Department of Electronics and Communication

Engineering

EC 09 408(P)

ANALOG COMMUNICATION LAB

MANUAL

DEPT. OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

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D
Depart
tment of
o Elecctronicss and Commu
C unicatiion
En ngineering

EC
C 09 4008(P)

ANA
ALOG
G COM
MMUN
NICA
ATION
N LAB
M UAL
MANU

DE
EPT. OF ELECTR
RONICS & COMM
MUNICATION EN
NGINEER
RING

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EX
XPERIM
MENT LIIST:
Cyycle 1:
1. A
AM MOD
DULATOR
R.

2. A
AM DETE
ECTOR.

3. A NG AD 633 IC.
AM USIN

4. F
FREQUEN
NCY MIX
XER.

5. IIF TUNED
D AMPLIIFIER.

6. S
STUDY OF
O PLL.

Cycle 2:

7. F
FM MOD
DULATOR
R USING
G 565 PLL
L.

8. F
FM DEMO
ODULTO
OR USING 565 PL
LL.

9. B
BALANCED MOD
DULATOR.

10. P
PULSE AMPLITU
UDE MOD
DULATO
OR.

11. P
PULSE WIDTH
W M
MODULA TOR USIING 555.

12. P
PULSE PO
OSITION
N MODUL
LATOR USING
U 5555.

13. P
PWM AN
ND PPM GENERA
G ATION US
SING OP-AMP.

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Expp No:1
Datte:
AM MODUL
M LATOR

AIM
M:

To desiign and setuup an Ampliitude Modulator and measure

m the m
modulation index
from
m the observved output.

CO
OMPONE
ENTS AND
D EQUIP
PMENTS REQUIR
RED:
Transistor - BF
F194,
Capacittors - 0.1µF, 0.01µF
F,
Resistors Ω, 72 kΩ,
- 4.88 kΩ, 48 kΩ
DC Souurce Voltage - (0 – 15) V
Intermeediate Frequ
uency Transsformer
Signal Generator
G
Bread Board
B
CRO
TH
HEORY:
Amplituude modulaation may be
b defined as a system
m in which THE MAX
XIMUM
MPLITUDE OF THE CARRIER is made pproportionaal to the IN
AM NSTANTAN
NEOUS
VALUE of the Modulatingg or Base Band
B Signal..
Carrier signal is a fixed
f frequeency signal with frequeency ωc. In ppractice, thee carrier
y be high frrequency while
may w the moodulation siignal is auddio. In AM ,the inform
mation is
trannsmitted in the form of
o amplitudde variationn, while thee phase andd frequency
y of the
carrrier remainss the same The
T time varrying ampliitude is calleed the envelope of AM
M.

AM = AC (t) + Am (t)
(
= VC (1+µ Sin ωmt) Sin ωct, where µ = Vm ÷ VC
= VC Sin ωct + (µVC÷2) Cos (ωc-ωm) t - (µVC÷2)) Cos (ωc+ω
ωm) t

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The speectrum of AM
A containns three terrms. Two pairs
p of siddebands andd carrier
freqquency, wheere as the sideband freequency is defined
d by fSB = fC ± nnfm and in the first
+ve frequenncy the baand of freqquencies thaat is lying above thee carrier
pairr n=1.For +
freqquency ωc is known ass the upper side band (fC + fm), where
w as syymmetrical portion
beloow ωc is knoown as the lower
l side band
b (fC - fm). And the bandwidth of AM is 2 ωm.
Modulaation Index is defined as the measure of the extent of amplitude
a v
variation
abouut an unmoodulated maximum
m caarrier (µ = Vm ÷ VC). The moduulation Ind
dex of a
wavveform (as seen
s from thhe oscilloscope) can bee calculated by using thhe formulae
µ = (VMAX - VMIN
M ) ÷ (VMA
AX + VMIN).

Since the
t amplituude of siddebands deppends on the modullation index
x, it is
antiicipated thaat the total power
p in thhe modulateed power will
w depend on the mod
dulation
Indeex. The totaal power in the
t modulatted wave w
will be
Pt = (V2carr ÷ R)) + (V2LSB ÷ R) + (V2USSB ÷ R) (rmss).

Makking the cuurrent pulsess proportionnal to the m

modulating voltage, wee can generrate AM
wavves. This proocess is knoown as the flywheel
f eff
ffect of the tuuned circuitt, and it wo
orks best
withh a tuned ciircuit, whose Q is not too
t low. It is possible to make the output currrent of a
classs C amplifiier proportioonal to the modulating
m voltage by applying thhis voltage in
i series
withh any of thee dc supply voltages
v forr the ampliffier.
In order to generaate the carrier, we use the Intermeediate Frequuency Tran
nsformer
and 0.01µF (w
which provid
des the Feeed Back); siince they oscillate
o neaar 455 kHz we use
BF1194. Here using
u capaciitive couplinng the messsage signal is applied to the base terminal
t
of trransistor. Soo this moduulation methhodology is also called Base Moduulation.
PR
ROCEDUR
RE:

1. Check the componnents usingg Intelligence Meter or

o Multi M
Meter and seetup the
circuit oon a breadboard.
2. Note doown the ampplitude of carrier signaal.
3. Feed the modulatinng signal to the Base teerminal of trransistor.

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4. From C
CRO note doown the VMAX
M and VMIIN values, wh
here as VMAAX and VMINN are the
maximuum and minnimum ampllitudes of A
AM signal inn +ve directtion.
VMAX - VMINN)/ (VMAX + VMIN).
5. Calculaate the moduulation Indeex using (V
6. By varyying the ampplitude of message
m signnal, observee over moduulation on CRO.
C
7. Note doown the ampplitudes VMAX
M and VMIIN for µ=1 and
a µ>1.
8. Repeat the experim
ment by varyying the frequency of message
m siggnal.
9. Plot thee output for µ=1, µ>1, and
a µ<1 onn a graph sheeet.

CIR
RCUIT DIAGRAM
D M:

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DE
ESIGN:

Take VCC
C = +15 V, IC =1 mA, ß=100.

µ VCE = 40% of VCC = 6 V, VRE = 10% of VCC = 1.5 V..

