Visayas State University

College of Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

VSU, Baybay City 6521, Leyte, Philippines

LABORATORY MANUAL

MENG-106

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY-1

Prepared by:

Engr. Jake Ernest P. Binueza,

Instructor- 1 DME

Student name:

Semester and school year:

Group number (if any):

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXP.
TITLE
NO.

1 VERNIER CALIPER

2 VERNIER MICROMETER

3 MEASUREMENT OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY

4 DETERMINING FLASH POINT AND FIRE POINT

5 MEASUREMENT OF VISCOSITY

6 RELATIVE HUMIDITY MEASUREMENT BY PSYCHROMETRY

MEASUREMENT OF ANGULAR SPEED (TACHOMETER PRINCIPLE) /

7
MOTION ANALYSIS BY PHOTOGRAMMETRY

MEASUREMENT OF LINEAR SPEED BY ROTATIONAL MOTION TO

8
LINEAR MOTION TRANSLATION

9 MEASUREMENT OF THE SPRING TENSION (K-FACTOR)

VELOCITY AND STATIC PRESSURE MEASUREMENT BY

10
MANOMETER AND PITOT PROBE
EXPERIMENT NUMBER 1

THE VERNIER CALIPER

 VISAYAS STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MENG – 106
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 1

NAME:
COURSE AND YEAR:
INSTRUCTOR:
DATE SUBMITTED:

EXPERIMENT NO. 1

THE VERNIER CALIPER

OBJECTIVE:
1. To know the parts of the Vernier caliper
2. To calculate the least count of the Vernier caliper
3. To be able to operate and read a Vernier caliper

INTRODUCTION:
Metrology means science of measurement. Engineering metrology is the
measurement of dimensions: length, thickness, diameter, taper angle, flatness, profiles, etc.
In engineering, there are various stages during which inspection and measurement is
required. Metrology becomes useful while raw material inspection, during production and
after the parts are manufactured i.e. final inspections of parts. Measure and is the physical
quantity or property like length, angle, diameter, thickness etc to be measured. The various
precision linear measuring instruments are vernier caliper, outside micrometer, Vernier
height gauge, vernier depth gauge, inside micrometer, micrometer depth gauge etc. Such
linear measuring instruments measure linear measurements such as length, height, depth,
diameter and thickness.

PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE VERNIER CALIPER:

1. Fixed scale and movable scale: The Vernier Caliper consists of two scales: one is fixed
and the other is movable.
2. Fixed and movable jaw: The fixed scale is called as main scale which is calibrated on L-
shaped frame and carries a fixed jaw. The movable scale, called vernier scale slides
over the main scale and carries a movable jaw. The movable jaw as well as the fixed jaw
carries measuring tip. When the two jaws are closed the zero of Vernier scale coincides
 with the zero of main scale. For precise setting of the movable jaw an adjusting screw is
provided.
3. Locking screw: An arrangement is provided to lock the sliding scale on the fixed main
scale.
4. Graduated metric/imperial: Main scale markings are there on a graduated beam.
5. Blade or Depth probe: Measures depth.

LEAST COUNT:
The smallest value that can be measured by the instrument is known as its least count.

Least count of Vernier Caliper:

In determining the least count of the vernier caliper, you must first know the least value of
the measurement on the measuring beam. Next, know how many graduations there are in
the Vernier scale. Then use the formula below:

𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚

𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE ERROR (%):

𝑀𝐸𝐴𝑁 𝑅𝑈𝐿𝐸𝑅 𝑀𝐸𝐴𝑆𝑈𝑅𝐸𝑀𝐸𝑁𝑇

𝑨𝑩𝑺𝑶𝑳𝑼𝑻𝑬 𝑬𝑹𝑹𝑶𝑹 = 𝑋 100%
𝑀𝐸𝐴𝑁 𝐶𝐴𝐿𝐼𝑃𝐸𝑅 𝑀𝐸𝐴𝑆𝑈𝑅𝐸𝑀𝐸𝑁𝑇

𝑀𝐸𝐴𝑁 𝐶𝐴𝐿𝐼𝑃𝐸𝑅 𝑅𝐸𝐴𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐺 − 𝑀𝐸𝐴𝑁 𝑅𝑈𝐿𝐸𝑅 𝑅𝐸𝐴𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐺

𝑹𝑬𝑳𝑨𝑻𝑰𝑽𝑬 𝑬𝑹𝑹𝑶𝑹 = 𝑋 100%
𝑀𝐸𝐴𝑁 𝐶𝐴𝐿𝐼𝑃𝐸𝑅 𝑅𝐸𝐴𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐺
 READING THE VERNIER CALIPER:

READING PER PERSON

OBJECT/PART TO BE USING A CONVENTIONAL RULER (mm)
NUM MEAN
MEASURED
A B C D E F G

READING PER PERSON

OBJECT/PART TO BE USING A VERNIER CALIPER (mm)
NUM MEAN
MEASURED
A B C D E F G

5
 RULER MEAN VERNIER MEAN ABSOLUTE ERROR RELATIVE ERROR
NUM
READING(mm) READING(mm) (%) (%)

CALCULATE THE INSTRUMENT’S LEAST COUNT:

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS, METHODOLOGY AND DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:
 VISAYAS STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MENG – 106
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 1

NAME:
COURSE AND YEAR:
INSTRUCTOR:
DATE SUBMITTED:

