 months with
 the development of language and symbolic thought
Applications of Psychodynamic-Development Theories
Help us understand:
 The formation of attachments
 The development of autonomy and self-control
 The development of intimate relationships during adolescence and adulthood
Behavioural Learning Theories

 Learning can be defined as the relatively permanent changes in the capacity

to perform certain behaviours that is the result of experience.
 The behavioural learning theories developed by Pavlov (1891-1900) and
Skinner (1930-1989) have provided key concepts for understanding how
learning experiences influence developmental change and strategies for
learning new, desirable behaviours while altering/eliminating problematic
behaviours
Pavlov’s Theory
 Classical conditioning example  Pavlov rang a bell before feeding the dog
and eventually the dog began to salivate in anticipation (conditioned
response) when it heard the bell, even if there was no food (unconditional
stimulus)
 In children, reflexes present at birth help them learn about and participate in
the world around them ie. sucking in response to a touch on the lips or seeing
the bottle or the mothers face/smile/voice
 J.B Watson was the first to test if classical conditioning could be applied to
infants, through teaching an 11 month old to fear a white, toy rat. At first he
would reach out to touch the toy, however, after Watson made loud noises
that scared the baby, Albert was conditioned to be afraid of the rat.
Skinner’s Theory
 Operant conditioning is based on the simple concept of reinforcement, the
process by which the likelihood that a particular response will occur again
increases when the response is followed by a certain stimulus.
  A positive reinforcement occurs when following a particular response (a
baby saying da-da), a rewarding stimulus (such as a smile and a “good
boy!”) strengthens the response and encourages its reoccurrence
 Negative Reinforcement also strengthens a response and increases the
likelihood of reoccurrence (ie. a child misbehaving at the dinner table who
quietens down after she gets her parents attention)
 Punishment weakens or suppresses a behavioural response
Social Cognitive Learning Theory

 Bandura proposes developmental change occurs through observational

learning (also referred to as social learning theory and social cognitive theory)
 Learning is a result of interactions between the developing individual and their
physical/social environment
 Takes place in two forms: imitation and modelling
 In imitation, the child is reinforced for repeating/copying actions of others
 In modelling, the child learns the behaviour and personality traits of a role
model (ie. parent) through vicarious reinforcement
 How influential the model is depends on the child’s relationship with them,
their personal characteristics and how the child perceives them
 Factors that influence whether children learn from a model
1) Characteristics of a model- Children are most likely to model high status,
powerful and competent individuals
2) Characteristics of the observer- Individuals who lack status and power are
most likely to model children or adolescents
3) Consequences of the behaviour- The greater value the observer places on
the behaviour, the more likely it is that the behaviour will be modelled
4 Step Model of Observational Learning
1) Attend to the model
2) Remember the characteristics of the behaviour
3) Reproduce the memory or the behaviour of the model that was
observed and imitated
4) Reinforcement
Uses: Useful in explaining gender development, development of aggression, the
impact of television and media

Behaviour modification: a specific set of techniques based on operant conditioning

and social cognitive learning used to eliminate undesirable behaviours
 Essential in helping children with ADHD
 Adolescents with eating disorders (such as anorexia and bulimia)
 Youth demonstrating delinquent behaviour
 Developmental problems such as persistent aggression, extreme fears and
language delays
 Everyday issues ie. time management, nail biting, disruptive behaviours
Piaget’s Cognitive Theory

 Believed thinking develops in a series of increasingly complex stages, relying

on past experiences to build and develop new knowledge
 According to Piaget, children actively construct knowledge as they explore,
manipulate and act on their world
Cognitive Stage Approximate Age Description
Sensorimotor Birth- 2 years Co-ordination of sensory
and motor activity;
achievement of object
permanence. Infants act
on the world with their
senses and invent ways
of solving sensorimotor
problems
Preoperational 2-7 years Use of language and
symbolic representation;
egocentric view of the
world, make believe play.
Thinking lacks logic
Concrete Operational 7-11 years Solution of concrete
problems through logical
operations; thinking is not
yet abstract
Formal Operational 11- adulthood Systematic solution of
actual and hypothetical
problems using abstract
symbols

1. Direct learning-
 Occurs when a person actively responds to a new problem/experience
based on familiar patterns of thought (referred to by Piaget as
schemes)
 Schemes/schemata help us make sense of our world and experiences
through an organised structure that changes with age.
 For example, an infant’s understanding of the world is based on innate
schemes/ reflexes present at birth such as sucking, grasping and
looking
 Assimilation is the process by which an infant interprets and responds
to a new experience/situation in terms of an existing scheme (ie.
transition from breast to bottle)
 Accommodation is the process by which a child
changes/adjusts/modifies existing schemes when faced with a new
situation in which the old schemes no longer work
 Adaption is the product of the interplay between assimilation and
accommodation
 2. Social transmission
 Is the process by which one’s learning is influenced via social contact with
others and observation
3. Maturation
 Refers to biologically determined changes in physical and neurological
development that occurs independently of specific experiences
Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory
1) It presumes cognitive development ends at adolescence  not true!
2) Fails to account for why children master tasks that are logically equivalent at
different points in their development
3) Performance differs between children on similar cognitive tasks
4) Piaget’s assumptions on pre-determined logic do not match the way children
appear to think
5) Ignores the influence of social, emotional and cultural factors in development
Neo-Piagetian Approaches