Therefoore IB = 10 µA,
RE = (VRE ÷ IC) = 1.5 kΩ
k since IE ~ IC.
VR2 = (VREE + VBE) = 1.5+0.7 = 2.2V.
VR1 = (VCCC – VR2) = 15 – 2.2 = 122.8V.
From ciircuit diagraam, we havee
VR1 = 10IB * R1 & VR22 = 9IB * R22
1 * 10-5) = 51.62 kΩ.
=> R1 = 12.8 ÷ (10 * 10
=> R2 = 2.22 ÷ (9 * 10 * 10-5) = 100 kΩ.
Dessign of Cap
pacitors:
XC1 ≤ Rin/10,
R (1+hfe*re) = 91.4
Rin =R1║R2║(
=
XC1 ≤ 91.4 , C1≥ 0.34 use 0.222µF
XCE ≤ RE/10 = 9.155
CE ≥ 0.002 µF
Dessign of CC1, CC2:
XC ≤ Riin/10
+hfe*re)
Rin = R1║R2║(1+
R

Xc ≤ 00.123K
12*103))
Cc ≥ 1/(2пf*(0.1
1
-66
Cc ≥ 0.133*10
0
Use 0.1 µF

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EX
XPECTED
D WAVEF
FORM:

EMONSTR
DE RATION
N OF AM

RE
ESULT:

1. Modulaation Index =
modulation iss seen on CRO and thee observed value
2. Over m v is µ =

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VIV
VA VOCE
E:

1. Give thhe differencee between lo

ow level moodulation annd high leveel modulatio
on?
2. Give thhe applicatioons of SSB modulation
m n technique?? Give namees of 3 types of
SSB filtters?
3. Define ISB system
ms?
4. Explainn Quadraturre Amplitudde Multiplexxing?
5. What arre the virtuees and limittations of AM
M?
6. What iss Lincompexx? Could it be used witth any form
m of SSB sysstems?
7. Comparre AM, DSB
BSC, SSBS
SC?
8. What arre the disaddvantages off J3E with respect
r to A3E?
A
9. Define pilot carrierr?
10. Explainn Costas recceiver?
11. Which m
modulationn technique is
i used for speech
s transsmission?

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Expp No:2
Datte:
AM
M DETEC
CTOR

AIM
M:
To desiign and setuup an AM deetector circuuit.

CO
OMPONE
ENTS AN
ND EQUIP
PMENTS
S REQUIR
RED:
Transisttor
IFT
Capacitoors
Signal generator
g
Bread board
D.C volltage sourcee
CRO.

HEORY:
TH
The proocess of exttracting a modulating
m or base bannd signal frrom the mo
odulated
signnal is calledd demodulattion or deteection. In other words,, demodulattion or deteection is
the process by which the message
m is recovered from
f the moodulated siggnal at the receiver
r
In amplitude
a m
modulation (AM)
( the innstantaneous amplitudee of the carrrier signal is varied
by instantaneou
i us amplitudde of modullating voltagge..The devvices used ffor demodullation is
called demoduulators or detectors.
d AM
A detectoors or dem
modulators are
a categorrized as
Squuare –Law ddetectors andd Envelope detectors oor diode deteector
Diode detector
d metthod is the simplest method
m for AM
A demoduulation. AM
M signal
withh large carriier are deteccted by usinng the envelope detectoor. The envvelope detecctor uses
the circuit, whiich extractss the enveloope which is
i the base band
b or moodulating sig
gnal. It
achiieves this byy simply rectifying thee signal. Currrent is allowed to flow
w through th
he diode
in only
o one dirrection, givving either the
t positivee or negativve half of tthe envelop
pe at the
outpput. If the detector
d is too be used onnly for deteection it doees not matteer which hallf of the
envelope is useed, either will
w work orr equally well.
w The cirrcuit consistts of a capaacitor at

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the output. Its purpose is to
t remove any
a radio frrequency coomponents of the signaal at the
outpput. The vallue is choseen so that itt does not affect the auudio base baand signal. There
T is
alsoo a leakage path to ennable the caapacitor to discharge,
d b the circcuit into whhich the
but
dem
modulator ciircuit is connnected mayy provide thhis.The outpput is propoortional to th
he input
envelope.
The dioodes can introduce
i appreciable
a e levels off harmonic distortion
n unless
moddulation levvels are keppt low. As a result theese detectorrs can neveer provide a signal
suitable for higgh quality applications
a s. Additionaally these detectors
d aree susceptiblle to the
effeects of fadinng experiencced on shorrtwave broaadcast transm
missions. H
Here the ion
nosphere
proppagation maay be such that
t certain small bands of the signnal are remooved.
. The m
main advantaage of this form
f of AM
M demodulattor is that itt is very sim
mple and
cheaap. Just onee diode, onee capacitor and one ressistor are reequired. So it is used so
s often.
Thiss simple typpe of AM demodulator
d r isn't any ggood if we want the reecovered waaveform
to be
b an accurrate representation of the
t originall modulatinng waveform
m. The circcuit also
sufffers from the problems known as Ripple
R and Negative
N Peeak Clipping.
An enveelope detector can't knnow that thee carrier phhase has beeen altered, hence
h it
just responds to the +ve peaks
p of thee inverted m
modulated carrier.
c 1 + m{t} ≤ 0 — i.e.,
m{tt}≤-1—to avvoid this prroblem.

PR
ROCEDUR
RE:
1. Setup the circuit of AM GEN N after verrifying the condition of the
NERATION
c
components
s.
2. Setup
S the circuit of AM
A DETEC
CTION and feed the AM
A signal tto the inpu
ut of the
c
circuit.
3. Observe
O the output
o waveeform on a CRO screenn.

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CIR
RCUIT DIAGRAM
D M:

DE
ESIGN:
me constantt RC must be larger thhan the perriod of the lowest AM
The tim M signal
freqquency.
RC>> time
t period of RF
Takke RC= 1000T where T=1/RF
Let RF=500 KH
Hz, C1=. 011microfaradd, then R1=220K (use 222k standardd)

EX
XPECTED
D WAVEF
FORM:

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RE
ESULT:
The AM
M de-modullator circuit is designedd and setup. The outputt waveforms are
obseerved on CR
RO.

VIV
VA QUES
STIONS:
1. What arre the drawbbacks of ennvelope deteector?
2. Draw thhe frequency spectrum of AM wavve?
3. What iss square law
w demodulattor?
4. What iss broadbandd spectrum?
5. Why dooes the quallity of the deetected signnal depend upon
u RC tim
me constantt of an
enveloppe detector??
6. Define selectivity, sensitivity, and fidelityy of a receivver.
7. What iss delayed AGC?
8. What iss VSB? Where is it useed?
9. Discusss bandwidthh requiremennts of AM and
a FM.
10. Discusss high level and low-lev
vel modulattion system
ms.

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Expp No:3
Datte:
AM USIING MU
ULTIPLIIER IC AD633

AIM
M:
To study IC 6333 and to design Am generator using
u them..
CO
OMPONE
ENTS AND
D EQUIP
PMENTS REQUIR
RED:
AD
D 633,
Sign
nal generattors,
CRO
O,
Breeadboard
cappacitors
TH
HEORY:
AM
M is generaated by muultiplying the
t base baand signal by the carrrier signal..Analog
mulltiplier ICss AD633 is o generate the Am signal
i used to s withhout any external
e
com
mponents.
FU
UNCTION
NAL DESCRIPTIO
ON:
Con
nsider the functional
f b
block diagrram of the four quadrant multipllier AD633
3 shown
in figure.The
f differential X and Y inputs aree converted to differrential currrents by
o these cuurrents is generated by the
volttage to cuurrent convverters.The product of
mulltiplying coore.A burieed zener reeference prrovides an overall scaale factor of
o 10V.
Thee sum of (X+Y)/10+
+Z is thenn applied to
t the outtput ampliffier.The am
mplifier
sum
mming nodee Z allows the user to add two or
o more multiplier outtputs, conv
verts the
outpput voltagee to a currennt, and connfigure varioous analogg computatiional functiions.the
relaation between inputs and
a outputs are expresssed as:

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Thee carrier annd modulatiion inputs to the AD6633 are muultiplied to produce a double
sidee-band signnal.The carrrier is fed to i is summeed with the double
t the Z inpput where it
sidee band signnal to produ
uce a doublee side bandd with carrieer output.