EXPERIMENT NO. 2

THE VERNIER MICROMETER

I. OBJECTIVE:

1. To know the parts of the Vernier micrometer

2. To calculate the least count of the Vernier micrometer
3. To be able to operate and read a Vernier micrometer

II. INTRODUCTION:

Micrometers work on the principle of screw and nut. We know that when a screw is turned
through one revolution, it advances by one pitch distance i.e. one rotation of screw
corresponds to a linear movement of a distance equal to pitch of the thread. A micrometer,
sometimes known as a micrometer screw gauge, is a device incorporating a calibrated
screw widely used for precise measurement of components in mechanical engineering and
machining as well as most mechanical trades, along with other metrological instruments
such as dial, Vernier, and digital calipers. Micrometers are usually, but not always, in the
form of calipers (opposing ends joined by a frame), which is why micrometer caliper is
another common name. The spindle is a very accurately machined screw and the object to
be measured is placed between the spindle and the anvil. The spindle is moved by turning
the ratchet knob or thimble until the object to be measured is lightly touched by both the
spindle and the anvil.

Micrometers are also used in telescopes or microscopes to measure the apparent diameter
of celestial bodies or microscopic objects. The micrometer used with a telescope was
invented about 1638 by William Gascoigne, an English astronomer.
III. PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE VERNIER MICROMETER:

1. U shaped steel frame: The outside micrometer has “U” shaped or “C” shaped frame. It
holds all the micrometer parts together. The gap of the frame permits the maximum
diameter or length of the job to be measured.
2. Anvil and spindle: The micrometer has a fixed anvil protruding 3 mm from the left-hand
side of the frame. Another movable anvil is provided on the front side of the spindle. The
anvils are accurately ground and lapped with its measuring faces flat and parallel to the
spindle. These are also available with tungsten carbide faces. The spindle is the
movable measuring face with the anvil on the front side. The spindle engages with the
nut. It should run freely and smoothly throughout the length of its travel.
3. Locknut: A lock nut is provided on the micrometer spindle to lock it when the micrometer
is at its correct reading.
4. Sleeve or Barrel: The sleeve is accurately divided and clearly marked in 0.5 mm division
along its length, which serves as a main scale. It is chrome plated and adjustable zero
setting.
5. Thimble: The thimble can be moved over the barrel. It has 50 equal circular divisions
around its circumference. Each division having a value of 0.01mm.
6. Ratchet: The ratchet is provided at the end of the thimble. It is used to assure accurate
measurement and to prevent too much pressure being applied to the micrometer. When
the spindle reaches near the work surface to be measured the operator uses the ratchet
screw to tighten the thimble. The ratchet automatically slips when the correct uniform
pressure is applied and prevents the application of too much pressure.

Figure 1: The figure ab0ve shows the parts of the Vernier micrometer

Precautions to be taken while using micrometer:

1. Clean the micrometer by wiping of oil dirt, dust etc before using it.
2. Clean the measuring faces of anvil and spindle with a clean piece of paper or cloth.
3. Set the zero reading of instrument before measuring.
4. Hold the workpiece whose dimensions to be measured and micrometer properly. Then
turn the thimble with forefinger and thumb, till the measuring tip just touches workpiece.
Fine adjustment should be made by ratchet so that uniform pressure is applied.
5. Handle and grip the instrument near the C- frame of micrometer.
IV. DETERMINING THE GAUGE NUMBER:

In the world of mechanical engineering, a various method of measuring standards

and units are used. These units are often diversified because of the locality of where the
instrument is created or the convenience in relation with other units. In the Vernier
micrometer, the standard unit for measurement is in millimeters but this measurement is
in metric. Some other form of small scale measurement that is standardized is the AWG
or American wire gauge. This gauge has been developed to standardize sizes not based
on direct, crude measurements but by the use of a designated number code. Below is
the formula for converting gauge number to millimeter. With your unprecedented
knowledge in algebra, you can rearrange the equation to get gauge number out from the
millimeter reading.

dn (mm) = 0.127 mm × 92(36-n)/39

dn = diameter in millimeter
n = gauge number

Figure 2: The figure above is a tabulated example of the AWG – mm conversion

V. COLLECTION OF DATA:

USING THE VERNIER CALIPER

OBSERVER GAUGE #
NUM OBJECT MEAN
A B C D E

1 GUITAR STRING 1

2 GUITAR STRING 2

3 WIRE 1

4 WIRE 2

5 6013 SMAW ROD

Table 1: tabulated readings of objects using a Vernier caliper

USING THE VERNIER MICROMETER

OBSERVER GAUGE #
NUM OBJECT MEAN
A B C D E

1 GUITAR STRING 1

2 GUITAR STRING 2

3 WIRE 1

4 WIRE 2

5 6013 SMAW ROD

Table 2: tabulated readings of objects using a Vernier micrometer

VERNIER VERNIER RELATIVE

NUM
CALIPER MICROMETER ERROR (%)
1
2
3
4
5

Table 3: A tabulated data on the amount of error between a Vernier caliper and Vernier
micrometer.
VI. CALCULATE THE INSTRUMENT’S LEAST COUNT:

VII. DISCUSSION, METHODOLOGY, AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS:

VIII. CONCLUSION:
 VISAYAS STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MENG – 106
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 1

NAME:
COURSE AND YEAR: BS in Mechanical Engineering
INSTRUCTOR: Engr. Jake Ernest P. Binueza
DATE SUBMITTED:

EXPERIMENT NO. 3

THE DENSITY OF SUBSTANCES

I. OBJECTIVE:

1. To know the principles of density.

2. To calculate the volumes of irregularly shaped objects.
3. To be able to calculate the densities of different objects.

