Custom Training and Hiring Processes

Focused on System Operations Success

www.sosintl.com 704-752-3534 1
 Objectives
Learn how protective relays receive their
information about conditions on the powers system.
Understand the function of various relay
technologies and their limitations.
Understand how relays are integrated together for
total system protection
Diagnose system contingencies given protection
information.
Understand how the different pieces of electrical
equipment are protected.

2
 Purpose of Protective Relaying
• Remove the minimum amount of equipment
from the power system
• Limit further damage to equipment
• Minimize danger to people
• Reduce stress on other equipment
• Maintain the integrity and stability of the
remaining system

3
 NERC Requirements
System Operators shall be familiar with
the purpose and limitations of protection
system schemes.
Protection schemes must :
Š Have minimum complexity
Š Have redundancy
Š Have proper operation
Š Have high or fast speed
Š Have automatic re-closing

4
 System Protective Equipment
Purpose of System Protective Equipment:
1. Detect undesired events
2. Take appropriate action
3. Tripping of circuit breakers which isolates the trouble

Relays are classified as the following types:

1. Monitoring Relays
Š high temperature
Š gas-in oil
Š oil flow
2. Auxiliary Relays supplement the action of other relays
Š timers
Š tripping
Š reclosing
Š lockout
5
 System Protective Equipment
There are a variety of Functional Relays:
• Regulating Relays
Švoltage regulator which keeps the voltage
within a certain range
• Protective Relays
Šover current, over voltage, temperature or
distance relays protects the power system
from damage and isolates the problems
• Selectivity
Šisolates and keeps the fault in the smallest
area of the power system

6
 Overlapping Zones
• All power system equipment must be encompassed by at
least one zone
• Zones must overlap to prevent elements from being
unprotected
• Zones may be closed or open

Gen

Gen

7
 Overlapping
Protection
ensures that no
part of the
system is
unprotected.

Line Relay CT

Bus Differential
Relay CT

8
 Basic Elements of a Protection System
Current & Potential Transformers detect system
conditions and delivers the information to the relays.
Circuit Breakers or other isolating devices separate the
fault from the system.
DC Power does the actual tripping.

Bus Potential Transformer

Station
Line Battery
Relay

CT BRK

9
 Protective Relays Information
Sources
1. Direct Current

2. Potential Transformers

3. Current Transformers

10
11
Circuit Breaker Controls

12
Main Bus Pots

13
 Potential Transformer (PT)
Potential Transformer Characteristics:
• Standard secondary voltage is 120V phase to phase
• 69V phase to neutral (69 ÷ sq.rt. of 3) or (57.735%) of
phase to phase
• Transforms primary voltage to a level suitable for
metering and relaying
• Provides the first of two basic electrical quantities that
are needed to determine the state of the system

NOTE: The terms voltage and potential are used interchangeably.

14
 Coupling Capacitor Voltage
Transformer (CCVT)
Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformer
Characteristics:
• Standard secondary voltage is 120V phase to
phase
• Transforms primary voltage to a level suitable
for metering and relaying
• Constructed through series connected
capacitors in combination with a voltage
transformer
• Can be used on busses and transmission lines

15
Coupling Capacitor Voltage
Transformer (CCVT)

16
 Current Transformer (CT)

Current Transformer Characteristics:

• Maximum secondary current output is 5 amps
• Transforms primary current to a level suitable
for metering and relaying
• Combined with voltage transformers
determines total state of the power system for
metering and relaying applications

17
Bushing Current Transformer

18
CURRENT TRANSFORMER

19
The secondary current always flows in
the opposite direction from the primary

Direction of primary current

20
 2.2/1

Auxiliary current transformer

1200/5
Direction of primary current

21
Polarity From
CT
80 160 60 100
turns turns turns turns

X X X X X
1 2 3 4 5
22
 Transformer Differential With Y & Delta CTs

Delta
CT

Y - CT
23
 46kv
300
phase
shift

Zero Sequence Filter

DIFF

13kv 13kv

Shifts
back
24
 Phase Sequences

A
• Positive Sequence is
counter clockwise
• Negative Sequence is
clockwise
C B • Zero Sequence is
unidirectional
N