PR
ROCEDUR
RE:
AM-SC circuuit and feedd the 20Vppp,10kHz sine wave caarrier signall and
1.Seet up the A
100Vpp, 1kHz modulatinng signal. Observe
O thee output waaveform
2. Set
S the AM with carrieer circuit byy modifyingg the previoous circuit. Observe th
he
ouutput and measure
m thee modulatioon index.

CIR
RCUIT DIAGRAM
D M:

M USNIG AD
AM A 633

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AM
M-DSB-SC
C

AM
M-DSB

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Pinout of A
AD633

UTPUT WAVEFO
OU W RMS:

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RE
ESULT:

The AM
M DSB SC circuit is deesigned andd setup USIN
NG AD633 IC. The ouutput
wavveforms are observed on
o CRO.

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Expp No:4
Datte:
FREQ
QUENC
CY MIXE
ER USIN
NG BJT

AIM
M
To desiign and set up
u a frequenncy convertter circuit ussing transisttor to produ
uce an
outpput frequenccy of 455 khhz from twoo input freqquencies.

CO
OMPONE
ENTS & EQUIPM
E MENTS RE
EQUIRED
D
IFT, Trransistors,
Resistors,
Capacittors,
Signal generator,
g
Breadbooard,
DC Suppply &
CRO.

TH
HEORY
Tuned radio
r frequeency receiv
vers are the fore-runnerrs of presennt super heterodyne
receeivers. In TR
RF receiverrs, incomingg station freequency is directly
d fedd to the deteector. At
highher frequencies, these receivers
r exxhibit poor adjacent chhannel rejecction. To ov
vercome
this, super heteerodyne receeiver reducees the incom
ming high frequency
f siignal to mod
derately
low
w frequency called interrmediate freequency. Thhis is done by
b mixing tthe incomin
ng signal
by locally
l geneerated frequuency to inteermediate frrequency. The
T principle of workinng of the
mixxer is that w
when two sig
gnal frequenncies are feed to a mixeer it gives oout few freqquencies
inclluding origginal input frequencies and sum
m and diffeerence verssions of th
he input
freqquencies. A filter can be employedd to select thhe desired frequency.
fr

ROCEDUR
PR RE

1. Set up tthe circuit on

o a breadbooard and sw
witch on vcc supply
s
2. Switch on the signal generatorrs vin1 and vin2

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3. The siggnal vin1 is 550khz and 1v

1 pp and thee signal vin2 is 100khz aand 1vpp
4. Observee the outputt on the CR
RO.
CIR
RCUIT DIAGRAM
D M

DE
ESIGN
Use BF
F194 transisttor.
Let VCC =6V ; IC =2 mA ; hffe =100
VCE = VRE =50%
= of VCC
C =3V

Design of RE :
VRE =IERE
RE = VRE / IE =3/2 mA
A =1.5 kohm
m
IBMIN = IC / hfe =20 micrroA
VB = VBE + VRE =3.7V
V
RB = (VCC – VB ) / IB
= (6 -3.7) / 20
= 115 K (Use
( 120K std)
Takke CC =0.1 microF

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RE
ESULT

Designeed and set up

u a frequenncy converteer circuit ussing transisttor.
The inpput frequenccy fX =

fY =
Output frequency of
o the mixerr =
Amplituude of the output
o =

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Expp No:5
Datte:

IF TUN
NED AM
MPLIFIE
ER
AIM
M:
T Design, set
To s up, and plot
p frequenncy response characteriistics of an IIF amplifierr.

CO
OMPONE
ENTS AND
D EQUIP
PMENTS REUIRE
ED:
Transistor,
IFT,
Resistors,
Capacittors,
Signal generator,
g
DC souurce,
Bread board
b
CRO.

TH
HEORY:

The intermediate (IF)

( of a recceiving systtem is usuaally a comprromise, since there
are two reasonss why it shoould be neitther low norr high, nor in a certainn range betw
ween the
twoo.
IF amplifier iss an ampliffier tuned to
t intermeddiate frequenncy. In Tellevision and
d Radio
receeivers IF am
mplifiers are
a used to amplify thhe signals in
i IF rangee. The mixxer-local
osciillator set is
i followedd by the IF
F amplifier in the recceivers. Thee incoming
g station
freqquency fs iss mixed witth the local oscillator frequency fo to producce the IF suuch that
IF= fo - fs In radio receivvers the IF is
i selected at
a 445 kHz as a univerrsal standardd. In the
IF amplifier,
a mplifier is replaced by an IF
thhe collectoor resistancee of a convventional am
trannsformer. IF
FT providees the tank circuit
c and inductive cooupling for tthe output signal
s to
the load. IFT iss tuned to 455kHz.Am
4 mplification peaks
p at inttermediate ffrequency since the
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tankk circuit in IFT resoonates at thhat frequenncy. The load resistancce equals L/CR
L at
resoonance, wheere, L is thhe inductancce is the caapacitance and
a R is thhe resistancee of the
induuctive brancch. Voltage gain of the amplifier iss given by the
t expressiion,

Av =hfeL /R
Ri CR
whhere hfe is the
t current gain and Ri is the innput resistaance. The quuality facto
or of the
circcuit is defineed as the raatio of reacttance to ressistance of the
t tank circcuit. Qualitty factor
deciides the abbility of thee amplifier to select thhe desired frequency. Bandwidth
h of the
amp
plifier,

BW= fo /Q

IF tuneed amplifierr is widelyy used in receivers.

r Super
S heteroodyne is on
ne such
mple. Tuneed circuit tuuned to IF and inducttively couplled to next stage is generally
exam
knoown as IF traansformer. In c receivers, two stagges of IF
I majority of commerrcial broad cast
amp ned circuit iss kept high because
plifiers are uused. In thiss stage, quaality factor Q of the tun
ated is quitee small beinng only 10 KHz in am
the band of freequencies accommoda
a mplitude
moddulation brooadcast receeiver

PR
ROCEDUR
RE:

1. Set
S up the ciircuit on breead board.
2. Feed
F a sinusoidal signall of 100 mV
V to the ampplifier inputt.
3. Note
N the Am
mplitude of the
t output signal
s and eenter in the table.
t Repeat for variou
us input
freqquency varyying from Hz
H to MHz raange.
4. Draw
D the freequency respponse charaacteristics annd mark thee 3-dB and centre frequuency.
5. Calculate
C Q using the foormula Q= fo /BW.