II. INTRODUCTION:
The density, or more precisely, the volumetric mass density, of a
substance is its mass per unit volume. The symbol most often used for density is ρ
(the lower case Greek letter rho), although the Latin letter D can also be used. For
a pure substance, the density has the same numerical value as its mass
concentration. Different materials usually have different densities, and density may
be relevant to buoyancy, purity and packaging. Osmium and iridium are the
densest known elements at standard conditions for temperature and pressure but
certain chemical compounds may be denser. To simplify comparisons of density
across different systems of units, it is sometimes replaced by the dimensionless
quantity "relative density" or "specific gravity", i.e. the ratio of the density of the
material to that of a standard material, usually water. Thus, a relative density less
than one means that the substance floats in water. The density of a material varies
with temperature and pressure. This variation is typically small for solids and liquids
but much greater for gases. Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the
volume of the object and thus increases its density. Increasing the temperature of a
substance (with a few exceptions) decreases its density by increasing its volume.
In most materials, heating the bottom of a fluid results in convection of the heat
from the bottom to the top, due to the decrease in the density of the heated fluid.
This causes it to rise relative to denser unheated material. The reciprocal of the
density of a substance is occasionally called its specific volume, a term sometimes
used in thermodynamics. Density is an intensive property in that increasing the
amount of a substance does not increase its density; rather it increases its mass.
III. DETERMINING THE VOLUME OF SUBSTANCES:

1. BY MEASUREMENT METHOD:

One of the most common and accurate way to measure a regular substance’
volume is by direct measurement of its dimensions using a metric system. A metric
system could be in English, S.I., etc. as long as the measuring system is standard
and uniform throughout the entire measuring procedure. Example, to attain the
volume of a cylinder, simply measure its diameter, then measure its height. This
information will be enough to provide the necessary calculations in determining
volume.

2. BY DISPLACEMENT METHOD:

Another crude but ingenious way of measuring volume is the famous

Archimedes method. A graduated cylinder or any regular container with
predetermined marking for height or volume is filled with a liquid but preferably
water. The initial reading of the water level must be noted and after which the
object is then placed in the container. The difference in the water level before and
after placing the object is the volume displaced and is assumed to be the volume of
the object. Key notes on measuring the volume is always read below the meniscus
of the water. Reading the upper meniscus of the water will result in an error in the
reading. The upper meniscus is usually a result of the water adherence to the
surface of the glass or any container. Liquids tend to do this effect as a result of
intermolecular interactive forces present on the substances. When reading the
meniscus, always position your eye perpendicular to the surface of the graduated
container to prevent an error called parallax distortion. Another key note to
remember is measuring objects with concavity or with hollow sections. Air will tend
to collect on concave sections specially below the object creating a pocket of air
bubble which interferes with the reading giving a larger volume than the actual
object. Small bubbles can also form on the surface of objects especially rough
ones. Elimination of these bubbles can give more accurate measurements.

Figure 1: above shows an illustration of the effect of meniscus rise or fall in liquid
containers and proper reading of liquid levels that account to meniscus rise or fall.
IV. DETERMINING MASS, DENSITY, AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY:

Mass of objects can be determined by using many ingenious ways. One of the
oldest way for measuring the object’s mass is by using a lever. Levers are very
versatile and using them as a measuring instrument is no exemption. One weight of
any weight is placed on one side of the lever with a fixed and pre-determined distance
from the fulcrum. The object with an unknown weight is placed on the other side. The
objects placement in the lever is adjusted until the two sides of the lever balance
each other. The ratio of the length from the fulcrum of the pre-determined mass and
the unknown object is also the ratio of their weights.

By knowing the physical properties of the object, its density can easily be
determined. Density is only the ratio of the object mass over its volume. Always
remember the term mass. Mass is intrinsic and mass is always independent of the
planets gravity or a systems acceleration. Always divide your weight measurement
by the gravitational acceleration equivalent of the planet you are measuring your
object’s weight with. If you are an earthling, earth’s constant is 9.81 m/s2, if you
happen to be a Martian, the gravitational constant of mars is 3.711 m/s2, moon is
1.622 m/s2, Jupiter is 24.79 m/s2.
In this way, the specific gravity of the substance can be precisely calculated as
an intrinsic comparison between the density of water and the substance. if density is
dependent on the planets gravitational constant which means mass is weight, then
the ration of the objects weight over its volume is now called weight density or specific
weight. Density using mass is called mass density.

V. DRAW YOUR EXPERIMENTAL SETUP FOR DETERMINING MASS:

 VI. COLLECTION OF DATA

DENSITIES OF REGULARLY SHAPED OBJECTS

CALCULATED
NO. DRAW REGULAR OBJECTS MASS DENSITY SP. G.
VOLUME

Table 1: shows the tabulated data of a regular object’s density and other physical properties

DENSITIES OF IRREGULARLY SHAPED OBJECTS

DRAW IRREGULAR DISPLACED

NO. MASS DENSITY SP. G.
OBJECTS VOLUME

Table 2: shows the tabulated data of a regular object’s density and other physical properties
VII. DISCUSSION OF PROCEDURES, EXPERIMENTAL SETUP, AND
INTERPRETATION OF RESULT:

VIII. CONCLUSION:
 VISAYAS STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MENG – 106
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 1

NAME:
COURSE AND YEAR: BS in Mechanical Engineering
INSTRUCTOR: Engr. Jake Ernest P. Binueza
DATE SUBMITTED:

EXPERIMENT NO. 4

THE FLASH AND FIRE POINTS

I. OBJECTIVE:

1. To know and differentiate flash point and fire point.

2. To construct an experimental set-up for determining flash and fire points.
3. To be able to determine the flash point and fire point of a given liquid.