25
 Phase-to-Phase (B-C) fault

B C B C

A A
Pre-Fault Voltages Voltages During Fault
26
 Phase-to-Ground
(A-ground) Fault

B C B C

A
Pre-Fault Voltages Voltages During Fault

27
 46kv

Zero Sequence Filter

DIFF

13kv 13kv

28
 ZERO SEQUENCE FILTER

In this print, the

zero sequence
filter is used to
filter out ground
fault current.

The differential
relay has a Y
connection. Fault
current can
return through
the differential
giving a false trip.

29
 IEEE Relay Numbers
21 - Distance Relay 59 - Overvoltage
25 - Synchronizing Relay 63 - Pressure Relay
27 - Undervoltage Relay 64 – Ground Relay
49 - Thermal Relay 67 – Directional
Overcurrent
50 - Instantaneous
79 - Reclosing Relay
Overcurrent
81 - Frequency Relay
51 - Time Overcurrent
86 - Lockout Relay
52 - CB Auxiliary
87 - Differential Relay
94 - Auxiliary Relay

30
 Protection Technologies
• Fuses
• Electromechanical
• Solid State
• Digital

31
 Fuses

Advantages Disadvantages
Š Simple Š One shot operation

Š Reliable Š Limited use

Š Economical Š Labor intensive

32
 Electromechanical Relays

Instrument Transformers Auxiliary

CTs & PTs Relays Control

Electromechanical Electromechanical
Relay Relay

33
 Electromechanical Relays
Advantages Disadvantages
Š Greater input capability
Š Complicated calibration
Š Durable
Š Separate power supply
Š Allow more complex
protection schemes Š Large power requirements
Š Reusable Š More hardware
Š Less labor intensive

34
 Solid State Relays

Instrument Transformer
Analog Control
Card
Surge Filters
Analog
Card Isolation
Filters
Analog
Card

35
 Solid State Relays

Advantages Disadvantages
Š Allow more Š Vulnerable to harsh
comprehensive temperatures, moisture,
schemes over voltage & under
Š Low power requirement voltage
Š Reduced space Š Require separate power
requirements supplies
Š More accurate
Š Less calibration
Š Vibration & dust
resistant

36
 Digital Relays

Instrument Transformer
Sampling Control

Surge Filters Clock

Isolation
A/D чP Filters

RAM ROM EEPROM

37
 Digital Relays
Advantages Disadvantages
Š Remote monitoring & Š Power quality
setup Š Susceptible to harsh
Š Allow most complex environments
scheme
Š Low power & equipment
requirements
Š Accuracy
Š Lower purchase/O&M
costs
Š Software upgrades

38
 Power System Protection

Non-Pilot Overcurrent Protection

39
Non-Directional Overcurrent - 51

Relay MT = 75 amps
Load = 50 amps

City A

CT CB with Relays

Overcurrent Relay (50/51) Application

40
 Inverse-Time Characteristic

Time

Relay Time at A Relay Time at B

R R

A B
Distance

41
Non-Directional Overcurrent - 51

Relay MT = 215 amps MT = 55 amps Load = 50 amps

City A

MT = 80 amps Load = 75 amps

MT = 160 amps

CB w/ Relays City B

MT = 80 amps Load = 75 amps

City C

42
 Distribution Feeder Protection
Non-directional relaying can be used because fault currents
always flow from sources to loads.

Instantaneous and Time Delayed Overcurrent Relays and

residual ground relays are predominantly used.

Over current relays are supplemented by fuses, re-closers

and sectionalizers for protection coordination.