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CIR
RCUIT DIAGRAM
D M:

DE
ESIGN OF
F CC
Seleection of a ttransistor: Use a high
h frequency transistor, BF195
B or itss equivalentt.

DC conditionss: Assume Vcc = 12V, Vce = 6V, VRE = 6V and

d IC = 1mA

Since IE ≈ IC, RE = 6K.U

Dessign of RE: We have RE = VRE/IE.S Use 5.6 K

Dessign of R1 and
a R2: Asssume the cu
urrent through R1 = 101
1B and that tthrough R2 = 9IB to
avoid loading of
o R1and R2 network by
y the base ccurrent.

Basse current IB=IC/hFE=1 mA/60=17µ

m µA. Since hFE min of th
he transistor is 60
Volltage drop across
a R2, VR2=VBE+VRE
R =0.6+6=6
6.6V

Also
o, VR2=9IBR2=6.6V.From this we get, R2=43k
k.Use 47 k std.
Volltage drop across
a R1 is VR1=VCC-V
VR2=5.4V

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Also
o VR1=101BR1=5.4V.F
From this wee get, R1=322k.Use 33k std.

Sellection of RL: Take RL=1k, a nom

minal value.

Dessign of CC1: CC2 and CE: The rule for the desiign of couplling capacittor, XC1<Rinn/10
= 1║ R2 ║hFE
Here Rin=R F re

We get Rin-1.11k.Then
- n XCE < 0.11k at frequeency of operration 455 kHz.
k
So, CC1 > 1/2πfL * 0.111k = 3.2µF
Take CC2 = CC1 = 4.7µF
Dessign of CE: R
Reactance of
o emitter bypass
b capaccitor shouldd be one-tennth of emitteer
resistance to bypass
b low frequenciess to ground.
XCE ≤ RE/10
CE ≥ 1/2πfL * 560=17772 pF (Use 2200
2 pF stdd.)

TA
ABULAR COLUM
MN:
Vin=

f((Hz) Vo (volts) log f 20 log(Vo//Vin) dB

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MO
ODEL GR
RAPH:

RE
ESULT:
Bandwiidth of the circuit
c =…...…..Hz
Q of thee circuit =…………..

VIV
VA QUES
STIONS:

What is meant by intermeddiate frequeency?

What are the crriterion for choosing inntermediate frequency??
What are the addvantages of
o using BF 195 tansistoor in the cirrcuit?
What is image signal frequuency?
Which are the parameters
p affecting thhe working of an ampliifier?
Listt the variouss applicationns of IF am
mplifier?
What is meant by Q-factorr?

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Expp No:6
Datte:
P
PHASE LOCKE
ED LOO
OPS

AIM
M:
To desiign a PLL circuit for free runninng frequencyy of 2.5KH
Hz.Find the capture
rangge and lock range. Plott the frequenncy graph.

CO
OMPONE
ENTS AND
D EQUIP
PMENTS REQUIR
RED:
PLL Chhip - NE 565
Resistors,
Capacittors,
Dc Pow
wer Supply,
Signal Generator,
G
Breadbooard.

TH
HEORY:
Monolithic PLL is a highly veersatile deviice used forr FM demoddulation, freequency
syntthesizers, m
motor speed control, FS
SK demodullators etc. PLL
P mainly consists off a phase
deteector, an LPF and a VCO.
V Phasse detector compares the input ffrequency with
w the
feeddback frequuency. Outpput of phaase detectorr is a dc voltage
v propportional to
o phase
diffference betw
ween frequeencies. Low
w pass filterr removes high
h frequeency noise. The dc
volttage controlls VCO freequency. VC
CO frequenncy is fed back
b and coompared witth input
freqquency and automaticallly gets itself equal to tthe input freequency.
When the
t input freequency is less
l than fL, PLL is neeither in locck nor in cap
pture. It
willl be in free running staate. When in
nput frequenncy reachess fC1, VCO ffrequency becomes
b
equal to input frequency.. In other words,
w VCO
O captures input frequuency. If th
he input
freqquency increeases; VCO
O frequencyy follows thee input freqquency up too the limit of
o fL2. If
inpuut frequencyy further inncreases, VC
CO retains the free runnning state. If input freequency
CO frequenncy becomes equal to input frequuency only at fC2. If th
is reeduced, VC he input
freqquency is fuurther reducced VCO frrequency foollows the innput frequeency only up
u to the
limiit of fL1. If input
i frequeency is againn reduced, VCO
V goes back
b to the free running
g state.

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Lock raange fL2-fL1 can be deffined as the range of frrequency inn which PLL
L keeps
lockk with inpuut frequencyy. Capture range
r fC2-fC1
C is defined
d as the rannge of frequuency in
whiich PLL is able
a to captuure the inpuut frequencyy. fL will be greater thaan fC.
PR
ROCEDUR
RE:

1. Set up tthe circuit after

a verifyinng the conddition of com
mponents.
2. Note doown the freee running frrequency fO without anyy input signnal.
3. Feed an input siggnal either sine wave or square wave
w to anny one of thhe input
frequenncy terminalls and varyy its frequenncy from 1000Hz.to 4K
KHz and notte down
fC2 and fL1.
4. Calculaate capture range
r and loock range.

LOCK DIA
BL AGRAM

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CIR
RCUIT DIAGRAM
D M

DE
ESIGN:

Let V+= +10V annd V- = -10V

V
Let thhe free run
nning frequeency, f0 =1.22/(4R1*C1)) = 2.5KHz
Takee C1= 0.01µ
µF
Thenn R1 = 12K
The value
v of R1 satisfies thhe required condition
c 2K
K<R1<20K
K
Takee C3 = 0.01 µF and C2=
= 10µF
The theoretical
t v
values of fL and fc is giiven by
fL = +/-
+
8fo/V
fc = +/-
+
(f1/2)/(2*п*3.6*103*C
C2)1/2

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EX
XPECTED
D WAVEF
FORM

RE
ESULT.
Designeed and set up a PLL circuit for free running frequency of 2.5K
KHz and
a capture range.
calcculated the llock range and

Loock range fL =

Capturre range fC =

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Expp No:7
Datte:
FM MODUL
M LATOR

AIM
M
To setuup and studyy an FM gennerator usinng 565 PLL IC and to calculate
moddulation inddex from thee output waaveform.
CO
OMPONE
ENTS REQ
QUIRED WITH D
DETAILE
ED SPECIIFICATIO
ON
LM 5655 (phase loccked loop)
Resistors- 3.3 KΩ,, 10 KΩ,
Capacioors-0.01µF, 0.01µF,
Power supplies,
s
Signal generator,
g
Bread board
b etc

TH
HEORY
Frequenncy modulaation is an important method of impressingg informatioon on a
carrrier. In an F t frequency of the siignal is chaanged by thee modulatio
FM signal, the on (base
band) signal while
w its am
mplitude rem
mains the saame. Frequuency moduulation (FM
M) is the
stanndard techniique for higgh-fidelity The
T main reeason for thee improvedd fidelity is that
t FM
deteectors, wheen properly designed, are not seensitive to random am
mplitude vaariations
whiich are the dominant
d paart of electriical
Frequenncy modulaation is used in com
mmercial raddio broadcaasts in pollice and
hosp munications, emergencyy channels, TV sound,, wireless ((cellular) telephone
pital comm
systtems, and raadio amateuur bands aboove 30 MHzz.
PLL staands for phhase locked loop and iss basically a closed looop control system,
whiich functionning is baseed on phase sensitive ddetection off phase diffeerence betw
ween the
inpuut and output controlleed oscillatorr. It containns a phase detector,
d mplifier, and VCO,
am
many appliications andd features iis tone-decooding.the control inpu
Onee of of its m ut to the
VCO
O is a meassure of the innput frequeency, with obvious
o appllications.