II. INTRODUCTION:

All substances have their own individual properties that make them unique
against other substances such as color, density, melting points, boiling points, etc.

FLASH POINT

The flash point is the lowest temperature at which vapors of a volatile material
will ignite, when given an ignition source.

The flash point may sometimes be confused with the autoignition

temperature, which is the temperature at which the vapor ignites spontaneously
without an ignition source.

The flash point is a descriptive characteristic that is used to distinguish

between flammable liquids, such as petrol, and combustible liquids, such as
diesel.

It is also used to characterize the fire hazards of liquids. Depending on the

standard used, liquids which have a flash point less than either 37.8 or 60.5 °C
(100.0 or 140.9 °F) are called FLAMMABLE — whereas liquids having a flash
point above that temperature are called COMBUSTIBLE.
 FIRE POINT

The fire point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the vapor of that fuel
will continue to burn for at least 5 seconds after ignition by an open flame. At the
flash point, a lower temperature, a substance will ignite briefly, but vapor might
not be produced at a rate to sustain the fire. Most tables of material properties will
only list material flash points. Although in general the fire points can be assumed
to be about 10 °C higher than the flash points this is no substitute for testing if the
fire point is safety critical.

ADDITIONAL INTRINSIC PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS:

POUR POINT

The pour point of a liquid is the temperature at which it becomes semi solid
and loses its flow characteristics. In crude oil a high pour point is generally
associated with a high paraffin content, typically found in crude deriving from a
larger proportion of plant material.

CLOUD POINT

In the petroleum industry, cloud point refers to the temperature below which
wax in diesel or bio-wax in biodiesels forms a cloudy appearance. The presence
of solidified waxes thickens the oil and clogs fuel filters and injectors in engines.
The wax also accumulates on cold surfaces (producing, for example, pipeline or
heat exchanger fouling) and forms an emulsion with water. Therefore, cloud point
indicates the tendency of the oil to plug filters or small orifices at cold operating
temperatures.

AUTOIGNITION TEMPERATURE

The autoignition temperature or kindling point of a substance is the lowest

temperature at which it spontaneously ignites in normal atmosphere without an
external source of ignition, such as a flame or spark. This temperature is required
to supply the activation energy needed for combustion. The temperature at which
a chemical ignites decreases as the pressure or oxygen concentration increases.
It is usually applied to a combustible fuel mixture.

III. TECHNICAL CONCEPT OF FLASH AND FIRE POINTS:

All liquids have a specific vapor pressure, which is a function of that liquid's
temperature and is subject to Boyle's Law. As temperature increases, vapor
pressure increases. As vapor pressure increases, the concentration of vapor of a
flammable or combustible liquid in the air increases. Hence, temperature
determines the concentration of vapor of the flammable liquid in the air. A certain
concentration of a flammable or combustible vapor is necessary to sustain
combustion in air, the lower flammable limit, and that concentration is different
and is specific to each flammable or combustible liquid. The flash point is the
lowest temperature at which there will be enough flammable vapor to induce
ignition when an ignition source is applied.
IV. METHODOLOGY AND SAFETY:

In performing every experiment, safety should be of top priority. Before

conducting the experiment, a fire extinguisher must be provided on site in case of
emergencies. A person should be on hold of the fire extinguisher at all times and
ready to extinguish the flame as soon as any accidents involving fire happens.
Since oil is the object to be analyzed, water is not recommended in putting out
any fires.

PREPARATION OF THE SET-UP

The following materials must be prepared:

1. Alcohol burner
2. Metal cylindrical container preferably having a 50-mL capacity
3. Fluid to be tested (e.g. Diesel, Kerosene, Mineral oil, etc.)
4. Denatured alcohol as fuel
5. Fire extinguisher
6. Candle
7. Tongs
8. Lighter or match
9. Thermometer
10. Iron stand
11. Iron clamp
12. Tripod

ASSEMBLY

STEP 1: Place everything on a non-combustible surface. It could be tiles,

concrete, granite, etc.
STEP 2: Assemble the experimental set-up as shown below or as indicated by
your laboratory instructor
STEP 3: Place the sample liquid into the container. Position the thermometer in
the center of the container and halfway between the bottom surface of
the container and the upper liquid surface of the container
STEP 4: Record the initial temperature of the liquid
STEP 5: Light up the alcohol burner
STEP 6: Once every 5-degree centigrade rise in temperature, hover the lighted
candle on the side of the container. Whenever a flame momentarily
occurs in less than 5 seconds, record this as your flash point
temperature. Whenever a flame occurs and continues to burn for more
than 5 seconds, record this as your fire point temperature
STEP 7: Repeat the experiment
STEP 8: Remove the alcohol burner and extinguish it. Wait for the container to
cool down to room temperature and start keeping and reorganizing the
materials and equipment.
STEP 9: Analyze the collected data
STEP 10: State your interpretation and conclusion
V. COLLECTED DATA:

