Fuel 89 (2010) 2483–2489

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Fuel
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fuel

Evaluation of the oxidation stability of diesel/biodiesel blends

George Karavalakis *, Stamoulis Stournas, Dimitrios Karonis
Laboratory of Fuels Technology and Lubricants, School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 9 Iroon Polytechniou Str.,
Zografou Campus, 15780 Athens, Greece

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Biodiesel is an alternative fuel derived from vegetable oils, animal fats and used frying oils. Due to its
Received 28 July 2009 chemical structure, it is more susceptible to oxidation or autoxidation during long-term storage com-
Received in revised form 23 March 2010 pared to petroleum diesel fuel. One of the major technical issues regarding the biodiesel blends with die-
Accepted 25 March 2010
sel fuel is the oxidation stability of the final blend, which is, nowadays, of particularly high concern due to
Available online 4 April 2010
the introduction of ultra low sulphur diesel, in most parts of the EU. This study examined the factors
influencing the stability of several biodiesel blends with low and ultra low sulphur automotive diesel
Keywords:
fuels. The aim of this paper was to evaluate the impact of biodiesel source material and biodiesel concen-
Biodiesel
Oxidation stability
tration in diesel fuel, on the stability of the final blend. Moreover, the effects of certain characteristics of
Diesel fuel the base diesels, such as sulphur content and the presence of cracked stocks, on the oxidation stability are
Rancimat method discussed.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction ters are more vulnerable to oxidation than monounsaturated

Biodiesel is an alternative diesel fuel consisting of long-chain
fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) derived from vegetable oils, used
frying oils and animal fats. Biodiesel is chemically produced
through the transesterification reaction of a triglyceride with an
alcohol (methanol or ethanol) in the presence of an alkaline or
acidic catalyst [1]. Several articles report on the beneficial charac-
teristics of biodiesel. It is non-toxic, free of sulphur and aromatics,
readily biodegradable, safe to handle, enhances lubricity and its
main physicochemical properties are comparable to those of con-
ventional middle distillate fuels [2–4]. Despite its many advanta-
ges, biodiesel’s nature makes it more sensitive to oxidation than
petroleum diesel during long-term storage. The sensitivity varies,
depending on the raw material, the presence of naturally occurring
antioxidants and the storage conditions [5,6].
The biodiesel stability generally depends on the fatty acid pro-
file of the parent feedstock. Therefore, biodiesels with high con-
tents of unsaturated fatty acids, such as linoleic and linolenic, are
especially prone to oxidation [7]. The relative oxidation rates for
these unsaturated esters are linolenic > linoleic  oleic [8]. This
is attributed to the fact that these unsaturated fatty acid chains
contain the most reactive sites which are particularly susceptible
to the free-radical attack. Biodiesel stability is mainly related on
the number and position of bis-allylic methylene moieties adjacent
to the double bond and not to the total number of double bonds ex-
pressed by the iodine value [9]. Thus, polyunsaturated methyl es-
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +30 2107723213; fax: +30 210 7723163.
E-mail address: gkaraval@mail.ntua.gr (G. Karavalakis).
esters because they contain more allylic methylene configurations
[10,11]. An additional aspect that can have an impact on the overall
oxidation stability of biodiesel is the conformational cis/trans isom-
erization. It is important to note that while a trans unsaturation is
more stable than a cis unsaturation, conjugated trans unsaturations
are more sensitive to oxidation than cis unsaturations [12].
Oxidation stability is thus a parameter that describes the degra-
dation tendency of biodiesel and is of great importance in the con-
text of possible problems with engine parts. The main oxidation
products are peroxides and hydroperoxides. During further degra-
dation, these products form shorter-chain compounds such as low
molecular weight acids, aldehydes, ketones and alcohols [13,14].
The presence of alcohols decreases the flash point and the presence
of acids increases the total acidity and the risk of corrosion [15].
Further reactions with the unstable hydroperoxide species with
another fatty acid chain may form high molecular weight materi-
als, such dimer or trimer acids which may lead to filter blocking,
injector failures and deposit formation [16].
Since oxidative stability significantly affects fuel quality, the
European Commission mandated the European Committee for
Standardization (CEN) to develop standard specifications and test
methods concerning biodiesel oxidation stability. This issue has
been addressed in the European FAME standard EN 14214 and in
the recent version of the European standard for automotive diesel
(EN 590:2009). The latter requires the determination of oxidation
stability of diesel/biodiesel blends using the modified Rancimat
method EN 15751. The finished blends of diesel fuel with biodiesel
shall comply with a minimum induction period of 20 h at 110 °C.
The established European standard EN 14112 using a Rancimat