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The LM
M565 is a general puurpose Phasse-Locked Loop
L IC coontaining a stable,
highhly linear voltage
v controlled osciillator (VCO
O) for low distortion FM demoddulation,
and a double balanced phaase detectorr with good carrier supppression. T
The VCO freequency
is seet with an eexternal resistor and caapacitor, annd a tuning range of 100:1 can be obtained
o
withh the same capacitor. The
T charactteristics of tthe closed loop system
m-- may be adjusted
a
overr a wide raange with an external resistor aand capacitoor. The looop may be broken
betw
ween the VCO
V and thee phase dettector for innsertion of a digital frrequency divvider to
obtaain frequenccy multipliccation.
A Phasse-Locked Loop has basically three
t statess- Free-runnning, Captu
ure and
Phaase-lock. Thhe range ov
ver which the loop syystem will follow chaanges in th
he input
freqquency is caalled the locck range. On
O the otherr hand, the frequency range in wh
hich the
loopp acquires pphase-lock is
i the capturre range, annd is never greater
g thann the lock range.
r
A low-pass fillter is used
d to control the dynam
mic characcteristics off the phasee-locked
loopp. If the diffference beetween the input and VCO frequuencies is ssignificantly
y large,
the resultant ssignal is ouut of the caapture rangge of the looop. Once tthe loop iss phase-
lockked, the fillter only limits the sppeed of thee loop's ab
bility to track changess in the
inpuut frequenccy. In addiition, the looop filter provides
p a sort of shhort-term memory,
m
uring a rappid recapturre of the siggnal if the system is thhrown out of lock by a noise
ensu
wever, a deesign of a loop filterr representts a comprromise in that
trannsient. How t the
paraameters of that filter restrict
r the loop's
l captuure range and
a speed, iit would alm
most be
imppossible forr the phase--locked loopp to lock without
w it.
WO
ORKING
G OF THE
E CIRCUIIT:
Only thhe VCO moodule of thee PLL is ussed. And th
he VCO outtput is taken
n as the
FM output. Iniitially the VCO
V oscillaates at its ffree runningg frequencyy when pin no:7 is
grouunded. The message siignal is giv
ven to pin no.7
n of the IC
I which iss input to th
he VCO
and also input to
t the ampliifier also.
The moodulated ouutput is obttained at pin
p no.4 off the PLL w
which is thhe VCO
outpput. This ouutput will bee the FM ouutput. Pin no:
n 2 and 3 are
a the two inputs to thhe phase
deteector are groounded and pin no: 5 which
w conneects VCO too phase

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comparrator is unco
onnected allso. The AF
F input to pin
p no 7 varry the frequuency of
the VCO.VCO
O frequencyy should com
me in Lockk with the input
i frequeency. Usually a dc
volttage acts s thhe control voltage
v which modulates the voltaage controlleed oscillatorr.

PR
ROCEDUR
RE
1. Set up tthe circuit on
o the breadd board.
2. Withouut feeding thhe modulating signal, observe
o andd note downn the amplittude and
frequenncy of the ouutput squaree wave.
3. Feed thhe modulatting signal of 2V.It can
c be seeen that the output freequency
Increasees when con
ntrol voltag
ge Vc decreaases and visse versa.
4. Observee the FM ouut put on thhe screen and note downn the maxim
mum and minimum
m
frequenncy of the waveform
w annd calculatee the frequeency deviatiion and mod
dulation
index.

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CIR
RCUIT DAIGRAM
D M:

ESIGN
DE
Let the free runninng frequenccy of the phase lockedd loop is deetermined by
b the
equation
Seleecting the voltages as

V+= 10vv and V-= -10v for the chip.

ƒ0= 1.2 / 4 R1C1

Seleect the free running frequency deteermined acccording to capacitor

c annd resistor values.
v
Let the free runnning frequuency be 2.55 kHz. Andd select the capacitor vvalue to be 0.01µF.
From
m the form
mula it is cleear that the resistor vaalue will bee12K. The ccapacitor C2 which
form
ms a part off the low passs filter is seelected to be
b 0.01µF

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WA
AVEFOR
RMS:

RE
ESULT:
Frequenncy modulaation has been
b done using
u 565 IC and thee output waaveform
obseerved on a CRO.
C The modulation
m index has bbeen calculaated from thhe output waaveform
mula: ß= frequency devviation /messsage signaal frequencyy and measu
usinng the form urement
for various
v freqquencies is carried out.

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VIV
VA VOIC
CE
1. What you mean byy frequency modulationn?
2. What arre the differrent types of frequencyy modulatorrs?
3. What arre the advanntages of freequency moodulation?
4. What iss ment by loock range?
5. What iss ment by caapture rangee?
6. How PL
LL can be used
u for FM
M generationn?
7. Explainn a 565 IC?
8. Give ann example for
fo VCO?
9. What arre the differrences betw
ween narrow
w band and wide
w band F
FM?
10. What you mean byy frequency sensitivity in FM?
11. Give thhe general exxpression foor an FM w
wave?
12. Explainn draw backks of direct method
m of FM
F generatiion?
13. What arre the limitaations of PL
LL as a FM modulator??
14. How PL
LL works ass an FM moodulator?
15. Explainn different methods
m avaailable undeer parametriic variation method?

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Expp No:8
Datte:
FM DE
EMODUA
ALTION
N USING
G 565 PL
LL
AIM
M:

To design
d and setup a FM demodulator circuit.