KEROSENE

FLASH POINT FIRE POINT

FIRST TRIAL

SECOND TRIAL

MEAN

TABLE 1: The tabulated results of the data collected in the experiment

Autoignition
Fuel Flash point
temperature

Ethanol (70%) 16.6 °C (61.9 °F)[5] 363 °C (685 °F)[5]

Gasoline (petrol) −43 °C (−45 °F)[6] 280 °C (536 °F)[7]

Diesel (2-D) >52 °C (126 °F)[6] 256 °C (493 °F)[7]

Jet fuel (A/A-1) >38 °C (100 °F) 210 °C (410 °F)

>38–72 °C (100–
Kerosene 220 °C (428 °F)
162 °F)

Vegetable
327 °C (621 °F) 424 °C (795 °F)[8]
oil (canola)

Biodiesel >130 °C (266 °F)

TABLE 2: A tabulated form of the flash points and autoignition temperature of

various fuels
VI. INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS:

VII. CONCLUSION:
 VISAYAS STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MENG – 106
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 1

NAME:
COURSE AND YEAR: BS in Mechanical Engineering
INSTRUCTOR: Engr. Jake Ernest P. Binueza
DATE SUBMITTED:

EXPERIMENT NO. 5

VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT

I. OBJECTIVE:

1. To know the concept of viscosity

2. To construct an experimental set-up for determining viscosity by the falling sphere
method or stokes law
3. To be able to determine the viscosities of certain fluids

II. INTRODUCTION:

One of the intrinsic characteristics of fluids that any aspiring mechanical

engineering should understand is viscosity. Viscosity can be simply defined as the
fluid’s ability to resist flow. In this sense, if the said fluid has high viscosity, it will
also have a high potential in resisting flow. Conversely, if the fluid has low viscosity,
it has a low potential in resisting flow. Imagine two disc that have the same axis but
separated by an unspecified distance. Between these plates there exist an
imaginary cylindrical boundary in which the top and bottom sections are
encapsulated by the two disc. The entire system, which technically becomes a void
is filled with a fluid where no air bubbles or voids exist. If the upper disc is made to
rotate, the bottom disc will also start to rotate in the same direction as the driving
disc. The magnitude of the rotation of the second disc is directly proportional to the
viscosity of the fluid in between them. The greater the viscosity, the more the driven
disc rotates or in a different consideration, the greater the viscosity of the fluid, the
more the rotational speed matches with the rotational speed of the driving disc. If
the fluid has low viscosity, the differences between the speed of the second disc
and the driver disc will be large compared to a more viscous fluid. Another way to
conceptualize viscosity is to imagine a large swimming pool of an unspecified fluid.
If a certain mass with a certain shape is let to settle to the bottom of the pool, it will
take the mass longer to settle if the fluid is very viscous compared to a fluid that
has very low viscosity. In this manner, it takes more energy to move an object
through a very viscous fluid compared to the same object traversing a lower
viscosity in reference to the very viscous fluid at the same velocity because it takes
more force to push it. Hence it takes more energy to pump fluids that are more
viscous than those that have less viscosity. This is why Reynold’s number is
dependent on this intrinsic property.

There are two mathematical representations of viscosity. The first is called

absolute or dynamic viscosity measured in Poise. The second is kinematic viscosity
measured in Stokes.

DYNAMIC VISCOSITY:

You test dynamic viscosity when you want to know the internal resistance of a
fluid, or the force required to move one plane of the liquid over another.

The measurement of dynamic viscosity is most useful for liquids which change their
apparent characteristics as force or pressure is applied. These are known as Non-
Newtonian fluids. Non-Newtonian fluids are sensitive to changes in the amount of
force exerted on them, and can sometimes even permanently change their
viscosity if a constant force has been exerted on them over a period of time.

An example of the importance of Dynamic Viscosity measurement is to indicate the

proper flow characteristics of Ketchup. This product needs to have lower viscosity
as it flows, to get it out of the bottle, but needs to be thick (or not as inclined to flow)
when sitting on the burger. Testing the viscosity at different speeds (equating to
different levels of force) will help ensure that the ketchup is behaving as it should.

KINEMATIC VISCOSITY:

Capillary tube viscometers are the instruments most frequently used to

measure kinematic viscosity. A capillary tube viscometer is a device that is used to
measure the time it takes for a fixed volume of liquid to flow through a capillary
tube. An even more simple instrument is the Zahn cup (simply a container with a
precise hole in the bottom). The time it takes for a full cup to empty is correlated to
viscosity. These viscometers are easy to use and comparatively inexpensive.

This measurement is used mostly for Newtonian liquids - liquids that do not change
viscosity with changes in applied force (shear rate).

Testing lubricating oils is a significant application. Using this testing method,

changes in viscosity at different temperatures and under differing environmental
conditions can be determined. With this information, changes in lubricating
effectiveness can be evaluated.

Some other products for which the kinematic method is suitable are blood and
plasma, paints, polymers, and asphalt.

Viscosity measurement for Newtonian fluids can be accomplished using rotational

viscometers (via the conversion formula listed above). However, it is simpler to use
capillary based instruments. In some cases, these are more accurate for
determining Kinematic Viscosity.