0016-2361/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2010.03.041
2484 G. Karavalakis et al. / Fuel 89 (2010) 2483–2489

apparatus is the test method for determining oxidative stability of
biodiesel at 110 °C, with a minimum induction period of 6 h. How-
ever, in order to ensure a high quality biodiesel within the EU, the
CEN already discusses a limit change of a minimum induction per-
iod of 8 h instead of 6 h.
This work is important because it substantially increases
knowledge on the oxidative behavior of the finished blend of bio-
diesel with petrodiesel using the modified Rancimat method. To
the authors’ best knowledge, this is one of the first studies investi-
gating a novel topic regarding the stability behavior of diesel–bio-
diesel blends. The purpose of this study was to provide
experimental results on the effect of biodiesel concentration in die-
sel fuel along with the effects of certain physicochemical parame-
ters. Furthermore, the impact of biodiesel source material on the
oxidation stability of the final blends was investigated.
2. Experimental
2.1. Fuels
Four commercial automotive diesel fuels were selected as the
base fuels (D-1, D-2, D-3 and D-4). The first two samples were of
low sulphur (up to 50 ppm sulphur content) and the second two
samples were of ultra low sulphur (up to 10 ppm sulphur content).
D-2 and D-3 were hydrotreated straight run atmospheric gasoils,
while D-1 and D-4 included streams from cracking processes as
middle distillate fuel extenders. The main properties of the base
diesel fuels are listed in Table 1.
Nine different types of commercially available FAMEs were also
employed in this study. These biodiesels were collected from dis-
tributors and biorefineries nationwide. The FAME samples were
used to create 168 blends at proportions of 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 75
and 10% by volume with the base diesel fuels. These blend propor-
tions were chosen as being representative of the currently mar-
keted automotive diesel composition in Greece. The 7% blend
was chosen since the EN 590:2009 includes a provision for diesel
fuel to be blended with biodiesel up to 7% v/v. The 10% blend
was used since it is expected that the mixing ratio within the EU
to rise up to 10%. The neat biodiesels were examined according
to the automotive FAME standard EN 14214, published by the
European Standard Organization (CEN) that establishes specifica-
tions for biodiesel use as a blendstock for conventional diesel fuel.
The main properties of the biodiesels and the test methods used
are shown in Tables 2 and 3.
The properties of the four base diesel fuels fulfilled the Euro-
pean standard specifications of EN 590. D-1 and D-2 were charac-
terized by high polyaromatics content compared to D-3 and D-4.
The D-3 sample was of summer grade as indicated by the CFPP
analysis. Most of the physicochemical parameters of the methyl es-
ters were found to agree with the EN 14214 specifications. How-
ever, three biodiesel samples failed for oxidation stability, water
content and iodine number and one sample failed for ester content
and acid number. B-1, B-2, B-3 and B-7 samples were known not to
contain antioxidant additives. It was assumed that the saturated B-
4 and B-9 were free of antioxidants, while B-5, B-6 and B-8 were
treated with phenolic-based antioxidant additives.
2.2. Methyl esters fatty acid composition
Information data on the raw materials used for the production
of the biodiesel samples employed in this study were not available

Table 1
Properties of the base diesel fuels.

Property D-1 D-2 D-3 D-4 EN 590 limits Test method

Viscosity (mm2/s, 40 °C) 2.9 3.2 3.3 2.84 2.00–4.50 EN ISO 3104
Density (g/cm3, 15 °C) 0.8439 0.834 0.8325 0.8355 0.820–0.845 EN ISO 3675
Flash point (°C) 65 82 86 69 55 min EN ISO 2719
Sulphur content (lg g 1) 37 44.6 8 4 50 max
10 max EN ISO 20846
(EN 590:2008)
Water content (lg g 1) 46 100 120 52 200 max EN ISO 12937
Cold filter plugging point, CFPP (°C) 5 7 0 20 5 min EN 116
Distillation EN ISO 3405
IBP 163 197 197 164
10 209 238 238 202
50 276 282 279 272
90 337 333 336 342
FBP 375 367 373 363
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (% m/m) 4.6 4.5 2.7 1.2 11 max EN 12916

Table 2
Main physicochemical properties of the methyl esters (B-1, B-2, B-3, B-4 and B-5).