 Case suggests cognitive development results from increases in a child’s

mental space, which refers to the max. no of schemes a child can apply
simultaneously
 During early childhood most cognitive structures are specific (ie. throwing
a ball) however the co-ordination of specific structures produces more
efficient, higher level cognitive structures and produces abstract thinking
 The same logical problem may require for different processing skills and
capacities  accounting for difference in performance and development
 Kurt Fischer uses the term specific skills instead of schemes, based on the
maturation of a child’s central nervous system and the range of specific
learning environments that the child has been exposed to
The Information Processing Theory

 Gange claims that when a person attempts to solve a problem they take in
info from their environment and their brain then codes, transforms and
organises the information and briefly stores it in the sensory register where it
disappears unless the person attempts to process it further
 Attention (the ability to focus cognitive processes such as perception, thinking
and memory) and perception (involves sensory input and interpretation) are
critical at this stage  develop meaningful experiences
 Short Term Memory (STM) vs Long Term Memory (LTM)
 Information stored in LTM remains forever- involves processes of recognition,
recall and reconstruction
 Information stored in STM is quickly forgotten unless rehearsed and repeated
mentally
 Refer to Gange’s Information Processing Model Diagram on Page 51 of
Lifespan Development
  As children age, they develop control processes which organise information in
the STM as well as metacognition (an understanding of how thinking and
learning work)
 Knowledge base- the sum of a child’s knowledge and skills, knowing their
strengths can allow you as an educator to build on their prior knowledge more
effectively

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

 Based on interactions with others as well as culture and historical context

 Zone of proximal development refers to a range of task that the child cannot
complete without adult/peer assistance
 A framework of assistance/support referred to as scaffolding is provided by
adults/more competent peers and facilitates learning within the individual’s
current level of performance
Lerner

 A contextual theory that highlights the dynamic relationship between

individual development and the changes of the context in which
development occurs
 Example: parental styles of childrearing influence the personality and
cognitive development of a child, which in turn influence the parental
behaviours and quality of family life
Elder
 Suggests education, work and family life create social trajectories or pathways
that guide individual development
 Important life transitions (ie. marriage) give social trajectories distinct shape
and meaning
 Different cultures in which a person develops can also shape development by
what the culture values and encourages
 Historical changes (ie. war, depression) also shape social trajectories and
therefore influence individual development
 Individuals can select their own path, however, these choices are not made in
a vacuum and depend on the opportunities/constraints of the social structure
and culture
Ethological Theory

 Attempts to apply principles of evolutionary biology and ethology to

behavioural and psychological characteristics
 Examines how psychological/behavioural traits and predispositions have
developed to help ensure the evolutionary survival of the human species
 Examples: the study of infant emotions/temperament and the role of
attachment
The Normative-Crisis Model of Development

 Assumes development occurs in distinct stages and in the same sequence

 Each stage is viewed as unique and integrates earlier accomplishments to
produce a more complex and fully developed stage
Vaillant’s Adaptive Mechanism

 Development is a life long process dependent upon relationships with others

and coping styles/mechanisms used to deal with major life events
 Mature coping mechanisms include sublimation (redirection of
anxiety/impulses towards acceptable goals) or altruism (helping/supporting
others without need for personal gain)
Refer to table on P.57 of Lifespan Development
Levinson’s Seasons of Adult

 Identified 3 seasons/eras in which a new life structure is established that

reflects relationships, values, commitment, energy and skills invested in them.
1) Early adulthood
2) Middle adulthood
3) Late adulthood
Era Phase Description
Early adult era (17-45) -Early adult transition -Reassessing pre-
(17-22) adulthood and preparing
-Early life structure (22- for early adulthood Commented [CB1]:
28) Developing -Developing occupation, Commented [CB2R1]:
occupation, relationships, relationships, marriage
marriage and family and family
-Age 30 transition (28- -Reassessing early life
33) structure
-Culminating life -Settling down,
structure (33-40) establishing occupational
goals and plans,
becoming one’s own
person and greater
independence
-Midlife transition (40- -Completing early
45) adulthood and preparing
for middle adulthood,
revising the dream and
preparing for a new life
structure
Middle adult era (45-60) -Early life structure (45- -Making and committing
50) to new life choices and
building a life structure
around them
 -Age 50 transition (50- -Assessing, modifying
55) and improving middle
adulthood structure

-Culminating life Completion of middle

structure (55-60) adulthood
Late adult era Late adult transition (60- Preparation for late
65) adulthood

The Timing of Events Model

 Views life events as markers of developmental change

 Normative ie. marriage, work, parenthood during early adulthood, career
advancement and physical decline/retirement
 Non-normative ie. married late, widowed young or returning to University as a
mature age student
 Adult development is less predictable, as a result of physical, cognitive and
psychological competency which allow them to play a more active role in their
own development
Dynamic Systems Perspective

 Believes development is guided by the integration of the child’s mind and

body as well as their physical and social worlds
 Any changes to the system (social, physical and cognitive) impact the
individual-environment relationship
 The child must reorganise their behaviour to ensure the system works in a
more complex and effective manner
 Accounts for a range of differences in development