When you need to determine the viscosity characteristics of a liquid which is not
exposed to outside physical forces (in other words, when gravity is the only force
acting on the liquid), kinematic should be the method of choice.
 Newtonian fluids have an inherent viscosity that does not change as you change
the force applied to the liquid. This inherent viscosity can be easily and accurately
measured with capillary type apparatus, using gravity to move the fluid.

On the other hand, non-Newtonian fluids exhibit wide variations in viscosity based
on the force applied. These tests require instruments, such as rotational
viscometers, that can measure changes over time and over a range of applied
forces.

To delineate between these two type of liquids:

Dynamic Viscosity: viscosity related to the external force applied to Non-Newtonian

fluids.

Kinematic Viscosity: inherent viscosity of Newtonian fluids, that does not change
with a change in applied force.

III. TECHNICAL CONCEPT IN THE MEASUREMENT OF VISCOSITY USING THE

FALLING SPHERE METHOD

Stokes' law is the basis of the falling sphere viscometer, in which the fluid is
stationary in a vertical glass tube. A sphere of known size and density is allowed
to descend through the liquid. If correctly selected, it reaches terminal velocity,
which can be measured by the time it takes to pass two marks on the tube.
Electronic sensing can be used for opaque fluids. Knowing the terminal velocity,
the size and density of the sphere, and the density of the liquid, Stokes' law can
be used to calculate the viscosity of the fluid. A series of steel ball bearings of
different diameter are normally used in the classic experiment to improve the
accuracy of the calculation. The school experiment uses glycerin as the fluid, and
the technique is used industrially to check the viscosity of fluids used in
processes. It includes many different oils, and polymer liquids such as solutions.
In 1851, George Gabriel Stokes derived an expression for the frictional force
(also called drag force) exerted on spherical objects with very small Reynolds
numbers (e.g., very small particles) in a continuous viscous fluid by changing the
small fluid-mass limit of the generally unsolvable Navier-Stokes equations:
 If the particles are falling in the viscous fluid by their own weight, then a
terminal velocity, also known as the settling velocity, is reached when this
frictional force combined with the buoyant force exactly balance the gravitational
force. The resulting settling velocity (or terminal velocity) is given by:

Note that Stokes flow is assumed, so the Reynolds number must be small.

A limiting factor on the validity of this result is the roughness of the sphere
being used.

A modification of the straight falling sphere viscometer is a rolling ball

viscometer which times a ball rolling down a slope whilst immersed in the test
fluid. This can be further improved by using a patented V plate which increases
the number of rotations to distance traveled, allowing smaller more portable
devices. This type of device is also suitable for ship board use.

IV. LIST OF MATERIALS

1. PLATFORM BALANCE
2. VERNIER CALIPER
3. GRADUATED CYLINDER/LARGE ENOUGH TEST TUBE
4. MARBLE SPHERE
5. OILS OF DIFFERENT VISCOSITIES
6. STOPWATCH
7. WATER

V. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND METHODOLOGY

In performing the experiment, intrinsic properties of the involved materials

must first be gathered. One of the intrinsic property is the density of the fluids to
be measured. To measure such property, the mass of the graduated cylinder
must first be determined. This mass is known as the tare. Afterwards, a specified
volume of the fluid is poured into the graduated cylinder then both the graduated
cylinder and the fluid is weighted in the platform balance. This combined weight
minus the tare is the weight or mass of the fluid. If you divide this mass with the
volume indicated by the graduated cylinder, you come up with the density of the
fluid. Do this same procedure with the other fluids. Another density to be
measured is the density of the falling sphere. Where it be glass, plastic, steel, etc.
First, measure the diameter of the sphere using a Vernier caliper. This
measurement is the diameter of the sphere and with that the volume can be
 determined. Using the platform balance, determine the mass of the sphere and
these two measurements can then be used to calculate the density of the sphere.

After measuring the intrinsic properties, fill the large test tube or the
graduated cylinder with the fluid to be measured. Determine the total height of the
fluid. Prepare the stop watch for it is used to measure the time it takes for the
sphere to traverse the fluid. Place the sphere less than 1cm above the surface of
the fluid. Upon dropping the sphere, start the stop watch and stop it when the
sphere reaches the bottom of the container. The total height of the fluid divided
by the time it takes for the sphere to reach the surface is the velocity of the
sphere. Using these data, substitute them to the equation to get the value for the
dynamic viscosity.

VI. DATA GATHERED

AVERAGE AVERAGE AVERAGE AVERAGE

SPHERE
DIAMETER VOLUME MASS DENSITY

TABLE 1: INTRINSIC PROPERTIES OF THE SPHERES

 AVERAGE
AVERAGE AVERAGE SPHERE
FLUID DESCRIPTION DYNAMIC
DENSITY VELOCITY
VISCOSITY

TABLE 2: TABULATED DATA IN DETERMINING THE DYNAMIC VISCOSITY

VII. CALCULATIONS AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

VIII. CONCLUSION
 VISAYAS STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MENG – 106
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 1

NAME:
COURSE AND YEAR: BS in Mechanical Engineering
INSTRUCTOR: Engr. Jake Ernest P. Binueza
DATE SUBMITTED:

EXPERIMENT NO. 6

PSYCHROMETRY

I. OBJECTIVE:

1. To know the concept of humidity

2. To know how to use and interpret the psychrometric chart
3. To be able to determine the humidity using wet bulb and dry bulb thermometers with
the aid of psychrometry