50/51 Fuse

43
Over Current & Residual Ground Relay

44
 13kV Overcurrent Relay Settings
51 overcurrent relay can be changed from Tap 1 to
Tap 5.
Some 13kV feeders in a substation have a 600/5 CT.
Examples:
• 600 amps in the primary circuit would produce 5
amps in the secondary. If the tap were on 1,
120 amps in the primary would produce 1amp
in the secondary tripping the circuit breaker.
• The tap raised to 4, would mean that the relay
could allow up to 480 amps in the primary
resulting in 4 amps in the secondary before the
breaker would trip on overcurrent.

45
“Residual” Overcurrent Protection
64, 51N or 51G
I residual = IA + IB + IC = 0 Amperes
A
CB B
C

Phasor Sum 51N 51 51 51

4 amps
? amps
2 amps 2 amps

46
“Residual” Overcurrent Protection
(“open” CT secondary) 51N or 51G
I residual = IA + IB + IC = 2 Amperes
A
CB B
C

Phasor Sum 51N 51 51 51

6 amps
? amps
2 amps 2 amps

47
 13kV Backup Overcurrent and Ground Relays
The 251 overcurrent relay, the 264 ground relay, and the
25NG1 & 25NG2 are back up relays to the line relays.

48
 251
46kv

Zero Sequence Filter

DIFF

13kv 13kv

49
 51
TU

Timer contacts

86 Closes ground switch

Sends transfer trip to end of line

50
 Power System Protection

Non-Pilot Distance Protection

51
 Transmission Line Impedance
Most transmission line conductors are strands of aluminum
that have steel reinforcement conductors in the center to add
tensile strength.

These conductors have specific resistance (Ω/1000ft) that

increases linearly with increasing conductor temperature.

Inductive reactance (Ω/mi.) that is dependent on the spacing

between the strands of each conductor the distance between
each conductor the size of the conductor.

Capacitive reactance (MΩ−mi.) is dependent on the size and

spacing of the conductors.

52
Aluminum Conductor with Steel
Re-enforcement (ACSR)

Each strand is a conductor, so the skin effect

will be present on every stand. Unlike a solid
conductor where the skin effect will occur
only on the single solid conductor. 53
Transmission Line Impedance Model

R XL

XC XC

R - Line Resistance
XL - Inductive Reactance
XC - Capacitive Reactance, line to ground
Capacitance between conductors not shown; usually
negligible for short transmission lines (<50 miles)

54
Distance mho Circle

55
Distance Protection Zones

56
 Distance Protection

Why not set Zone 1 for entire line length?

z CT errors

z Calculation errors

z Relay calibration errors

z Transmission line variations

57
Power System Protection

Pilot Protection

58
Carrier uses a combination of a wave trap and a coupling
capacitor potential device to give selective tripping.

59
Wave Traps

60
Line Wave Trap and Coupling Capacitor

61
Pilot Relaying

62
 Transfer Trip Communication
Media

z Power Line Carrier

z Pilot Wire
z Microwave
z Telephone
z Fiber Optics

63
Fiber Optic Cable Used To Transport
Tripping Signals

64
Transfer Trip Sent To The Line Terminal At The
Other End Of The Line

Carrier is sent by microwave and by power line

65
 TTX

TTR TTR

66
 Permissive Underreach
Transfer Trip (PUTT)

67
Permissive Underreach
Transfer Trip (PUTT)

68
Permissive Underreach
Transfer Trip (PUTT)

69
Permissive Overreach
Transfer Trip (POTT)

70
Permissive Overreach
Transfer Trip (POTT)

71
 Phase Comparison Relay Using
Pilot or Carrier

Network T R R T Network

Comparer Comparer

To auxiliary To auxiliary
tripping relay tripping relay
Uses its pilot (or carrier) to compare the phase relation
between current entering one terminal of a transmission-
line section and leaving another.
Carrier current is only transmitted during the half cycles of
the voltage wave when the polarity is positive.