Property B-1 B-2 B-3 B-4 B-5 EN 14214 limits Test method
Viscosity (mm2/s, 40 °C) 4.4 4.5 4.6 3.6 4.25 3.50–5.00 EN ISO 3104
Density (g/cm3, 15 °C) 0.884 0.8839 0.8847 0.8763 0.8831 0.860–0.900 EN ISO 3675
Water content (lg g 1) 352 356 300 270 630 500 max EN ISO 12937
Cold filter plugging point, CFPP (°C) 2 1 10 2 1 +5 max EN 116
Iodine number 123 109 115 42 115 120 max EN 14111
Acid value (mgKOH/g) 0.14 0.11 0.14 0.32 0.38 0.50 max EN 14104
Oxidation stability (110 °C, h) 3.51 5.72 6.59 17.38 7.99 6 h min EN 14112
Monoglyceride content (% m/m) 0.33 0.22 0.32 0.57 0.44 0.80 max EN 14105
Diglyceride content (% m/m) 0.094 0.05 0.052 0.08 0.04 0.20 max EN 14105
Triglyceride content (% m/m) 0.08 0.086 0.083 0.02 0.088 0.20max EN 14105
Total glycerol (% m/m) 0.111 0.076 0.105 0.150 0.131 0.25 max EN 14105
Ester content (% m/m) 95.9 97.8 97.9 98.4 97.9 96.5 min EN 14103
Linolenic acid methyl ester (% m/m) 3.3 3.1 4.4 0.12 4.67 12 max EN 14103
 G. Karavalakis et al. / Fuel 89 (2010) 2483–2489 2485

Table 3
Main physicochemical properties of the methyl esters (B-6, B-7, B-8 and B-9).

Property B-6 B-7 B-8 B-9 EN 14214 limits Test method

2
Viscosity (mm /s, 40 °C) 4.36 4.14 3.34 3.7 3.50–5.00 EN ISO 3104
Density (g/cm3, 15 °C) 0.8813 0.8844 0.8788 0.8767 0.860–0.900 EN ISO 3675
Water content (lg g 1) 305 786 630 470 500 max EN ISO 12937
Cold filter plugging point, CFPP (°C) 4 3 1 1 +5 max EN 116
Iodine number 100 125.8 79 61 120 max EN 14111
Acid value (mgKOH/g) 0.49 0.54 0.47 0.29 0.50 max EN 14104
Oxidation stability (110 °C, h) 9.74 3.81 18.57 8.75 6 h min EN 14112
Monoglyceride content (% m/m) 0.80 0.74 0.41 0.52 0.80 max EN 14105
Diglyceride content (% m/m) 0.12 0.04 0.06 0.19 0.20 max EN 14105
Triglyceride content (% m/m) 0.11 0.08 0.086 0.11 0.20 max EN 14105
Total glycerol (% m/m) 0.240 0.206 0.125 0.106 0.25 max EN 14105
Ester content (% m/m) 97.4 98 98 98.1 96.5 min EN 14103
Linolenic acid methyl ester (% m/m) 4.43 0.29 0.26 0.32 12 max EN 14103