II. INTRODUCTION:

In the practice of mechanical engineering, one key aspect that is focused is air
conditioning. Air conditioning is the process of treating air to control simultaneously
its temperature, humidity, cleanliness, and distribution to meet the requirements of
the conditioned space. It is imperative that to control the properties of certain
industrial and commercial products, the atmosphere in which they are manufactured
must be controlled under strict regulations. Air conditioning is the result of the science
of psychrometry. Psychrometry is the study of the properties of the mixture of air and
vapor. Normal air, the air we breathe in is not only composed of nitrogen, oxygen
and other trace elements but also water vapor. The concentration of this water vapor
to the concentration of dry air is very important. Consider a hot sunny day between
two locations. Both have the same atmospheric air temperature but one is a lot more
humid than the other. The place that has the higher humidity will usually have the
higher heat index and will usually feel hotter than the place with lower humidity at the
same air temperature. On very useful way to determine humidity is using the wet and
dry bulb thermometers. These two instruments will give sufficient data to scientifically
infer the condition of the air on a certain place. These two values are projected onto
a psychrometric chart. To understand fully the context of this method, some terms
are listed below.
VENTILATION: is the process of supplying or removing air by natural or mechanical
means to or from any space. Such air may or may not have been conditioned.

SATURATED AIR: Air whose condition is such that any decrease in the temperature
will result in the condensation of water vapor into liquid.

UNSATURATED AIR: Is air containing superheated vapor. It is a condition in which

air at a certain temperature and pressure is still able to hold more vapor.

MOIST AIR: A binary mixture of dry air and water vapor.

DRY AIR: Is the non-condensing components of the mixture, mainly nitrogen and
oxygen.

VAPOR: Is the condensable component of the mixture. The water vapor which may
exist in a saturated or superheated state.

DRY BULB TEMPERATURE: Is the temperature of air as registered by an ordinary

thermometer.

WET BULB TEMPERATURE: Is the temperature of air as registered by a

thermometer whose bulb is covered by a wetted wick and exposed to a current of
rapidly moving air.

WET BULB DEPRESSION: Is the difference between the readings of dry bulb and
wet bulb thermometer.

DEW POINT TEMPERATURE: Is the saturation temperature corresponding to the

actual pressure of steam in air or the temperature at which condensation of moisture
begins when the air is cooled at a constant pressure.

Pressure is one very important aspect in measuring the properties of air. In an

atmosphere that has vapor as part of its constituents, total pressure is the sum of the
partial pressures exerted by the dry constituent of air and the partial pressure exerted
by the water vapor in the air (as atmosphere itself is derived from the words “a ball
of vapor”). Pt = Pa + Pv. Humidity ratio (w) is the ratio of the mass of the water vapor
to the mass of the dry constituents of air. This is also known as the moisture content,
mixing ratio or specific humidity. w = mv / ma ; w = (PV/RT)v / (PV/RT)a . Assuming
both V and T are equal for a given space, then w = (P / R)v x (R / P)a ; w = (0.287 /
0.4615)(Pv / Pa); w = 0.622[Pv / (Pt - Pv)].

Another factor that can be determined is the relative humidity (RH). Relative
humidity is the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor in air to the saturation
pressure corresponding to the temperature of air. RH = Pv / Psat. The specific volume
and density of the air can be directly calculated using the ideal gas formula which is
PV = mRT. At a given condition of the gas, there contains a specific amount of usable
energy which is called ENTHALPY. Enthalpy of the mixture of dry and water vapor
is the sum of the enthalpy of the dry air and the enthalpy of the water vapor. In this
case, H = Cpt + whg . Lastly is the degree of saturation. This is the ratio of the air
humidity ratio to the humidity ratio of saturated air at the same temperature. D = w /
wsat. By substituting terms, we can come up with D = RH[ (Pt – Psat ) / (Pt – Pv) ].
 THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

The psychrometric chart is a graphical representation of the thermodynamic

properties of moist air usually done for air conditioning calculations. Below are the
different properties annotated in the psychrometric chart.

When analyzing a psychrometric chart, certain changes in the properties of moist air
exhibit certain characteristics and predictable behavior. Below is the graphical
representation of such behaviors.

The graph on the next page shows the actual psychrometric chart in metric units.
PROCEDURES:

In order to conduct the experiment, a list of materials have to be gathered:

1. 4 thermometers
2. Wick, cloth, or cotton
3. Water
4. Wooden mount/plank
5. Cable tie/small rope
6. Manual fan, mechanically driven fan or any device that stimulates a flow of air
7. Psychrometric chart

PREPARATION OF APPARATUS

1. Place 2 thermometers side by side at least 1 cm apart in a wooden plank, plastic

board, or any object that insulates heat. Clamp it firmly using cable ties, small ropes,
laces, etc. make sure to protrude the thermometer bulbs from the base. This allows
air to circulate around the bulbs of the thermometer.
2. Place a piece of wick, cloth, cotton swab, or any material that soaks in water into the
bulb of one of the thermometers. This is the wet bulb thermometer side.
3. Place water into the wick, cloth, or cotton just enough to make the cotton damp and
not dripping in too much water.
4. Create a second set of the thermometer pairs and place it in the opposite part of the
room.
5. Apply a draft to the thermometer pair. It could be a manual fan, a battery powered
fan, electric fan, or by simply swinging the thermometer pair back and forth.
6. Wait until the thermometers reach thermal stability. This is when both thermometers
stop moving and has attained thermal equilibrium with the environment.
7. Record the data. The temperature on the non-wetted thermometer is the dry bulb
temperature while the temperature on the wetted thermometer is the wet bulb
temperature.
8. Average out the data on the two thermometer pairs.
9. Using a psychrometric chart, project the data on the wet bulb and dry bulb
temperatures then gather the rest of the data to infer the properties of the air. This
might include relative humidity, humidity ratio, enthalpy, specific volume, etc.
10. Tabulate your data on this laboratory manual.