72
 Network T R R T Network

Comparer Comparer

To auxiliary To auxiliary
tripping relay tripping relay

The CT’s feeds a network that transforms the CT output into a single
phase output voltage.
The voltage is applied to a carrier current transmitter and to a comparer.
The output of a carrier current receiver is also applied to the comparer.
The comparer controls the operation of an auxiliary relay for tripping the
circuit breakers.

73
 Phase Comparison Relay
A B
C D

A Network Voltage at A
For Fault at C or D
carrier-current signal
B transmitted from A to B
for fault at C or D
network voltage at B
C for fault D
carrier-current signal
D transmitted from B to A
for fault at D
E network voltage at B
for fault at C
carrier-current signal
F transmitted from B to A
for fault at C

74
Network Voltage at A Network Voltage at B
A B A
Blocks Blocks Blocks
tripping tripping tripping External
B tries A tries B tries Fault
to trip to trip to trip

A&B A&B
Blocks Blocks
tripping tripping Internal
A&B A&B Fault
try to try to
trip trip

When the carrier current signals are concurrent,

tripping will occur when ever there is a fault.

75
Pilot Wire Relaying

zBRK zBRK

zA zB

R R
O O

76
Pilot Wire Relaying

zBRK zBRK

zA zB

R R
O O

77
Power System Protection

Transformer Protection

78
 Transformer Protection
The following faults commonly initiate transformer trips:
• Differential
• Time Overcurrent
• Internal Fault Pressure

The following typically only alarm oil level:

• Oil Flow
• Gas Detection
• Temperature

79
 Transformer Protection

63 Sudden Pressure

Tertiary Overcurrent
51 51
Phase
Overcurrent
49 Temperature
Differential
87
80
Differential Protection

81
Differential Zone for a Transformer and Bus

82
Differential Zone Following a Fault

83
Transformer Differential - lines on both sides of the relay

84
The 251 overcurrent
trips on the same path
as the differential relay
which will clear the
transformer.

85
86
Sudden pressure will clear the transformer by tripping an
auxiliary relay.

87
 Sudden Pressure Relay
ƒ Mechanical device sensing rate of rise of
pressure within the transformer tank

ƒ Intended to detect a low-level turn-to-turn arcing

fault in the transformer winding

ƒ May detect faults not seen by other relays

ƒ Subject to false operations, due to vibration, the

taking of oil samples

88
Fault (Sudden) Pressure

Displacement of a diaphragm by increasing

pressure in a close volume initiates tripping.
This diaphragm will rupture around 11lbs of
pressure from inside the transformer.
89
 Sudden Pressure Diaphragm
Rupture Semaphores
These two pictures show a diaphragm that is normal and one that has
ruptured. The sudden Pressure switch is at the base of the semaphore.
When the diaphragm ruptures and the semaphore flies up, it will trip the
sudden pressure switch tipping the transformer off line.

90
Temperature relay 49 will pick up at a set amount. When
that value is obtained, the relay will initiate a timer. The
timer will run for 1 hour, then trip the bank off line.

Temp. relay

91
 Thermocouple

Dissimilar metals produce a voltage

that varies with temperature without
the need for an input signal

92
 RTD

Transducers convert voltage input to

current based on Ohm’s law (V=IR) where
R varies with temperature.
93
Transformer Coordination

94
Gas Detection

z Not usually for tripping

due to long detection time
z Important to place
detector at highest level in
tank

95
 Oil Level
z Alarms are common for conservator
tank and main reservoir level
z Sight glasses are used in bushings (No
alarm capability)

96
 Oil Flow
z Nutating disks are common transducers for
flow measurement
z Pump status can also initiate low flow
alarms

97
 Power System Protection

Bus, Reactor & Capacitor Protection

98
 Bus Differential Relays
The bus differential relay normally consist of three overcurrent relays
wired to produce a differential relay.
When the differential CT’s are balanced, no current should flow through
the differential relays. Secondary current will circulate between the line
CT’s. Knowing that the differential relays are over current relays, the
relays themselves would be set to trip at a set amount. Normally the
relays have a 10% variance before they would operate.
A
B
C