except for B-1, B-2, B-3 and B-7. The feedstocks used for the pro-
duction of B-1 were 65% refined rapeseed oil and 35% used frying
oils. B-2 derived from 36% used frying oils, 20% palm oil and 44%
soybean oil, while B-3 feedstocks were 32% used frying oils, 32%
soybean oil and 36% rapeseed oil. B-7 was produced from pure ra-
peseed oil. Table 4 shows the main fatty acids of all biodiesel sam-
ples used in this study. This profile was an indication of the raw
materials used for the production of methyl esters. B-4 and B-9
samples were palm-based methyl esters probably blended with a
significant amount of coconut oil because of the high content of
lauric acid (C12:0). B-5, B-6 and B-8 samples were soy-based
methyl esters probably blended with palm oil and/or used frying
oils.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Oxidation stability of biodiesel samples
Fig. 1 shows the changes recorded on the oxidation stability of
the nine biodiesel samples. Two measurements are presented for
each sample, spaced approximately 3 weeks apart. It should be
mentioned, that certain biodiesel properties such as those of acid
value, water content and ester content were not found to signifi-
cantly differ during the test period.
The samples of B-1, B-2, B-3 and B-7 were found well below the
minimum induction period of 6 h. These samples mainly com-
prised unsaturated methyl esters and were free of antioxidant

2.3. Oxidation stability measurements

20
19 1st Run
The oxidation stability was quantified by the induction period 2nd Run
18
(IP) of neat methyl esters and their blends with automotive diesel.
17
The IP was evaluated according to the Rancimat method EN 14112
16
for pure biodiesel and the modified Rancimat method EN 15751 for 15
the biodiesel blends. In the modified Rancimat method, a number
Induction period, h

14
of parameters were changed, mainly due to the higher volatility 13
of hydrocarbon fuels compared to methyl esters, which may lead 12
to higher sample evaporation. The changes include elongated reac- 11
tion vessels and higher amount of distilled water, while the evalu- 10
ation of the IP can be only performed manually (2 tangents). All 9

stability measurements were carried out on a Metrohm 873 Bio- 8 EN 14214 Limit
diesel Rancimat Instrument. Samples of 3 g of pure biodiesel and 7

7.5 g of biodiesel blends respectively, were analyzed under con- 6

5
stant air flow of 10 L/h passing through the fuel and into a vessel
containing distilled water (HPLC water). The samples were held 4
3
at 110 °C heating block temperature, with a temperature correc-
2
tion factor DT to be set to 1.5 °C (as recommended by the test
1
method). As soon as volatile organic acids (mainly acetic and for-
0
mic) are formed in the sample, this is indicated by an increase in
conductivity in the measuring vessel. The time that elapses until B-1 B-2 B-3 B-4 B-5 B-6 B-7 B-8 B-9
the secondary oxidation products are detected, is known as the
Fig. 1. Changes on the oxidation stability of the methyl esters during storage.
induction period.

Table 4
Fatty acid composition of the methyl esters.

Fatty acid B-1 B-2 B-3 B-4 B-5 B-6 B-7 B-8 B-9
C12:0 – – – 22.71 0.17 – 0.26 0.17 23.1
C14:0 0.20 0.24 0.14 6.61 0.18 0.24 – 0.6 5.89
C16:0 12.38 13.48 8.68 6.31 12.55 7.58 5.4 23.88 9.22
C18:0 3.29 3.24 2.52 2.3 2.1 2.7 2.86 3.71 2.47
C18:1 23.87 24.89 34.93 22.1 21.85 46.38 24.75 32.22 24.4
C18:2 37.83 36.1 30.33 18.38 39.6 17.84 48.2 21.26 19.45
2486 G. Karavalakis et al. / Fuel 89 (2010) 2483–2489

additives. Thus, the influence of compound structure of the fatty
esters and the number of the double bonds was of high importance
on the deterioration of these fuels. A strong inverse relationship
was observed between the oxidation stability and the content of
unsaturated fatty acids. The oxidation stability decreased with
the increase of the total contents of linoleic and linolenic acids.
This result is in agreement with previous studies [17,18]. Based
on the abovementioned observations, the stability of B-4 and B-9
samples was found well above the specification limit. This proba-
bly occurred due to the presence of lauric and palmitic acids, which
were the major saturated acids in the biodiesel mixture. Another
factor, which had a stronger effect than the content of unsaturated
acids on the stability of biodiesel, was the presence of antioxidant
additives. B-5, B-6 and B-8 samples, which comprised of unsatu-
rated fatty acids, resulted in significantly higher oxidation stability
compared to the samples that were known to not contain any
additives.
3.2. Oxidation stability of diesel–biodiesel blends
Fig. 2a and b presents the experimental results obtained with
the use of the biodiesel samples blended with the low sulphur base
diesel D-1, whereas Fig. 2c and d the stability results of the blends
with D-2. The results revealed that the blends prepared by the B-1
had a negative impact on the oxidation stability. The blends of 10%,
7% and 5%, respectively, were found below the minimum induction
period of 20 h. This may be attributed to the low stability of B-1
and to the presence of some impurities and degradation products.
It should be reminded that a high proportion of this sample was
produced by the transesterification of used frying oils. These oils
usually contain short chain organic acids, aldehydes and keto com-
pounds, which are products susceptible to further degradation. De-
spite the fact that B-2, B-3 and B-7 failed for oxidation stability,
their blends with both diesel fuels presented an opposite trend.
This phenomenon may be attributed to several reasons. The most