CO
OMPONE
ENTS USE
ED:

IC 565
Resistors (11 KΩ, 5 K pot)
p
Capacitors (500 pF, 0.001 µF, 0.002 µF)
IFT
Signal geneerator
DC source
CRO
TH
HEORY:
Frequenncy modullation (FM
M) is a form
fo of modulation
m which rep
presents
i the instanntaneous freequency of a carrier waave. (FM is divided
infoormation as variations in
WFM) andd Narrowband FM (NBFM)
intoo two broaad categoriies: Widebaand FM (W
depending on the
t no of sid
de bands of the modulaated signal.
FM dettectors convvert the freqquency variaations of thee carrier baack into a reeplica of
the original moodulating siggnal. There are 5 basic types of FM
M detectorss:
Sloppe detector
Fostter-Seely Discriminato
D or
Ratiio Detector
Quaadrature Dettector
Phaase-Locked L
Loop (PLL)) detector
A phasee locked looop (PLL) is basically a negative feeedback sysstem. The op
peration
of PLL
P is simillar to any feed
f back syystems .In aany feedbacck system ,tthe feedback signal
tendds to follow
w the input signal.
s The difference between
b inpput signal aand feedback signal

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givees the errorr signal. A PLL operaates in sam
me principlee except for that the quantity
q
feeddback is noot amplitudee but is ph
hase. It is pprimarily ussed in trackking the ph
hase and
freqquency of caarrier component of inccoming FM
M signals.
Here 565 PLL iss used as an
a FM dem
modulator. The 565 ccontains a voltage
conttrolled oscillator (VCO
O), a phase detector,
d annd a voltagee amplifier. The phase detector
d
com
mpares the phase
p of thee incoming signal withh the internaal voltage controlled reeference
osciillator. The phase errorr signal is amplified
a annd fed back in such a m
manner as to
o reduce
the phase erroor by varyinng the freqquency of tthe referencce oscillatoor. If the inncoming
signnal deviatess in frequenncy, the VCO
O tracks the deviation. If the freqquency of thhe VCO
variies linearly with its coontrol voltagge, then forr an FM inpput signal, tthe control voltage
willl track the modulation.
m

PR
ROCEDUR
RE:
1) Set
S up the ciircuit after verifying
v thhe conditions of the com
mponents.
2) Observe
O the free runninng frequencyy
3) Verify
V whethher PLL funnctions welll
4) Examine
E O frequency comes in loock with inpput frequenccy
whhether VCO
5) Find
F the FM
M signal from
m the FM geenerator cirrcuit and feeed it to the iinput of the
dem
modulator ciircuit
6) obtain
o the modulating
m s
signal at thee output term
minals so thhat the message signal is
i
dispplayed on thhe CRO.

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CIR
RCUIT DIAGRAM
D M

DE
ESIGN

Takke +V =5V and

a –V =-5V
V
Thee free runninng frequenccy fo =140 KHz
K
But fo =1.2 /4 R1C1
R

Takke C1 =500 pF
Theen R1 =4.255 KΩ
We use 1 KΩ resistor
r and 5 KΩ pot

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EX
XPECTED
D GRAPH
H

RE
ESULT:
The required deemodulated output is obbtained from
m the moduulated signall

Thee frequency of the moduulating signnal = ………

…… KHz.
Thee frequency of the demo
odulating siignal = ……
…… KHz.

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VIV
VA VOCE
E:
What is the sim
mplest form of fm detecctor?
What is the funnction of an fm detector?
What type of taank circuit is
i used in thhe Foster-Seeeley discrim
minator?
What is the purrpose of CR
R1 and CR2 in the Fostter-Seeley discriminato
d or?
What type of im
mpedance does
d the tank
k circuit havve above reesonance?
What do you m
mean by anggle modulatiion?
What is phase modulation
m ?
What is frequenncy deviatioon?
What is carsons rule?

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Expp No:9
Datte:
BALAN
NCED MODULA
M ATOR
AIM:
To design and
a set up a balanced modulator using dioddes.
COMPONENTS AND
A EQU
UIPMENTS REQU
UIRED:
Diodes IN44007, IFT, audio transsformer, Caapacitor, Fuunction Gennerator, CR
RO
THEORY
Y:
In AM, theere is a carrrier and tw
wo sidebandds. The carrrier itself ddoes not caarry any
informationn. It merelly providess a frequenncy referencce for the side bandss. When
the carrier is 100 perccent modullated by a ssignal, eachh side bandd is one hallf of the
carrier’s am
mplitude annd thus has only one fourth
fo of thee carrier’s ppower.
If the receiiver uses onnly one sideband, it iss using onlyy one sixth of the total power
radiated byy the transm
mitter. Onee way to im
mprove thee AM transm
mitter’s effficiency
is to use a technique called as suuppressed ccarrier moddulation. Baalanced mo
odulator
is an AM m
modulator in
i which thhe carrier annd the moddulating siggnal are intrroduced
such a wayy that the output
o wo sidebandds without the carrier, that is
conttains the tw
double sidee band supppressed carrrier(DSB-S
SC) AM.
A practicaal DSB SC modulatorr using ringg modulatoor uses fouur diodes and
a two
transformeers. It is refferred to ass ring moduulator becauuse the dioodes are con
nnected
in series too form a rinng around which
w curreent flows reeadily in onne direction
n; input
and output connectionn s are madde to the fouur nodal pooints of the ring.

An audio transformeer and IFT

T are usedd to makee a balanceed modulaator.The
modulatingg signal paasses throuugh both thhe transforrmer to thee output,whhile the
carrier is inntroduced at
a the centree taps.the carrier
c voltaage is applied to the diiodes.
Since the carrier volttage is usuually quite large com
mpared to thhe diodes forward
f
voltage, it operates almost
a as iff it was aqq square waave and reppeatedly tu
urns the

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appropriatee diodes onn and off. The

T diodes 1 and 2 willl conduct w
when the caarrier is
positive annd the dioddes 3 and 4 will connduct whenn the carrieer is negattive.this
allows sam
mpled signaal sidebandds to emergge without the carrierr. An outp
put low-
pass or bannd pass filteer can be ussed to chooose a particuular side baand.
PROCED
DURE:
1: Set up thhe circuit on the breadd board.
a carrier signal of 100V,10 kHz.
2: Apply a modulatingg signal of 2V,1kHz and
3:Observe the two inpput waves and
a output wave
w forms on the CR
RO.
4:Vary the input voltaages to see a very good double siide band suuppressed caarrier
signal.(T
This is the suuperpositioon of sidebbands 9kHz and 11kHzz. Remove the
output caapacitor to find
f the efffect of it).

T DIAGR
CIRCUIT RAM:

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DESIGN
N:
Thee capacitor C is to catchh the inducttive spikes that occur onn switchingg.
Seleect C=.01m
micro Farad

OUTPUT
T WAVEF
FORMS:

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RE
ESULT:

Thee balanced modulator

m c
circuit was designed and observeed the waveeforms.

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Expp No:10
Datte:
PULS
SE AMPLITUDE
E MODU
ULATOR AND
DEMOD
D DULATO
OR

AIM
M:
To desiign and sett up a pulsse amplitudde modulatoor and dem
modulator using
u an
anallog switch.
CO
OMPONE
ENTS AND
D EQUIP
PMENTS REQUIR
RED:
Analog switch – CD4016
C IC
Resistors - 3.3K
Capacittors - 0.1µF
F
Signal generator
g
Bread board
b
CRO
TH
HEORY
In PAM
M communiccation systeem, the conntinuous wavveform are sampled att regular
inteervals and trransmitted along
a with synchronizin
s ng pulses. The
T originall waveforms can be
recoonstructed ffrom the sam mpling was done at as per the
mples at reeceiving endd, if the sam
sam
mpling theorrem.
Samplinng theorem state that, if the samppling rate inn any pulse modulation
n system
exceeeds twicee the maxximum sig
gnal frequeency,then the
t originaal signal can be
recoonstructed inn the receivver with minnimal distorrtion.
The basic method of generattion of PAM
M is that thhe signal w
which is mo
odulated
musst be fed too a switch which
w is operated by thhe samplingg signal. Thhe switchess can be
mad M output caan be made flat top
de of diodess, transistorrs, FETs or analog swittch ICs.PAM
by passing thrrough a puulse shapingg network. The PAM
M system dooes not utiilize the
advantage of constant
c am
mplitude pullses. This iss the reasonn that, pulse code mod
dulation
and pulse time modulation
n are superioor to PAM in
i the case of
o noise.