714 714 714

C
B
A

99
 69KV Bus Differential Relay Zone

z The

Bus diff

100
 Shunt Reactor Protection
z Common to use time overcurrent relays
z Reactor faults near phase ends or on the bus
usually are protected with differential schemes
z Circuit breakers are on the non-source side of the
reactors because of the high amount of fault
current they would have to break in case of a
fault

101
 Shunt Reactors With Fault Protection

13kV Shunt Reactor Shunt

The breakers are on Reactors
the side of the reactor
away from the bank
source due to the
possibility of high fault
current.
The overcurrent CTs
are on the transformer
side and the differential
CTs are on the side
where the end of the 3
phase circuits are.

Bank Differential CTs

102
Diff

3 3
0 1
8 8

51 51
86

103
 Shunt Reactor Protection
z Faults between the capacitor and bus are
detected by conventional overcurrent relays
z Voltage and current surges caused by faults are
dampened by surge protection
z Individual capacitor failures are isolated by
fuses
z Over current or over voltage protection on the
neutral detects multiple capacitor can failures

104
 69KV Capacitor Bank And Protection
69KV Capacitor bank
with its Over current,
Current Limiting
device, and
differential protection.

Bank Differential CT
Current Limiting
Device
Over voltage
protection on the
neutral detects
multiple fuse failures

105
Trips & LO 732 Trips & LO 722 Trips & LO 704 230KV

Aux Aux
Aux
OV OV OV

732 722 Diff

7
0
4

69KV Bus
51 64

106
Power System Protection

Generator Protection

107
Generator Protection

108
 Generator Protection
Percentage differential
10% & 25% slopes
Ground fault protection –
A relay set in the neutral of the generator to detect
ground faults
Negative sequence relay (unbalance relay)
• Generator cannot withstand unbalanced conditions

• Causes double system frequency currents to be induced

in the rotor iron
• Currents flows on the surface of the rotor and in the
non-magnetic wedges
• If unchecked, can cause high temperature and damage

109
 Transformer Bus
Generator

R
CV8 Trip
SV SV ICS or
R CV8 Alarm

ICS

110
 Generator Protection
Characteristics for a Current Overload (COV) Relay:
• Primarily for bus or feeder faults (not as much for
the unit)
• Voltage controlled over current relay cannot
operate unless the voltage is low
• Current and voltage can be adjusted
independently
• Potential for COV relay comes from the bus
• Overcurrent element can be set below rated load
• Will not operate until a fault reduces the voltage

111
 Current – Overload Protection is a back up for bus
or line faults rather than to protect the unit directly.

Transformer A

Gen
Bus Pot

COV
B

The over current unit cannot operate unless the voltage is

below a pre-determined value.
The over current element can be set below rated load and
will not operate until a fault reduces the voltage.
The current and voltage are independently adjusted.

112
Generator Rotor Protection
(Rotor Faults)
• Voltage relay used
to detect ground in
floating system
• First ground causes
a trickle effect and
generates alarm
• Second ground
creates a short and
subsequent trip
113
 Generator Protection
• Unbalanced currents detected through
negative sequence filters with same
relays

• Over frequency & Under frequency

detected through mechanical speed of
rotating shaft (No network parameters)

• Other alarms and trips use mechanical

devices (ie temperature, vibration, etc)

114
Power System Protection

Misc Relays & Backup

115
Voltage from two sides of the open circuit breaker are fed into the
synchronizing scope. (Bus pot & Line pot).
If the voltages are the same frequency, the scope will not rotate.
If the voltage wave forms are of different frequencies, the scope
will rotate in proportion to the frequency differences.
The needle will always point to the phase angle difference at that
time.

116
 Sync-check Relays (Device 25)

A B

f f
V V

Synch check relays monitor frequency, voltage, and phase

angle on each side of the breaker and permit breaker
closing when the differences are within specified limits.