a 60 b 80
B-1 75 B-6
55
B-2 B-7
70
B-3 B-8
50 B-4 65 B-9
B-5
Induction period, h

45 60
Induction period, h

55
40
50

35 45

40
30
35

25 30
.

25
20
EN 590 Limit
EN 590 Limit
20
15
15

10 10

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6
Biodiesel concentration, %v/v Biodiesel concentration, %v/v

c 90 d 90
.
85 B-1 85 B-6
B-2 B-7
80 80
B-3 B-8
75 75
B-4 B-9
70 B-5 70
Induction period, h

Induction period, h

65 65

60 60

55 55

50 50

45 45

40 40

35 35

30
.

30
.

25 25
EN 590 Limit
20 20
EN 590 Limit 15
15

10 10

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6

Biodiesel concentration, %v/v Biodiesel concentration, %v/v

Fig. 2. Oxidation stability of the biodiesel blends with the low sulphur base diesels D-1 (a, b) and D-2 (c, d).
 G. Karavalakis et al. / Fuel 89 (2010) 2483–2489 2487

probable explanation was that these samples were at different

a 60
stages of their oxidation. B-1 was supplied and stored three
B-3
months prior to the test program, while B-2, B-3 and B-7 were 55 B-5
fresh samples.
B-7
Moreover, some noticeable differences were observed when 50 B-8
comparing the same biodiesel blends with the two base diesel B-9
fuels. B-3, B-5, B-7, B-8 and B-9 biodiesel blends resulted in lower 45
stability performance with D-1 compared to D-2. There is a weak

Induction time, h
correlation between the biodiesels with antioxidant additives 40
and those without, regarding their behavior in oxidation stability
with the base diesel fuels. The biodiesel samples treated with addi- 35
tives behaved better than those without, when blended with D-1.
This was not the case for B-8 which demonstrated a significantly 30
higher stability compared to the other biodiesel samples but re-
sulted in poor stability performance when blended with diesel fuel. 25

.
On the other hand, the additized biodiesel blends with D-2 resulted EN 590 Limit
in lower oxidation stability compared to the other blends. 20

Fig. 3a and b shows the oxidation stability of the biodiesel

15
blends with the ultra low sulphur diesels, D-3 and D-4 respec-
tively. Most biodiesel blends presented lower induction times
10
compared to those obtained with D-1 and D-2. This phenomenon
was mainly attributed to the absence of sulphur and aromatic com- 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
pounds in the fuels [19]. Sulphur compounds may act as natural Biodiesel concentration, %v/v
oxidation inhibitors in the fuel oil and their presence usually slows
50
down the aging of the fuel and prevents the formation of acids and b B-3
sludge [16,20]. It was also observed that the blends prepared with
B-5
D-3 resulted in higher stability than those prepared with D-4. An- 45
B-7
other interesting observation was that the presence of antioxidant B-8
additives in biodiesel had a stronger effect on the stability of the B-9
40
final blends with the ultra low sulphur diesel than the low sulphur
fuels. It is reasonable to assume that when sulphur was virtually
Induction time, h