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Pulsse modulatiion systemss can be divvided in to analog
a and digital typees. Pulse am
mplitude
moddulation andd pulse tim
me modulatiion are anallog type annd pulse codde modulattion and
digiital modulation are diggital type. Pulse
P ampliitude moduulation is thhe simplest type of
pulsse modulation and simiilar to the orrdinary ampplitude moddulation.
A pulsee amplitude modulationn using anallog switch is
i shown inn the figure. Analog
swittch passes the
t input siignal to outtput at a ratte determinned by a cloock frequen
ncy. The
clocck frequencyy is selectedd as per the sampling thheorem.
PR
ROCEDUR
RE:
1. Set up tthe circuit on
o the breadd board and switch on power
p supplly and signaal
senator.
2. Adjust tthe frequenncy on moduulating signal to 1KHz or lower vaalue and thaat of
pulse w
waveform to the requireed value corrrespondingg with the saampling theo
orem.
3. By adjuusting the puulse and mo
odulation siggnal observve the outpuut waveform
m on
CRO
4. Set up tthe demoduulator circuitt and feed thhe PAM waave to it andd observe thhe
demoduulated outpuut on CRO
5. Obtain the values of
o both mod
dulated and demodulateed signal annd plot the
corresponding grapph.

PIN
NOUT DIIAGRAM
M OF CD4
401

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CIR
RCUIT DIAGRAM
D M
PA
AM Modulator:

PA
AM Demod
dulator

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DE
ESIGN
For better integgration
RC > 15T
1 where T = 1/ frequuency of cloock
Let the clock frrequency bee 10KHz
So T = 1/10 KHz = 100 µsec
Take C = 0.1µF Then
T R shou
uld be greateer than 1.5K
KΩ
Takke R = 3.3KKΩ

EX
XPECTED
D GRAPH
H

ESULT:
RE
Dessigned and sset up a pulsse amplitudde modulated and demoodulated siggnal.
Pulse ammplitude modulated
m O//P voltage =
Reconstructed O/P P voltage =

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Expp No:11
Datte:
PU
ULSE WIDTH
W M
MODUL
LATION
N USING
G 555

AIIM:
To design and set up a Pulse width moddulation usinng 555timeer IC.

OMPONE
CO ENTS REQ
QUIRED:
IC -Tim
mer NE 555
5.
Resistoors: RA, RB- 6.8K Ohm
m.
Capacittors: C-0.1uuF.
DC pow
wer source,,
Signal Generator,
Bread B
Board
CRO
SPE
ECIFICA
ATION OF
O 555 IC:
Maximuum operatinng frequenccy is excess of 500 KHzz.
Supply voltage
v in range of +5V
V to +15V.
Power ddissipation: 600W.
Operatinng temperatture: 0 to 700 0C.

TH
HEORY
PWM is also knnown as pu
ulse duratioon modulattion (PDM
M) or Pulsee length
moddulation (PL
LM). It utiilizes the advantages
a of constantt amplitudee pulses. In
n PWM,
widdth of the puulses is variied accordinng to the am
mplitude off AF signal.The width of
o pulse
variies with resspect to a reeference poosition. The rising edgee of the pullse is the reeference
and the trail is determined M generatorr using 555 timer is
d by the moddulating siggnal. A PWM
show
wn in figure. Principlee of operatioon of the circuit is thatt varying thhe quasi-stab
ble time
periiod of the m
monostable multivibarat
m tor accordinng to the moodulating signal.

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Consideer the interrnal diagram
m of 555 tiimer. The 5 k internall resistors act
a as a
volttage driver network,
n prroviding (2//3) Vcc at thhe invertingg terminal of upper com
mparator
C) and (1/3)) Vcc. At thhe non inverrting terminnal of lower comparatorr (LC).In thhe stable
(UC
statee, the Q output low because off buffer whhich basicallly is an innverter. The upper
com
mparator outtput goes too logic high state whenn the voltagee at the nonn-inverting terminal
t
(whhich is 2/3 Vcc
V normallly). Since the
t AF is cooupled to thhe control vvoltage term
minal of
555 using a cappacitor, it siits (get clam
mped) on thiis 2/3 Vcc. That meanss, the voltag
ge at the
conttrol terminaal goes up or
o down withh respect too 2/3 Vcc byy an amountt of AF inpu
ut. Thus
the peak to whhich the cappacitor chargges also changes and thus
t the widdth of outpu
ut pulse
variies. The funnction of thiis control voltage
v term
minal (pin noo:5) is to coontrol the th
hreshold
and trigger leveels. Thus either the extternal voltagge or pot coonnected to this pin dettermines
the pulse widthh of the outpput waveform. The extternal voltaage applied to this pin can
c also
be used
u to moddulate the ouutput wavefform.
Pulse W
Width Moduulation is a kind of sppeed controol that is ussed in DC motors.
WM is employed in a wide varietty of applications, rannging from measurem
PW ment and
com
mmunicationns to power control andd conversionn.

PR
ROCEDUR
RE
1.Seet up the cirrcuit after verifying thee componennts and testinng the IC ussing a IC tester.
2.Verify that 5555 function
n as an astabble multivibrator.
3.Feeed an AF input.
4.K
Keep AF signnal at 100 kHz.
k
5.Observe the output
o on CRO
C

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CIR
RCUIT DIAGRAM
D M

DE
ESIGN
Thee circuit functions as ann Astable multivibrator
m r with AF innput to contrrol pin.
Take Vcc = 10V andd tc = 1ms and
a td = 0.5 ms.
We have tc = 0.69 (R a td = 0.69 RBC
RA + RB) C and
Take C= 00.1 uF.
Then RA = RB = 6.8K
K.

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EX
XPECTED
D WAVEF
FORM:

RE
ESULT:
PW
WM Using 5555 Timer were
w set up and
a output vverified.

VIV
VA QUES
STIONS
What should bee minimum value of RA and what it determinees?
What are the addvantages of
o pulse timee modulatioon over otheer pulse anaalog modulaation
metthods?
What are the appplications of this circuuit?

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Expp No:12
Datte:
PU
ULSE PO
OSITION
N MODU
ULATOR
R USING 555
AIM
M:
To desiign and set up
u a pulse position
p moddulator circcuit using 5555 timer IC..