117
Sync-check Relays (Device 25)

1. Checks for frequency differences

across the circuit breaker
2. Checks for voltage magnitude
3. Checks for phase angle difference on
both sides of the open breaker 118
 161KV Line
Tuning Unit

The output from the CCPD is

compared to the output from the
161 KV bus pots.

PL

The Synchronizing relay compares the

phase angle of the two potential sources. If
SYN DL SS 984
they are within 200 six seconds, then 984
will close automatically.

161KV Bus
Synchronizing Bus Synchronizing Bus supplies
Bus 1 potential bus information to the
synchronizing Scope.

119
 Reclosers
• Good for temporary faults
• Number & timing of reclosure attempts is utility
defined
• Does NOT check for fault or trip!
• Usually disabled (blocked) by backup relaying

Auxiliary relays such as a Transfer Trip Auxiliary

relay opens a contact in the closing circuit of the
breaker to prevent it from closing. It will not close
back until the Auxiliary relay has been reset.

120
 Reclosers
Advantages
• Checks the frequency and power angles
before allowing reclosing
• Maintains generation to load balance

Disadvantages
• Generator instability
• Transformer “through” fault currents
• Safety of the General Public

121
 The Circuit Breaker Has A Two Shot Re-closure
CB has two re-
closures.
1. High Speed – The SGR-12
breaker will trip and
close back within CB
about 12 cycles. SGR-12

2. Standard Speed –
The breaker will trip
and close back the
second time in about
30 cycles.

122
 SGR-12
Operates a DC contact in the Re-closing Circuit

Runs AC motor for

+
90 seconds
The Circuit Breaker
CB SGR-12
has to be closed for
AC Motor
Close 90 seconds.
C
CB
DC AC
Manual - Contact circuit
52 a
Circuit is Locked Out
contact

123
 Under Frequency Relays
• Distributed throughout system
• Coordinated with neighboring systems
• Achieves generation to load balance when
manual action by the System Operator is not
fast enough (Major System Disturbances)
• Relief is divided into levels

124
Under Frequency Relay and Load Shedding Auxiliary
Tripping Relay

Under frequency relays

that are used for load
shed should be on the
distribution side of the
substation and not on
the transmission side.

The auxiliary tripping

relay can be reset from
the operators control
room.

125
 Relay Failure
Types of Relay Failure:
• Current Transformers (CT) and their circuits
• Potential Transformers (PT) and their circuits
• Loss of DC
Š Short Circuit
Š Open Circuit
Š Relay component failure

126
 Breaker Failure

z Loss of DC supply
z Open trip coil
z Short circuited trip coil
z Mechanical Failure of Tripping Mechanism
z Failure of Main Contacts to Interrupt

127
 Breaker Failure Becomes a Primary Tripping Source
Due To A Loss of Air In 5058

This is a 500KV circuit

breaker that has breaker
failure protection.
Normally the (BF) relay
has a 15 cycle timer.
When the air blast
beaker 5058 loses air,
the minimum trip
pressure picks up
closing its contact.
The BF relay becomes
a primary tripping
source of 3 cycles
instead of 15 cycles.

128
 Trips all PCB’s
that feeds 5058

Aux

15 cycles 3 cycles

MIN
5058
Trip

BF LR63MTX

Line Relays

129
 Breaker Failure
• Detects a trip signal being sent to an isolating
device
• Starts a timer
• Initiates a trip to other devices if the
open/close contact on the isolating device in
question doesn’t change state and non-
directional fault current is still present
• Reacts faster than backup distance relaying
• No communication between substations

130
A BF AA AAA

B BB BBB

C CC CCC

131
 Objectives
We learned about how protective relays receive
their information about conditions on the powers
system.
We discussed the function of various relay
technologies and their limitations.
We understand how relays are integrated together
for total system protection.
We diagnosed system contingencies given
protection information.
We understand how the different pieces of electrical
equipment are protected.

132