DATA COLLECTED:

DME LR-2
WB-1 WB-2 MEAN
WET BULB

DB-1 DB-2 MEAN

DRY BULB
 LIBRARY
WB-1 WB-2 MEAN
WET BULB

DB-1 DB-2 MEAN

DRY BULB

AIR CONDITIONED ROOM

WB-1 WB-2 MEAN
WET BULB

DB-1 DB-2 MEAN

DRY BULB

BEACH
WB-1 WB-2 MEAN
WET BULB

DB-1 DB-2 MEAN

DRY BULB

FAST FOOD (AT PEAK HOURS)

WB-1 WB-2 MEAN
WET BULB

DB-1 DB-2 MEAN

DRY BULB

OVAL (DAYTIME)
WB-1 WB-2 MEAN
WET BULB

DB-1 DB-2 MEAN

DRY BULB
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS (HERE, DERIVE THE RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND
HUMIDITY RATIO OF THE ROOM USING THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART INCLUDING
ALL CALCULATIONS DONE):

CONCLUSION (AT THE BACK):

 VISAYAS STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MENG – 106
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 1

NAME:
COURSE AND YEAR: BS in Mechanical Engineering
INSTRUCTOR: Engr. Jake Ernest P. Binueza
DATE SUBMITTED:

EXPERIMENT NO. 7

TACHOMETRY

I. OBJECTIVE:

1. To know the concept of measuring angular speeds

2. To be able to construct a crude tachometer
3. To be able to determine the angular speeds of everyday rotating equipment

II. INTRODUCTION:
Most mechanical machines nowadays perform with a rotating element. It is hard to
find non-rotating parts on any moving vehicle. Ever since man discovered the
wheel, it has revolutionized our way of doing work and has greatly helped in the
development of other early technology like agriculture. This resulted in more food
so humans don’t have to spend all their time making one. Spare time is then
dedicated into discovering other sciences. In the industry today, rotating machinery
needs to be controlled and in a control system, a way of feedback or sensing
instrumentation must be installed. One of the most important tool is measuring the
rotating speed of those machineries. Such an instrument is called a tachometer.
There are many ways in determining the speed of rotating bodies and different
tachometer construction. In this course, we will focus primarily on two methods.
The use of a magnetic field and the use of a stroboscope. This two methods are
already discussed in the lecture part of this course and in this part, we will focus
on the practical side of learning.
 III. PROCEDURES

IN PREPARING FOR THE EXPERIMENT, IT IS IMPERATIVE TO PREPARE

THE MATERIALS FIRST. THE MATERIALS ARE:

1. STROBOSCOPE
2. ELECTROMAGNET
3. MAGNET
4. MULTIMETER OR OSCILLOSCOPE
5. MASKING TAPE
6. PAPER AND PEN
7. CALCULATOR

THE TWO METHODS IN DETERMINING THE ROTATIONAL SPEED OF A ROTATING

BODY IS BY MAGNETIC RELUCTANCE AND STROBOSCOPY.

MAGNETIC RELUCTANCE

The first stage in determining rotational speed using magnetic reluctance is by

preparing or creating a crude electromagnet. It is as simple as wrapping a short piece of
insulated wire on a metal core. Bolts, nails, round bars and reinforcing bars can be used. Next,
a magnet is placed on the rear/non-sensing part of the electromagnet. After that, a key or any
metallic material is fastened on the shaft to be measured by a tape or cable tie. The two ends
of the electromagnet are then connected to an oscilloscope. The electromagnet is then placed
near the shaft. When the shaft is allowed to rotate, the magnetic field produced by the magnet
at the rear of the electromagnet is disturbed with every pass of the key. This magnetic
distortion is detected by the oscilloscope as a varying electric current and a frequency of this
rate of change in current can be determined. This frequency in hertz is equal to the shaft’s
revolutions per second or if multiplied by 60 will result in the revolutions per minute.

STROBOSCOPE

In this method, the stroboscope puts out a regular pulse of light determined as pulse
per second or conveniently in hertz. In order to observe the stroboscopic effect, the shaft to
be measured must be marked with a reflective or white colored tape. When the shaft is allowed
to rotate, the stroboscope’s rate of flash is adjusted to a point that the marked tape is no longer
in motion to the observer. In this state, the two systems, both the shaft and stroboscope, are
said to be in sync with each other. At this stage, we can safely assume that the frequency
displayed by the flashes of the stroboscope is also the frequency of rotation of the rotating
body. Hertz or cycles per second can be interpreted as revolutions per second. Multiplying
this factor with 60 will yield revolutions per minute.
IV. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND DATA COLLECTED

In this section, draw your experimental set-up, the rotating machine to

be measured and the data collected including the frequency and final speed in
rpm. You can compare this value to the indicated machine speed as stated in
on the name plate.

V. INTERPRETATION OF DATA
VI. DISCUSSION

VII. CONCLUSION