OMPONE
CO ENTS AND
D EQUIP
PMENTS REQUIR
RED:
Timer - IC
C 565
Capacittors - 0.1µF
Resistors Ω
- 6.88 kΩ, 10 kΩ
DC Souurce Voltage - (0 – 15) V
Signal generator
g
Bread Board
B
CRO

TH
HEORY:
In pulse position modulationn the positioon of the position
p of the pulses from a
refeerence posittion is varied accordinng to the modulating
m signal. It ccan be obtaained by
diffferentiating the PWM signal.
s It cann also be obbtained by feeding
f the PWM signaal to the
monnostable circuit.
First 5555 timer cirrcuit functions in astaable mode and
a it generrates PWM
M signal.
PW ultivibrator. The trailig edge of
WM signal accts as the trrigger input to the monnostable mu
the PWM signaals initiates the beginniing of the PPM pulses.

ROCEDUR
PR RE:
1. Check the componnents usingg Intelligennce Meter or
o Multi M
Meter and seetup the
circuit on
o a Breadb
board.
2. Set up the PWM circuit,
c feedd the input sine wave and observve the PWM
M signal
output.

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3. Set up tthe monostaable circuit and feed the PWM outtput to it .
CRO observe the PPM output.
4. From C o
5. Calculaate the pulsee width moddulated outpput voltage.
6. Calculaate the pulsee position modulated
m ouutput voltagge.
7. Calculaate the pulsee width of PPM
P wave.
8. Plot thee signal grapph by using the values.

CIR
RCUIT DIAGRAM
D M:

DE
ESIGN:

Dessign of astable multiviibrator:

Takke Vcc = 5VV,

tc = 1m
ms and td = 0.5ms
0
We have the eqquqtion
Tc = 0.669 (Ra + Rbb) C
Andd td = 0.669 Rb*C
Takke C = 0.1µF
Ra = Rbb = 6.8K

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Dessign of mon
nostable mu
ultivibratorr:

Takke the pulse duration

ms
T = 1m

We have the eqquation,

T = 1.1 RC
Take R = 10K thenn C = 0.1µF
F

XPECTED
EX D WAVEF
FORM:

RE
ESULT:

PPM
M circuit using NE555 is desighneed and set upp and verifiied.
Pulse wwidth modullated O/P vooltage =
Pulse position moddulated O/P voltage =
Pulse wwidth of PPM
M wave =

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Expp No:13
Datte:
P
PULSE W
WIDTH MODU
ULATION
N AND PULSE
P POSITIION
MODULAT
TION US
SING OP
P-AMP

AIM
M

To desiign and set up

u a pulse width
w and puulse position modulatioon using op-amp.

CO
OMPONE
ENTS AND
D EQUIP
PMENTS REQUIR
RED

IC 741C
C,
Resistors,
Capacittors,
Potentioometers,
Signal Generators,
G
DC Souurce,
Bread board
b
CRO.

TH
HEORY
PWM iis analog pulse modullation technnique. It is also calledd pulse duraation or
pulsse length moodulation. It
I utilizes thhe advantagees of constaant amplitudde pulses. In
n PWM
widdth of pulsess is varied according
a too the amplittude of AF signal. Thee width of thhe pulse
is varied with rrespect to a reference position.
p Thhe rising edgge of the puulse is the reeference
and the time of tracking is
i determineed by the modulating
m s
signal. The energy neeeded for
the transmissioon of PWM is more as in the case of PAM trransmission compared to pulse
code modulatioon.
PWM ccan be geneerated using
g a comparaator to whicch the signaal to be mo
odulated
and reference ramp
r wavefforms are fed.
f A PPM m can be derrived from a PWM
M waveform

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wavveform. Thee relationshhip between the two is that while the positionn of pulse varies
v in
PPM
M, location of leading edge
e is varieed in PPM with
w constaant width.
PR
ROCEDUR
RE
1. Checkk the condittions of the op-amp.
2. Set upp the circuitt on bread board.
b
3. Give the modulating signal after
a the genneration of sawtooth.
4. Obseerve the wavveform on CRO.
C

CIR
RCUIT DIAGRAM
D M

DE
ESIGN
Let T = 1ms
Let β= (R1/R2) = 1/2 ; C=0.1µF
C
For saw tooth ggenerator ,
vp-p of ssawtooth waaveform = (2R
( 1/R2).vsaat
Takke vp-p = 15vv, vsat = ±155v, R2 =10 kohm
k
i.e, R1 = (15/5)*(10 Use 5.6 kohm std
0 kohm/2) = 5kohm,. U

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Freqquency, f=(R2/4*R1.
1 R3.C)

Takke f=5khz,,C=0.01µf, R1=5kohm,, R2= 10 kohm i.e, R3=10kohm

=
Takke R4 as 222 kohm pot
For differentiattor:
RC<<0.0016T ; Here
H T =0.2
25 ms
RC<<40*10^-8 s Take C=0.001µf and R=100 ohm
m
Theen RC=10*10^-8 s<<
< 40*10^-8 s

EX
XPECTED
D WAVEF
FORM:

RE
ESULT

Designeed and set up

u pulse widdth and pulsse position modulator
m uusing op-am
mp.

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EX
XAMINAT
TION QU
UESTION
NS:

1. Design and set up a circuit forr AM generration obtainn the wavefform corresp
ponding
to m = 1, m <1 andd m>1.
2. Design and setup a product modulator
m cirrcuit and tunne it to 455K
KHz
3. Obtain the modulated o/p coorrespond to Π1000t andd carrier
t audio siggnal 5sin2Π
6sin2Π15000t. Alsso demodulaate it.
4. Generatte a modulated signal having baandwidth 2*
*highest freequency con
ntent of
modulaating signal.. Choose caarrier as 6000KHz and AF
A as 1KHzz. Also dem
modulate
it.
5. Design and setup a narrowbannd pass filteer for a resonnance frequuency of 455
5KHz.
6. Implem
ment and seetup to trannsmit an auudio signal which is F
FM modulaated and
obtain tthe demoduulated one.
7. Design and setup a BPF foor a bandw
width of 100KHz and llater increaases the
bandwidth to greatter than 15K
KHz.
8. Producee the signall using an analog
a switcch.

9. Generaate f1 and f22 and perfo

orm convoluution so as to get the given
g waveeform
and dem
modulate it.

10. Obtain the signal

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11. Generatte an AM siignal with 30%

3 modulaation
12. Design and set up an AM circcuit so that the
t transmittted power is
i 104.5% of the
carrier power.
p Carrrier frequenncy = 100KH
Hz
mentally prrove that thhe quality of a deteccted signal from an envelop
13. Experim
detectorr varies withh RC time constant.
c
14. Experim
mentally finnd out that th
he quality oof the detectted signal frrom an enveelope
detectorr varies withh time consstant RC.
15. Design and setup an
a AM detecctor circuit..
16. Detect the
t AM mo
odulated sign
nal and ampplify the outtput.
17. Design an AM de-modulator to
t detect onnly the negattive enveloppe.
18. Design a circuit to display onlly the carrieer signal.

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