absent in the base diesels, the oxidation mechanisms were favor- 35

ably influenced by the presence of antioxidant additives in the

methyl ester samples. This result probably indicates an inverse
correlation relationship between sulphur content and antioxidant
additives.
Although it is believed that the type of feedstock and the chem-
ical composition of biodiesel may affect the oxidation stability, the
experimental results revealed that these factors were not signifi-
cant on the stability of the final blends. The fatty acid composition
of the biodiesel samples displayed small differences, which were
not important enough to justify the observed differences in the sta-
bility of the blends. The same observation holds for the acid value
where the differences were marginal and do not warrant great
fluctuations in the stability of the finished blends. Thus, the chem-
ical structure and certain properties of biodiesel cannot be consid-
ered as the major factors influencing the oxidation stability of the
biodiesel blends. On the contrary, the stability of the blends seems
to be affected by the stage of oxidation of the methyl ester (fresh or
aged sample), the presence of additives, and the quality of the base
diesel fuel.
3.3. Effects of diesel fuels on the oxidation stability of methyl esters
As abovementioned, the quality and composition of diesel fuel
may significantly affect the oxidation stability of biodiesel blends.
Fig. 4 shows the stability of the average values of all biodiesel sam-
ples employed in this study. The impact of base fuel type on the
oxidation stability was clear, with D-2 presenting higher stability
followed by D-1, D-3 and D-4. The higher stability performance
of D-2 and D-3 compared to D-1 and D-4, respectively, was proba-
bly due to the absence of cracked stocks in the base diesels since
they were hydrotreated straight run atmospheric gasoil of mainly
paraffinic type crude oils. The cracking process produces compo-
nents of lower stability than straight run distillates [21].
30
25
EN 590 Limit
20
15
10
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Biodiesel concentration, %v/v
Fig. 3. Oxidation stability of the biodiesel blends with the ultra low sulphur diesels,
D-3 (a) and D-4 (b).
3.4. Determination of precision data in accordance to the modified
Rancimat method
Fig. 5 shows a typical example of the stability of biodiesel
blends as a function of biodiesel concentration. The particular sam-
ple was prepared by blending B-1 with the base diesel D-2. In order
to increase the general acceptance and use of biodiesel, consumer
confidence in the fuel reliability, quality and performance must be
high. This cannot be the case if there is a large variation in the
properties of biodiesel blends and on the exact concentration of
biodiesel in diesel fuel. For these reasons, an additional analysis
was performed based upon the European Standard EN ISO 4259.
This figure presents the acceptability limits, with respect to the
reproducibility of the test method (EN 15751). It was evident that
blends contained between 5% and 10% biodiesel were below the
2488 G. Karavalakis et al. / Fuel 89 (2010) 2483–2489

80 investigate the oxidation stability of the final blends. It was found

D-1 that the stability of the biodiesel blends is a very complex process
D-2 that is affected by a variety of factors, including the composition of
70
D-3 biodiesel, the presence of antioxidant additives, and its stage of
D-4 oxidation. In general, the stability of the biodiesel component is re-
flected on the stability of its blends with diesel fuel. Moreover, a
60
strong correlation between biodiesel concentration and blend sta-
bility was observed. Increasing biodiesel concentration results in
Induction period, h

50
lower stability. Additionally, the stability of the blends may also
be affected by certain characteristics of the diesel fuel. Higher
refining to lower sulphur in the base diesel decreases oxidation
40 stability of the final blend. In the absence of sulphur in the base
diesel, which acts as a natural oxidation inhibitor, the presence
of antioxidant additive in the methyl ester had a strong effect on
30 the stability of the final blends. Diesel fuel containing catalyti-
.

cally-cracked compounds seemed to be more unstable, compared

EN 590 Limit to hydrotreated straight run diesel fuel.
20
The results of this study revealed that further work is required
to be done in order to fully evaluate the actual mechanisms that
10
may affect to oxidation stability of diesel/biodiesel blends. The
experimental data provided the basis for future work regarding
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 the detailed investigation on the impact of diesel fuel composition
Biodiesel concentration, %v/v on the stability of the finished blends, a more in depth evaluation
of biodiesel chemical structure on the oxidation stability, and the
Fig. 4. Comparison of the base diesel fuels with the average values of all methyl
ester samples.
effect of various synthetic antioxidant additives on the oxidation
behavior of diesel/biodiesel blends.

35
Acknowledgements
Reproducibility of EN 15751
32.5
The authors wish to thank Hellenic Petroleum SA for supplying
the test fuels and financially supporting this series of experiments.
30

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